1815The Swiss diet accepts the decisions of the congress of Vienna and a new constitution, the Federal Pact, is adopted. The league of States (Staatenbund) is made to include twenty-two members. The sovereign rights of each canton are recognised. The federal diet exercises supreme sovereignty only in purely national concerns. The great powers at the congress of Vienna guarantee the neutrality of Switzerland. Switzerland is freed from subserviency to France. New aristocracies make themselves felt.1817Switzerland becomes a party to the Holy Alliance.1819The Helvetic Society again takes up political reforms.1823Freedom of the press is restricted under influence of the great powers. Intellectual reaction and ultra-montanism become noticeable and cause dissensions.1830The July revolution in Paris finds an echo in Switzerland. Twelve cantons reform their constitutions in a democratic sense. Popular demonstrations at the assembly of Uster.1831The aristocracy of Bern submits to liberal reforms.1832The cantons Zurich, Bern, Lucerne, Solothurn, St. Gall, Aargau, and Thurgau agree to united action looking toward reform (Siebener Concordat). They are opposed by the reactionary cantons, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Valais, and Neuchâtel which form the league of Sarnen (Sarner Bund).1833Bâle is divided into a rural (Baselland) and an urban (Baselstadt) half-canton because of the desire of the rural population for proportional representation in the Diet.1834Political refugees to Switzerland increase to such an extent that measures are taken by the diet to prevent abuse of the privilege of asylum.1835Religious tumults in Aargau.1836Difficulties with France over tariff regulations. Religious tumults in the Bernese Jura.1838The Society of the Grütli is founded at Geneva.1839Reaction in Zurich against radicals and freethinkers. (Strauss’Life of Jesus).1840Clericals revolt against the radicals in Aargau.1841They are put down. Eight monasteries in Aargau are suppressed. The quarrel provokes disputes in the diet.1843The diet effects a compromise in the religious quarrel in Aargau by which four instead of eight of the monasteries are suppressed. The seven Catholic cantons, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Lucerne, Zug, Fribourg, and Valais hereupon form a separate league, the Sonderbund.1844The Sonderbund declares for the reopening of all the monasteries in Aargau. Theclericals in Lucerne, the Vorort, give high posts to Jesuits. Parties of free-lances attempt to capture the city.1845The attack on Lucerne is renewed but is unsuccessful. The radicals gain control in Zurich.1846The radicals become the majority in Bern and Geneva.1847The radicals get a majority in St. Gall. The diet in which the radicals are now in the majority declares the Sonderbund contrary to the Federal Pact. The diet resolves to revise the pact and asks the cantons to expel the Jesuits. The attempt to enforce the decree leads to the Sonderbund War. This is quickly ended by the defeat of the rebellious Catholic cantons at Gislikon, largely because of the good generalship of Dufour.
1815The Swiss diet accepts the decisions of the congress of Vienna and a new constitution, the Federal Pact, is adopted. The league of States (Staatenbund) is made to include twenty-two members. The sovereign rights of each canton are recognised. The federal diet exercises supreme sovereignty only in purely national concerns. The great powers at the congress of Vienna guarantee the neutrality of Switzerland. Switzerland is freed from subserviency to France. New aristocracies make themselves felt.
1817Switzerland becomes a party to the Holy Alliance.
1819The Helvetic Society again takes up political reforms.
1823Freedom of the press is restricted under influence of the great powers. Intellectual reaction and ultra-montanism become noticeable and cause dissensions.
1830The July revolution in Paris finds an echo in Switzerland. Twelve cantons reform their constitutions in a democratic sense. Popular demonstrations at the assembly of Uster.
1831The aristocracy of Bern submits to liberal reforms.
1832The cantons Zurich, Bern, Lucerne, Solothurn, St. Gall, Aargau, and Thurgau agree to united action looking toward reform (Siebener Concordat). They are opposed by the reactionary cantons, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Valais, and Neuchâtel which form the league of Sarnen (Sarner Bund).
1833Bâle is divided into a rural (Baselland) and an urban (Baselstadt) half-canton because of the desire of the rural population for proportional representation in the Diet.
1834Political refugees to Switzerland increase to such an extent that measures are taken by the diet to prevent abuse of the privilege of asylum.
1835Religious tumults in Aargau.
1836Difficulties with France over tariff regulations. Religious tumults in the Bernese Jura.
1838The Society of the Grütli is founded at Geneva.
1839Reaction in Zurich against radicals and freethinkers. (Strauss’Life of Jesus).
1840Clericals revolt against the radicals in Aargau.
1841They are put down. Eight monasteries in Aargau are suppressed. The quarrel provokes disputes in the diet.
1843The diet effects a compromise in the religious quarrel in Aargau by which four instead of eight of the monasteries are suppressed. The seven Catholic cantons, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Lucerne, Zug, Fribourg, and Valais hereupon form a separate league, the Sonderbund.
1844The Sonderbund declares for the reopening of all the monasteries in Aargau. Theclericals in Lucerne, the Vorort, give high posts to Jesuits. Parties of free-lances attempt to capture the city.
1845The attack on Lucerne is renewed but is unsuccessful. The radicals gain control in Zurich.
1846The radicals become the majority in Bern and Geneva.
1847The radicals get a majority in St. Gall. The diet in which the radicals are now in the majority declares the Sonderbund contrary to the Federal Pact. The diet resolves to revise the pact and asks the cantons to expel the Jesuits. The attempt to enforce the decree leads to the Sonderbund War. This is quickly ended by the defeat of the rebellious Catholic cantons at Gislikon, largely because of the good generalship of Dufour.
1848A new constitution is accepted by the majority of the cantons. Switzerland becomes a federal state (Bundesstaat). A central government is organised consisting of a council of states (Ständerath), a national council (National Rath) and a federal council or executive (Bundesrath). German, French, and Italian are recognised as national languages. Bern is chosen the national capital.1855The federal polytechnic school is opened at Zurich. Improvements in the educational system are introduced.1856A royalist conspiracy in Neuchâtel is put down and causes a dispute between Switzerland and the king of Prussia, the overlord of Neuchâtel.1857Neuchâtel is definitely ceded to Switzerland.1859Switzerland posts troops on the Italian frontier to preserve neutrality in the Italian War and puts an end to foreign enlistments.1860The Swiss government protests against the cession of Nice and Savoy to France.1861French troops occupy the Valée de Dappes.1862The question of the frontiers in the Valée de Dappes is arranged with France by mutual cession of territory.1864The convention of Geneva introduces humanitarian reforms in warfare. Election riots at Geneva lead to bloodshed.1865International social science congress meets at Bern.1866Restrictions on religious liberty of Jesuits, etc., are removed. An attempt is made to revise the constitution in a democratic sense but fails.1867An international congress of workmen is held at Lausanne.1869The construction of the St. Gotthard tunnel is decided upon.1871Switzerland shelters French refugees of the Franco-German War though insisting on the maintenance of neutrality. The growth in power of the “old Catholics” causes disturbances in western Switzerland (the struggle against Ultramontanism). The Alabama Arbitration Commission meets in Geneva.1872An attempt at revision of the constitution is defeated by a small majority.1873Abbé Mermillod, appointed by the pope “apostolic vicar” of Geneva, is banished from Switzerland. The see of Bishop Lachat of Bâle is suppressed by several cantons because he upholds the doctrine of papal infallibility.
1848A new constitution is accepted by the majority of the cantons. Switzerland becomes a federal state (Bundesstaat). A central government is organised consisting of a council of states (Ständerath), a national council (National Rath) and a federal council or executive (Bundesrath). German, French, and Italian are recognised as national languages. Bern is chosen the national capital.
1855The federal polytechnic school is opened at Zurich. Improvements in the educational system are introduced.
1856A royalist conspiracy in Neuchâtel is put down and causes a dispute between Switzerland and the king of Prussia, the overlord of Neuchâtel.
1857Neuchâtel is definitely ceded to Switzerland.
1859Switzerland posts troops on the Italian frontier to preserve neutrality in the Italian War and puts an end to foreign enlistments.
1860The Swiss government protests against the cession of Nice and Savoy to France.
1861French troops occupy the Valée de Dappes.
1862The question of the frontiers in the Valée de Dappes is arranged with France by mutual cession of territory.
1864The convention of Geneva introduces humanitarian reforms in warfare. Election riots at Geneva lead to bloodshed.
1865International social science congress meets at Bern.
1866Restrictions on religious liberty of Jesuits, etc., are removed. An attempt is made to revise the constitution in a democratic sense but fails.
1867An international congress of workmen is held at Lausanne.
1869The construction of the St. Gotthard tunnel is decided upon.
1871Switzerland shelters French refugees of the Franco-German War though insisting on the maintenance of neutrality. The growth in power of the “old Catholics” causes disturbances in western Switzerland (the struggle against Ultramontanism). The Alabama Arbitration Commission meets in Geneva.
1872An attempt at revision of the constitution is defeated by a small majority.
1873Abbé Mermillod, appointed by the pope “apostolic vicar” of Geneva, is banished from Switzerland. The see of Bishop Lachat of Bâle is suppressed by several cantons because he upholds the doctrine of papal infallibility.
1874A new constitution, a revision of that of 1848, is accepted by the people. The referendum hereby becomes a part of the machinery of the federal government as it had already been part of that of most of the cantons. The new constitution increases centralisation in the government. The international postal congress meets at Bern and lays the foundation for the international postal union.1876Religious and political differences cause an armed encounter in Ticino.1877A law regulating the working hours in factories is passed, marking an advance in labour legislation.1878James Fazy, noted statesman, dies.1879Legislation puts an end to dissensions over the financeering of the St. Gotthard railway.1882The St. Gotthard railway is opened.1883Mermillod is appointed bishop of Lausanne.1884Bishop Lachat is made apostolic vicar of Ticino. An international conference is held at Bern to secure the protection of copyright.1887Alcohol is made a state monopoly.1888The creation of a see at Lugano excites the opposition of the radicals. An important law for the protection of patents is passed.1889Bismarck’s spy Wohlgemuth is expelled. Germany protests. Difficulties arising out of the Swiss custom of granting political asylum are settled.1890Religious riot at Ticino. The principal compulsory insurance against sickness and accident is accepted by popular vote.1891The federal constitution is amended so that fifty thousand citizens by the “initiative” can compel the federal authorities to prepare and submit to the people any reform in the constitution demanded by the petitioners. The establishment of a state or federal bank is approved by the people. The purchase of the Central Railway by the confederation is rejected by popular vote.1893The killing of animals in Jewish fashion is prohibited by exercise of the initiative.1894An attempt by the initiative to secure the adoption for the government of a socialist scheme to provide employment fails.1896A National exhibition is held at Geneva. Labour riots directed against the employment of Italians cause many of these to leave Zurich. The eighteenth international congress on copyright meets at Bern and takes steps for copyright reform in Germany and Great Britain.1897The national council adopts a bill authorising the confederation to purchase the five principal railroads when the terms of the concessions expire. The proposals of the government as to a federal bank are rejected by the people. An international congress for the protection of labor is held at Zurich. It votes in favor of the prohibition of Sunday labor, except under special conditions for the restriction of unhealthful trades and night-work, for the betterment of the conditions of employment for women and for a working day of eight hours by legal enactment.1898The government authorises the construction of the Simplon tunnel. The people vote for the unification of the cantonal laws civil and criminal into a set of federal codes. The principle of the purchase by the confederation of the principal railroads is approved by popular vote. The empress Elizabeth of Austria is assassinated by an Italian anarchist in Geneva. Expulsion of anarchists follows.1899The scheme for the establishment of the “double initiative” is launched. The law for the compulsory insurance of working men against sickness and accident is passed by the legislature.1900This proposal, however, is rejected by the people by a large majority. The proposals for proportional representation in the national council and for the election of the federal council by the people (the “double initiative”) are rejected by popular vote.
1874A new constitution, a revision of that of 1848, is accepted by the people. The referendum hereby becomes a part of the machinery of the federal government as it had already been part of that of most of the cantons. The new constitution increases centralisation in the government. The international postal congress meets at Bern and lays the foundation for the international postal union.
1876Religious and political differences cause an armed encounter in Ticino.
1877A law regulating the working hours in factories is passed, marking an advance in labour legislation.
1878James Fazy, noted statesman, dies.
1879Legislation puts an end to dissensions over the financeering of the St. Gotthard railway.
1882The St. Gotthard railway is opened.
1883Mermillod is appointed bishop of Lausanne.
1884Bishop Lachat is made apostolic vicar of Ticino. An international conference is held at Bern to secure the protection of copyright.
1887Alcohol is made a state monopoly.
1888The creation of a see at Lugano excites the opposition of the radicals. An important law for the protection of patents is passed.
1889Bismarck’s spy Wohlgemuth is expelled. Germany protests. Difficulties arising out of the Swiss custom of granting political asylum are settled.
1890Religious riot at Ticino. The principal compulsory insurance against sickness and accident is accepted by popular vote.
1891The federal constitution is amended so that fifty thousand citizens by the “initiative” can compel the federal authorities to prepare and submit to the people any reform in the constitution demanded by the petitioners. The establishment of a state or federal bank is approved by the people. The purchase of the Central Railway by the confederation is rejected by popular vote.
1893The killing of animals in Jewish fashion is prohibited by exercise of the initiative.
1894An attempt by the initiative to secure the adoption for the government of a socialist scheme to provide employment fails.
1896A National exhibition is held at Geneva. Labour riots directed against the employment of Italians cause many of these to leave Zurich. The eighteenth international congress on copyright meets at Bern and takes steps for copyright reform in Germany and Great Britain.
1897The national council adopts a bill authorising the confederation to purchase the five principal railroads when the terms of the concessions expire. The proposals of the government as to a federal bank are rejected by the people. An international congress for the protection of labor is held at Zurich. It votes in favor of the prohibition of Sunday labor, except under special conditions for the restriction of unhealthful trades and night-work, for the betterment of the conditions of employment for women and for a working day of eight hours by legal enactment.
1898The government authorises the construction of the Simplon tunnel. The people vote for the unification of the cantonal laws civil and criminal into a set of federal codes. The principle of the purchase by the confederation of the principal railroads is approved by popular vote. The empress Elizabeth of Austria is assassinated by an Italian anarchist in Geneva. Expulsion of anarchists follows.
1899The scheme for the establishment of the “double initiative” is launched. The law for the compulsory insurance of working men against sickness and accident is passed by the legislature.
1900This proposal, however, is rejected by the people by a large majority. The proposals for proportional representation in the national council and for the election of the federal council by the people (the “double initiative”) are rejected by popular vote.
1901On representation of the Turkish government the federal council suppresses publications of the party of Young Turkey criticising the sultan for the Armenian massacres. Public opinion condemning the action of the council as a violation of the right of asylum finds expression in many places. Anti-Russian demonstrations are made at Geneva and Bern by socialists. The socialist movement gains in strength.1902Difficulties with Italy over the publication in an anarchist organ at Geneva of an article reflecting on the murdered king Humbert causes the temporary withdrawal of the diplomatic representatives of the two countries. A general strike in Geneva leads to disturbances which are put down by troops. The federal council issues a decree suppressing such religious congregations or orders as have not been authorised by law. The radical democratic majority in the national council is considerably strengthened.1903A new protective tariff is adopted by popular vote. The Zionist congress at Bâle votes to investigate Great Britain’s offer of land in East Africa for Jewish colonisation.
1901On representation of the Turkish government the federal council suppresses publications of the party of Young Turkey criticising the sultan for the Armenian massacres. Public opinion condemning the action of the council as a violation of the right of asylum finds expression in many places. Anti-Russian demonstrations are made at Geneva and Bern by socialists. The socialist movement gains in strength.
1902Difficulties with Italy over the publication in an anarchist organ at Geneva of an article reflecting on the murdered king Humbert causes the temporary withdrawal of the diplomatic representatives of the two countries. A general strike in Geneva leads to disturbances which are put down by troops. The federal council issues a decree suppressing such religious congregations or orders as have not been authorised by law. The radical democratic majority in the national council is considerably strengthened.
1903A new protective tariff is adopted by popular vote. The Zionist congress at Bâle votes to investigate Great Britain’s offer of land in East Africa for Jewish colonisation.
PART XXI
THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA
BASED CHIEFLY UPON THE FOLLOWING AUTHORITIES
R. BELL, R. N. BESTUZHEV-RIUMIN, V. A. BILBASOV, A. BRÜCKNER, A. DEHAXTHAUSEN, E. HERMANN, N. M. KARAMZIN, W. K. KELLY, N. I.KOSTOMAROV, M. KOVALEVSKI, A. LEROY-BEAULIEU, P. MÉRIMÉE, NESTOR,A. RAMBAUD, T. SCHIEMANN, J. H. SCHNITZLER, A. A. SCHUMAKR, N. K.SHILDER, G. M. SOLOVIEV, P. STRAHL, N. TURGENIEV, D. M. WALLACE
TOGETHER WITH A STUDY OF
THE INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIA
BY
S. RAPPOPORT
WITH ADDITIONAL CITATIONS FROM
ALEXANDER II, A. ALISON, R. N. BAIN, T. VON BERNHARDI, A. J. BEVERIDGE,CATHERINE II, A. P. DE CUSTINE, T. DELORD, J. ECKHARDT, A. DEFERRAND, I. GOLIKOV, P. DE LA GORCE, R. GOSSIP, A. N. KUROPATKIN,LEO, M. LÉVESQUE, C. A. DE LOUVILLE, H. MARTIN, MAURICIUS,A. MIKHAILOVSKI-DANILEVSKI, H. NORMAN, PROCOPIUS, C. C. DE RULHIÈRE,F. SCHLOSSER, P. DE SÉGUR, P. SHCHEBALSKI, F. H. SKRINE,STORCK, H. TYRRELL, VOLTAIRE
Copyright, 1904,By HENRY SMITH WILLIAMS.
All rights reserved