The attitude of religion towards matters of worldly morality in ancient Mexico, p.697sq.—In ancient Peru, p.698.—In ancient Egypt, pp.698–701.—In ancient Chaldea, pp.701–704.—In Zoroastrianism, pp.704–706.—Among the Vedic people, pp.706–709.—In post-Vedic times in India, pp.709–711.—In Buddhism, p.711sq.—In China, p.712sq.—In ancient Greece, pp.713–716.—In ancient Rome, p.716sq.—Among the Hebrews, p.717sq.—Christian doctrines of salvation and the future life, pp.718–725.—The attitude of Muhammedanism towards matters of worldly morality and its doctrine of the future life, pp.725–727.
Explanation of the malevolence of savage gods, p.728sq.—Of the growing tendency to attribute more amiable qualities to the gods, pp.729–731.—Men selecting their gods, p.729sq.—The good qualities of gods magnified by their worshippers, p.730sq.—How various departments of social morality have come to be placed under the supervision of gods, p.731sq.—How the guardianship of gods has been extended to the whole sphere of justice, p.732.—How gods have become guardians of morality at large, p.733sq.—The influence of the religious sanction of morality, p.734sq.—Religious devotion frequently accompanied by great laxity of morals, pp.735–737.—Greater importance attached to ceremonies or the niceties of belief than to good behaviour towards fellow men, p.736sq.—The religious sanction of moral rules often leads to an external observance of these rules from purely selfish motives, p.737.—The moral influence of Christianity,ibid.
Recapitulation of the theory of the moral consciousness set forth in vol. I., pp.738–741.—This theory supported by the fact that not only moral emotions but non-moral retributive emotions are felt with reference to phenomena exactly similar in their general nature to those on which moral judgments are passed, p.741.—As also by the circumstance that the very acts, forbearances, and omissions which are condemned as wrong are also apt to call forth anger and revenge, and that the acts and forbearances which are praised as morally good are apt to call forth gratitude, p.741sq.—The variations of the moral ideas partly due to different external conditions, p.742.—But chiefly to psychical causes, pp.742–746.—The duties to neighbours have gradually become more expansive owing to the expansion of the altruistic sentiment, p.743sq.—The influence of reflection upon moral judgments has been increasing, p.744sq.—The influence of sentimental antipathies and likings has been decreasing,ibid.—The influence which the belief in supernatural forces or beings or in a future state has exercised upon the moral ideas of mankind, p.745sq.—Remarks as to the future development of the moral ideas, p.746.
THEright of property implies that a certain person or certain persons are recognised as having a right to the exclusive disposal of a certain thing. The owner is not necessarily allowed to do with his property whatever he likes; but whether absolute or limited, his right to disposal is not shared by anybody else, save under very exceptional circumstances, as in the case of “compulsion by necessity.â€1Property in a thing thus means not only that the owner of it is allowed, at least within certain limits, to use or deal with it at his discretion, but also that other persons are forbidden to prevent him from using or dealing with it in any manner he is entitled to.
1Supra,i. 285sqq.
1Supra,i. 285sqq.
The most common offence against property is illicit appropriation of other persons’ belongings. Not the mere fact that individuals are in actual possession of certain objects, but the public disapproval of acts by which they are deprived of such possession, shows that they have proprietary rights over those objects. Hence the universal condemnation of what we call theft or robbery proves that the right of property exists among all races of men known to us.
Travellers often accuse savages of thievishness.2But then their judgments are commonly based upon the treatment to which they have been subject themselves, and from this no conclusions must be drawn as regards intra-tribal morality. Nor can races who have had much to do with foreigners be taken as fair representatives of savage honesty, as such contact has proved the origin of thievish propensities.3In the majority of cases uncivilised peoples seem to respect proprietary rights within their own communities, and not infrequently even in their dealingswith strangers. Many of them are expressly said to condemn or abhor theft, at any rate when committed among themselves. And that all of them disapprove of it may be inferred from the universal custom of subjecting a detected thief to punishment or revenge, or, at the very least, of compelling him to restore the stolen property to its owner.
2Beni, ‘Notizie sopra gli indigeni di Mexico,’ inArchivio per l’antropologia e la etnologia, xii. 15 (Apaches). Burton,City of the Saints, p. 125 (Dacotahs and Prairie Indians). Powers,Tribes of California, p. 127 (Yuki). Macfie,Vancouver Island and British Columbia, p. 468. Heriot,Travels through the Canadas, p. 22 (Newfoundland Eskimo). Coxe,Russian Discoveries between Asia and America, p. 300 (Kinaighi). Georgi,Russia, iv. 22 (Kalmucks), 133 (Buriats). Scott Robertson,Káfirs of the Hindu-Kush, p. 193sq.Modigliani,Viaggio a NÃas, p. 468. Powell,Wanderings in a Wild Country, p. 23 (South Sea Islanders). Romilly,From my Verandah in New Guinea, p. 50; Comrie, ‘Anthropological Notes on New Guinea,’ inJour. Anthr. Inst.vi. 109sq.de Labillardière,Voyage in Search of La Pérouse, i. 275; Moseley,Notes by a Naturalist on the“Challenger,†p. 391 (Admiralty Islanders). Brenchley,Jottings during the Cruise of H.M.S. Curaçoa, p. 58 (natives of Tutuila). Lisiansky,Voyage round the World, p. 88sq.(Nukahivans). Williams,Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea Islands, p. 126 (natives of Rarotonga). Cooke,Journal of a Voyage round the World, p. 40; Montgomery,Journal of Voyages and Travels by Tyerman and Bennet, ii. 11 (Society Islanders). Barrington,History of New South Wales, p. 22; Breton,Excursions in New South Wales, p. 221; Collins,Account of the English Colony in New South Wales, i. 599sq.; Hodgson,Reminiscences of Australia, p. 79; Mitchell,Expeditions into the Interior of Eastern Australia, i. 264, 304; Lumholtz,Among Cannibals, p. 71sq.(Australian tribes). Reade,Savage Africa, p. 579 (West African Negroes). Bosman,Description of the Coast of Guinea, p. 324sq.(Negroes of Fida and the Gold Coast). Caillié,Travels through Central Africa, i. 353 (Mandingoes). Beltrame,Il Fiume Bianco, p. 83 (Shilluk). Wilson and Felkin,Uganda and the Egyptian Soudan, ii. 310 (Gowane people of Kordofan). Krapf,Travels, Researches and Missionary Labours in Eastern Africa, p. 355 (Wakamba). Burton,Zanzibar, ii. 92 (Wanika). Bonfanti, ‘L’incivilimento dei negri nell’ Africa intertropicale,’ inArchivio per l’antropologia e la etnologia, xv. 133 (Bantu races). Arbousset and Daumas,Exploratory Tour to the North-East of the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope, p. 323 (Bechuanas). Andersson,Lake Ngami, pp. 468sq.(Bechuanas), 499 (Bayeye). Leslie,Among the Zulus and Amatongas, p. 256. Fritsch,Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrika’s, pp. 53 (Kafirs), 372, 419 (Hottentots and Bushmans).
2Beni, ‘Notizie sopra gli indigeni di Mexico,’ inArchivio per l’antropologia e la etnologia, xii. 15 (Apaches). Burton,City of the Saints, p. 125 (Dacotahs and Prairie Indians). Powers,Tribes of California, p. 127 (Yuki). Macfie,Vancouver Island and British Columbia, p. 468. Heriot,Travels through the Canadas, p. 22 (Newfoundland Eskimo). Coxe,Russian Discoveries between Asia and America, p. 300 (Kinaighi). Georgi,Russia, iv. 22 (Kalmucks), 133 (Buriats). Scott Robertson,Káfirs of the Hindu-Kush, p. 193sq.Modigliani,Viaggio a NÃas, p. 468. Powell,Wanderings in a Wild Country, p. 23 (South Sea Islanders). Romilly,From my Verandah in New Guinea, p. 50; Comrie, ‘Anthropological Notes on New Guinea,’ inJour. Anthr. Inst.vi. 109sq.de Labillardière,Voyage in Search of La Pérouse, i. 275; Moseley,Notes by a Naturalist on the“Challenger,†p. 391 (Admiralty Islanders). Brenchley,Jottings during the Cruise of H.M.S. Curaçoa, p. 58 (natives of Tutuila). Lisiansky,Voyage round the World, p. 88sq.(Nukahivans). Williams,Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea Islands, p. 126 (natives of Rarotonga). Cooke,Journal of a Voyage round the World, p. 40; Montgomery,Journal of Voyages and Travels by Tyerman and Bennet, ii. 11 (Society Islanders). Barrington,History of New South Wales, p. 22; Breton,Excursions in New South Wales, p. 221; Collins,Account of the English Colony in New South Wales, i. 599sq.; Hodgson,Reminiscences of Australia, p. 79; Mitchell,Expeditions into the Interior of Eastern Australia, i. 264, 304; Lumholtz,Among Cannibals, p. 71sq.(Australian tribes). Reade,Savage Africa, p. 579 (West African Negroes). Bosman,Description of the Coast of Guinea, p. 324sq.(Negroes of Fida and the Gold Coast). Caillié,Travels through Central Africa, i. 353 (Mandingoes). Beltrame,Il Fiume Bianco, p. 83 (Shilluk). Wilson and Felkin,Uganda and the Egyptian Soudan, ii. 310 (Gowane people of Kordofan). Krapf,Travels, Researches and Missionary Labours in Eastern Africa, p. 355 (Wakamba). Burton,Zanzibar, ii. 92 (Wanika). Bonfanti, ‘L’incivilimento dei negri nell’ Africa intertropicale,’ inArchivio per l’antropologia e la etnologia, xv. 133 (Bantu races). Arbousset and Daumas,Exploratory Tour to the North-East of the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope, p. 323 (Bechuanas). Andersson,Lake Ngami, pp. 468sq.(Bechuanas), 499 (Bayeye). Leslie,Among the Zulus and Amatongas, p. 256. Fritsch,Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrika’s, pp. 53 (Kafirs), 372, 419 (Hottentots and Bushmans).
3Domenech,Great Deserts of North America, ii. 321. Mackenzie,Voyages to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans, p. xcvi. note (Crees). Burton,Highlands of the Brazil, i. 403sq.Moorcroft and Trebeck,Travels in the Himalayan Provinces, i. 321 (Ladakhis). Anderson,Mandalay to Momien, p. 151 (Kakhyens). Earl,Papuans, p. 80. Tyler,Forty Years among the Zulus, p. 192.
3Domenech,Great Deserts of North America, ii. 321. Mackenzie,Voyages to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans, p. xcvi. note (Crees). Burton,Highlands of the Brazil, i. 403sq.Moorcroft and Trebeck,Travels in the Himalayan Provinces, i. 321 (Ladakhis). Anderson,Mandalay to Momien, p. 151 (Kakhyens). Earl,Papuans, p. 80. Tyler,Forty Years among the Zulus, p. 192.
The Fuegians have shown themselves enterprising thieves on board European vessels visiting their shores;4but, when presents were given to them, a traveller noticed that “if any present was designed for one canoe, and it fell near another, it was invariably given to the right owner.â€5The boys are taught by their fathers not to steal;6and in case a theft has been committed, “quand le coupable est découvert et chatié, l’opinion publique est satisfaite.â€7In his dealings with the Tehuelches Lieutenant Musters was always treated with fairness, and the greatest care was taken of his belongings, though they were borrowed at times. He gives the following advice to the traveller:—“Never show distrust of the Indians; be as free with your goods and chattels as they are to each other…. As you treat them so they will treat you.â€8Among the Abipones doors, locks, and other things with which civilised men protect their possessions from thieves, were as unnecessary as they were unknown; and if children pilfered melons grown in the gardens of the missionaries or chickens reared in their houses, “they falsely imagined that these things were free to all, or might be taken not much against the will of the owner.â€9Among the Brazilian Indians theft and robbery were extremely rare, and are so still in places where strangers have not settled.10We are told that the greatest insult which could be offered to an Indian was to accuse him of stealing, and that the wild women preferred the epithet of a prostitute to that of athief.11When detected a thief was not only obliged to restore the property he had stolen, but was punished with stripes and wounds, the chief often acting as executioner.12Among the Indians of British Guiana theft and pilfering rarely occur; “if they happen to take anything, they do it before one’s eyes, under the notion of having some claim to it, which, when called to an account, they are always prepared to substantiate.â€13If anything is stolen from his house during his absence, the Guiana Indian thinks that the missing article has been carried off by people of some other race than his own.14Formerly, when the Caribs lost anything, they used to say, “The Christians have been here.â€15In Hayti the punishment of a thief was to be eaten.16
The Fuegians have shown themselves enterprising thieves on board European vessels visiting their shores;4but, when presents were given to them, a traveller noticed that “if any present was designed for one canoe, and it fell near another, it was invariably given to the right owner.â€5The boys are taught by their fathers not to steal;6and in case a theft has been committed, “quand le coupable est découvert et chatié, l’opinion publique est satisfaite.â€7In his dealings with the Tehuelches Lieutenant Musters was always treated with fairness, and the greatest care was taken of his belongings, though they were borrowed at times. He gives the following advice to the traveller:—“Never show distrust of the Indians; be as free with your goods and chattels as they are to each other…. As you treat them so they will treat you.â€8Among the Abipones doors, locks, and other things with which civilised men protect their possessions from thieves, were as unnecessary as they were unknown; and if children pilfered melons grown in the gardens of the missionaries or chickens reared in their houses, “they falsely imagined that these things were free to all, or might be taken not much against the will of the owner.â€9Among the Brazilian Indians theft and robbery were extremely rare, and are so still in places where strangers have not settled.10We are told that the greatest insult which could be offered to an Indian was to accuse him of stealing, and that the wild women preferred the epithet of a prostitute to that of athief.11When detected a thief was not only obliged to restore the property he had stolen, but was punished with stripes and wounds, the chief often acting as executioner.12Among the Indians of British Guiana theft and pilfering rarely occur; “if they happen to take anything, they do it before one’s eyes, under the notion of having some claim to it, which, when called to an account, they are always prepared to substantiate.â€13If anything is stolen from his house during his absence, the Guiana Indian thinks that the missing article has been carried off by people of some other race than his own.14Formerly, when the Caribs lost anything, they used to say, “The Christians have been here.â€15In Hayti the punishment of a thief was to be eaten.16
4Weddell,Voyage towards the South Pole, pp. 151, 154, 182. King and Fitzroy,Voyages of the“Adventureâ€and“Beagle,†i. 128; ii. 188.
4Weddell,Voyage towards the South Pole, pp. 151, 154, 182. King and Fitzroy,Voyages of the“Adventureâ€and“Beagle,†i. 128; ii. 188.
5Darwin,Journal of Researches, p. 242. See also Snow, ‘Wild Tribes of Tierra del Fuego,’ inJour. Ethn. Soc. London, N.S. i. 264.
5Darwin,Journal of Researches, p. 242. See also Snow, ‘Wild Tribes of Tierra del Fuego,’ inJour. Ethn. Soc. London, N.S. i. 264.
6Bridges, inA Voice for South America, xiii. 204.
6Bridges, inA Voice for South America, xiii. 204.
7Hyades and Deniker,Mission scientifique du Cap Horn, vii. 243.
7Hyades and Deniker,Mission scientifique du Cap Horn, vii. 243.
8Musters,At Home with the Patagonians, pp. 195, 197sq.
8Musters,At Home with the Patagonians, pp. 195, 197sq.
9Dobrizhoffer,Account of the Abipones, ii. 148sq.
9Dobrizhoffer,Account of the Abipones, ii. 148sq.
10von Martius,Beiträge zur Ethnographie Amerika’s, i. 85, 87sq.Idem, inJour. Roy. Geo. Soc.ii. 196. von Spix and von Martius,Travels in Brazil, ii. 242. Southey,History of Brazil, i. 247. von den Steinen,Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens, p. 332. Burton,Highlands of the Brazil, i. 403sq.
10von Martius,Beiträge zur Ethnographie Amerika’s, i. 85, 87sq.Idem, inJour. Roy. Geo. Soc.ii. 196. von Spix and von Martius,Travels in Brazil, ii. 242. Southey,History of Brazil, i. 247. von den Steinen,Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens, p. 332. Burton,Highlands of the Brazil, i. 403sq.
11Burton,Highlands of the Brazil, i. 404.
11Burton,Highlands of the Brazil, i. 404.
12von Martius,Beiträge, i. 88.Idem, inJour. Roy. Geo. Soc.ii. 196.
12von Martius,Beiträge, i. 88.Idem, inJour. Roy. Geo. Soc.ii. 196.
13Bernau,Missionary Labours in British Guiana, p. 51.
13Bernau,Missionary Labours in British Guiana, p. 51.
14Brett,Indian Tribes of Guiana, p. 348.
14Brett,Indian Tribes of Guiana, p. 348.
15Kames,Sketches of the History of Man, iv. 133sq.
15Kames,Sketches of the History of Man, iv. 133sq.
16von Martius,Beiträge, i. 88, n.*
16von Martius,Beiträge, i. 88, n.*
It is known that many North American tribes had a very high standard of honesty among themselves. Domenech wrote:—“The Indians who do not come in contact with the Palefaces never appropriate what belongs to others; they have no law against theft, as it is a crime unknown among them. They never close their doors.â€17According to Colonel Dodge, theft was the sole unpardonable crime amongst them; a man found guilty of stealing even the most trifling article from a member of his own band was whipped almost to death, deprived of his property, and together with his wives and children driven away from the band to starve or live as best he could.18Among the Rocky Mountains Indians visited by Harmon theft was frequently punished with death.19Among the Omahas, “when the suspected thief did not confess his offence, some of his property was taken from him until he told the truth. When he restored what he had stolen, one-half of his own property was returned to him, and the rest was given to the man from whom he had stolen. Sometimes all of the policemen whipped the thief. But when the thief fled from the tribe, and remained away for a year or two, the offence was not remembered.â€20Among the Wyandots the punishment for theft is twofold restitution.21The Iroquois looked down upontheft with the greatest disdain, although the lash of public indignation was the only penalty attached to it.22The Potawatomis considered it one of the most atrocious crimes.23Among the Chippewas Keating found a few individuals who were addicted to thieving, but these were held in disrepute.24Richardson praises the Chippewyans for their honesty, no precautions for the safety of his and his companions property being required during their stay among them.25Mackenzie was struck by the remarkable honesty of the Beaver Indians; “in the whole tribe there were only two women and a man who had been known to have swerved from that virtue, and they were considered as objects of disregard and reprobation.â€26Among the Ahts “larceny of a fellow-tribesman’s property is rarely heard of, and the aggravation of taking it from the house or person is almost unknown“; nay, “anything left under an Indian’s charge, in reliance on his good faith, is perfectly safe.â€27The Thlinkets generally respect the property of their fellow-tribesmen; but although they admit that theft is wrong they do not regard it as a very serious offence, which disgraces the perpetrator, and if a thief is caught he is only required to return the stolen article or to pay its value.28Among the Aleuts “theft was not only a crime but a disgraceâ€; for the first offence of this kind corporal punishment was inflicted, for the fourth the penalty was death.29According to Egede, the Greenlanders had as great an abhorrence of stealing among themselves as any nation upon earth;30according to Cranz, they considered such an act “excessively disgraceful.â€31Similar views still prevail among them, as also among other Eskimo tribes.32A Greenlander never touches driftwood which anotherhas placed above high-water mark, though it would often be easy to appropriate it without fear of detection.33Parry states that, during his stay at Igloolik and Winter Island, a great many instances occurred in which the Eskimo scrupulously returned articles that did not belong to them, even though detection of a theft, or at least of the offender, would have been next to impossible.34
It is known that many North American tribes had a very high standard of honesty among themselves. Domenech wrote:—“The Indians who do not come in contact with the Palefaces never appropriate what belongs to others; they have no law against theft, as it is a crime unknown among them. They never close their doors.â€17According to Colonel Dodge, theft was the sole unpardonable crime amongst them; a man found guilty of stealing even the most trifling article from a member of his own band was whipped almost to death, deprived of his property, and together with his wives and children driven away from the band to starve or live as best he could.18Among the Rocky Mountains Indians visited by Harmon theft was frequently punished with death.19Among the Omahas, “when the suspected thief did not confess his offence, some of his property was taken from him until he told the truth. When he restored what he had stolen, one-half of his own property was returned to him, and the rest was given to the man from whom he had stolen. Sometimes all of the policemen whipped the thief. But when the thief fled from the tribe, and remained away for a year or two, the offence was not remembered.â€20Among the Wyandots the punishment for theft is twofold restitution.21The Iroquois looked down upontheft with the greatest disdain, although the lash of public indignation was the only penalty attached to it.22The Potawatomis considered it one of the most atrocious crimes.23Among the Chippewas Keating found a few individuals who were addicted to thieving, but these were held in disrepute.24Richardson praises the Chippewyans for their honesty, no precautions for the safety of his and his companions property being required during their stay among them.25Mackenzie was struck by the remarkable honesty of the Beaver Indians; “in the whole tribe there were only two women and a man who had been known to have swerved from that virtue, and they were considered as objects of disregard and reprobation.â€26Among the Ahts “larceny of a fellow-tribesman’s property is rarely heard of, and the aggravation of taking it from the house or person is almost unknown“; nay, “anything left under an Indian’s charge, in reliance on his good faith, is perfectly safe.â€27The Thlinkets generally respect the property of their fellow-tribesmen; but although they admit that theft is wrong they do not regard it as a very serious offence, which disgraces the perpetrator, and if a thief is caught he is only required to return the stolen article or to pay its value.28Among the Aleuts “theft was not only a crime but a disgraceâ€; for the first offence of this kind corporal punishment was inflicted, for the fourth the penalty was death.29According to Egede, the Greenlanders had as great an abhorrence of stealing among themselves as any nation upon earth;30according to Cranz, they considered such an act “excessively disgraceful.â€31Similar views still prevail among them, as also among other Eskimo tribes.32A Greenlander never touches driftwood which anotherhas placed above high-water mark, though it would often be easy to appropriate it without fear of detection.33Parry states that, during his stay at Igloolik and Winter Island, a great many instances occurred in which the Eskimo scrupulously returned articles that did not belong to them, even though detection of a theft, or at least of the offender, would have been next to impossible.34
17Domenech,op. cit.ii. 320.
17Domenech,op. cit.ii. 320.
18Dodge,Our Wild Indians, pp. 64, 79.Cf.Charlevoix,Journal of a Voyage to North America, ii. 26, 28 (Hurons).
18Dodge,Our Wild Indians, pp. 64, 79.Cf.Charlevoix,Journal of a Voyage to North America, ii. 26, 28 (Hurons).
19Harmon,Voyages and Travels in the Interior of North America, p. 348.
19Harmon,Voyages and Travels in the Interior of North America, p. 348.
20Dorsey, ‘Omaha Sociology,’ inAnn. Rep. Bur. Ethn.iii. 367.
20Dorsey, ‘Omaha Sociology,’ inAnn. Rep. Bur. Ethn.iii. 367.
21Powell, ‘Wyandot Government,’ inAnn. Rep. Bur. Ethn.i. 66.
21Powell, ‘Wyandot Government,’ inAnn. Rep. Bur. Ethn.i. 66.
22Colden, in Schoolcraft,Indian Tribes of the United States, iii. 191. Morgan,League of the Iroquois, p. 333sq.Loskiel,History of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Indians, i. 16.
22Colden, in Schoolcraft,Indian Tribes of the United States, iii. 191. Morgan,League of the Iroquois, p. 333sq.Loskiel,History of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Indians, i. 16.
23Keating,Expedition to the Source of St. Peter’s River, i. 127.
23Keating,Expedition to the Source of St. Peter’s River, i. 127.
24Ibid.ii. 168.
24Ibid.ii. 168.
25Richardson,Arctic Searching Expedition, ii. 19sq.
25Richardson,Arctic Searching Expedition, ii. 19sq.
26Mackenzie,Voyages to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans, p. 148.
26Mackenzie,Voyages to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans, p. 148.
27Sproat,Scenes and Studies of Savage Life, p. 159.
27Sproat,Scenes and Studies of Savage Life, p. 159.
28Krause,Die Tlinkit-Indianer, p. 167. Holmberg, ‘Ethnographische Skizzen über die Völker des russischen Amerika,’ inActa Soc. Scient. Fennicæ, iv. 322. Petroff,Report on Alaska, p. 170. Dall,Alaska, p. 416.
28Krause,Die Tlinkit-Indianer, p. 167. Holmberg, ‘Ethnographische Skizzen über die Völker des russischen Amerika,’ inActa Soc. Scient. Fennicæ, iv. 322. Petroff,Report on Alaska, p. 170. Dall,Alaska, p. 416.
29Veniaminof, quoted by Petroff,op. cit.pp. 155, 152.
29Veniaminof, quoted by Petroff,op. cit.pp. 155, 152.
30Egede,Description of Greenland, p. 124. See also Dalager,Grønlandske Relationer, p. 69.
30Egede,Description of Greenland, p. 124. See also Dalager,Grønlandske Relationer, p. 69.
31Cranz,History of Greenland, 160.
31Cranz,History of Greenland, 160.
32Nansen,First Crossing of Greenland, ii. 335.Idem,Eskimo Life, p. 158. Rink,Danish Greenland, p. 224. Hall,Arctic Researches, pp. 567, 571. Richardson,Arctic Searching Expedition, i. 352. Parry,Second Voyage for the Discovery of a North-West Passage, p. 522; Lyon,Private Journal, p. 347 (Eskimo of Igloolik). Seemann,Voyage of“Herald,†ii. 65 (Western Eskimo). Nelson, ‘Eskimo about Bering Strait,’ inAnn. Rep. Bur. Ethn.xviii. 293. Among the Point Barrow Eskimo, however, “men who were said to be thieves did not appear to lose any social consideration†(Murdoch, ‘Ethnological Results of the Point Barrow Expedition,’ inAnn. Rep. Bur. Ethn.ix. 41).
32Nansen,First Crossing of Greenland, ii. 335.Idem,Eskimo Life, p. 158. Rink,Danish Greenland, p. 224. Hall,Arctic Researches, pp. 567, 571. Richardson,Arctic Searching Expedition, i. 352. Parry,Second Voyage for the Discovery of a North-West Passage, p. 522; Lyon,Private Journal, p. 347 (Eskimo of Igloolik). Seemann,Voyage of“Herald,†ii. 65 (Western Eskimo). Nelson, ‘Eskimo about Bering Strait,’ inAnn. Rep. Bur. Ethn.xviii. 293. Among the Point Barrow Eskimo, however, “men who were said to be thieves did not appear to lose any social consideration†(Murdoch, ‘Ethnological Results of the Point Barrow Expedition,’ inAnn. Rep. Bur. Ethn.ix. 41).
33Nansen,Eskimo Life, p. 162.
33Nansen,Eskimo Life, p. 162.
34Parry,op. cit.p. 521.
34Parry,op. cit.p. 521.
Among the Chukchi it is held criminal to thieve “in the family and race to which a person belongsâ€;35and incorrigible thieves are sometimes banished from the village.36In Kamchatka, if anybody was found to be a thief he was beaten by the person from whom he had stolen, without being allowed to make resistance, and no one would ever after be friends with him.37The three principal precepts of the Ainu are to honour old age, not to steal, not to lie;38theft is also uncommon among them, and is severely punished.39Among the Kirghiz “whoever commits a robbery on any of the nation must make restitution to nine times the value.â€40Among the Tunguses a thief is punished by a certain number of strokes; he is besides obliged to restore the things stolen, and remains covered with ignominy all the rest of his life.41The Jakuts,42Ostyaks,43Mordvins44Samoyedes,45and Lapps,46are praised for their honesty, at least among their own people; and so are the Butias,47Kukis,48Santals,49the hill people in the Central Provinces of India,50and the Chittagong Hill tribes.51The Kurubars of the Dekhan are of such known honesty, that on all occasions they are entrusted with the custody of produce by the farmers, who know that they would rather starve than take one grain of what was given them incharge.52“Honest as a Pahari,†is a proverbial expression. In fact, among these mountaineers theft is almost unknown, and the men “carry treasures, which to them would be priceless, for days and days, along wild mountain tracks, whence at any moment they might diverge, and never be traced. Even money is safely entrusted to them, and is invariably delivered into the right hands.â€53Harkness says of the Todás:—“I never saw a people, civilised or uncivilised, who seemed to have a more religious respect for the rights ofmeum et tuum. This feeling is taught to their children from the tenderest age.â€54Among the Chukmas “theft is unknown.â€55Among the Karens habitual thieves are sold into slavery.56Among the Shans theft of valuable property is punishable with death, though it may be expiated by a money payment; but in cases of culprits who cannot pay, or whose relatives cannot pay, death is looked upon as a fitting punishment even for petty thefts.57At Zimmé, “if a theft is proved, three times the value of the article is decreed to the owner; and if not paid, the offender, after suffering imprisonment in irons, is made over with his family, to be dealt with as in cases of debt.â€58Among the hill tribes of North Aracan a person who commits theft is bound to return the property or its value and pay a fine not exceeding Rs. 30.59Among the Kandhs, on the other hand, the restitution of the property abstracted or the substitution of an equivalent is alone required by ancient usage; but this leniency extends to the first offence only, a repetition of it being followed by expulsion from the community.60The Andaman Islanders call theft ayÅ«bda, or sin.61Among those Veddahs who live in their natural state, theft and robbery are not known at all.62They think it perfectly inconceivable that any person should ever take that which does not belong to him,63and death only would, in their opinion, be the punishment for such an offence.64
Among the Chukchi it is held criminal to thieve “in the family and race to which a person belongsâ€;35and incorrigible thieves are sometimes banished from the village.36In Kamchatka, if anybody was found to be a thief he was beaten by the person from whom he had stolen, without being allowed to make resistance, and no one would ever after be friends with him.37The three principal precepts of the Ainu are to honour old age, not to steal, not to lie;38theft is also uncommon among them, and is severely punished.39Among the Kirghiz “whoever commits a robbery on any of the nation must make restitution to nine times the value.â€40Among the Tunguses a thief is punished by a certain number of strokes; he is besides obliged to restore the things stolen, and remains covered with ignominy all the rest of his life.41The Jakuts,42Ostyaks,43Mordvins44Samoyedes,45and Lapps,46are praised for their honesty, at least among their own people; and so are the Butias,47Kukis,48Santals,49the hill people in the Central Provinces of India,50and the Chittagong Hill tribes.51The Kurubars of the Dekhan are of such known honesty, that on all occasions they are entrusted with the custody of produce by the farmers, who know that they would rather starve than take one grain of what was given them incharge.52“Honest as a Pahari,†is a proverbial expression. In fact, among these mountaineers theft is almost unknown, and the men “carry treasures, which to them would be priceless, for days and days, along wild mountain tracks, whence at any moment they might diverge, and never be traced. Even money is safely entrusted to them, and is invariably delivered into the right hands.â€53Harkness says of the Todás:—“I never saw a people, civilised or uncivilised, who seemed to have a more religious respect for the rights ofmeum et tuum. This feeling is taught to their children from the tenderest age.â€54Among the Chukmas “theft is unknown.â€55Among the Karens habitual thieves are sold into slavery.56Among the Shans theft of valuable property is punishable with death, though it may be expiated by a money payment; but in cases of culprits who cannot pay, or whose relatives cannot pay, death is looked upon as a fitting punishment even for petty thefts.57At Zimmé, “if a theft is proved, three times the value of the article is decreed to the owner; and if not paid, the offender, after suffering imprisonment in irons, is made over with his family, to be dealt with as in cases of debt.â€58Among the hill tribes of North Aracan a person who commits theft is bound to return the property or its value and pay a fine not exceeding Rs. 30.59Among the Kandhs, on the other hand, the restitution of the property abstracted or the substitution of an equivalent is alone required by ancient usage; but this leniency extends to the first offence only, a repetition of it being followed by expulsion from the community.60The Andaman Islanders call theft ayÅ«bda, or sin.61Among those Veddahs who live in their natural state, theft and robbery are not known at all.62They think it perfectly inconceivable that any person should ever take that which does not belong to him,63and death only would, in their opinion, be the punishment for such an offence.64
35Georgi,op. cit.iii. 183.
35Georgi,op. cit.iii. 183.
36Dall,op. cit.p. 382.
36Dall,op. cit.p. 382.
37Steller,Beschreibung von Kamtschatka, p. 356. See alsosupra,i. 311sq.
37Steller,Beschreibung von Kamtschatka, p. 356. See alsosupra,i. 311sq.
38von Siebold,Die Aino auf der Insel Yesso, p. 25.
38von Siebold,Die Aino auf der Insel Yesso, p. 25.
39Ibid.pp. 11, 34sq.See alsosupra,i. 312.
39Ibid.pp. 11, 34sq.See alsosupra,i. 312.
40Georgi,op. cit.ii. 262.
40Georgi,op. cit.ii. 262.
41Ibid.iii. 83sq.Cf.ibid.iii. 78.
41Ibid.iii. 83sq.Cf.ibid.iii. 78.
42Ibid.ii. 397. Sauer,Expedition to the Northern Parts of Russia, p. 122.
42Ibid.ii. 397. Sauer,Expedition to the Northern Parts of Russia, p. 122.
43Castrén,Nordiska resor och forskningar, i. 319.
43Castrén,Nordiska resor och forskningar, i. 319.