Chapter 51

45Hearne,Journey to the Northern Ocean, p. 345sq.

46Richardson,Arctic Searching Expedition, ii. 17.

47Powers,op. cit.p. 118sq.

48Beechey,Voyage to the Pacific and Behring’s Strait, ii. 402.

49Harmon,Voyages and Travels in the Interior of North America, p. 348.

50Morgan,League of the Iroquois, p. 171.

51Veniaminof, quoted by Petroff,loc. cit.p. 155.

52Boas, ‘Central Eskimo,’ inAnn. Rep. Bur. Ethn.vi. 566.

53Murdoch, ‘Point Barrow Expedition,’ inAnn. Rep. Bur. Ethn.ix. 417. Turner, ‘Ungava District,’ibid.xi. 191.

54Cranz,op. cit.i. 174, 150.Cf.Egede,Description of Greenland, p. 147; Holm, ‘Ethnologisk Skizze af Angmagsalikerne,’ inMeddelelser om Grönland, x. 93.

55Wied-Neuwied,op. cit.ii. 40.

56Bridges, ‘Manners and Customs of the Firelanders,’ inA Voice for South America, xiii. 206.

57Salvado,Mémoires historiques sur l’Australie, p. 277.Cf.Curr,The Australian Race, iii. 155; Gason, ‘Dieyerie Tribe,’ in Woods,Native Tribes of South Australia, p. 258; Mathew, ‘Australian Aborigines,’ inJour. & Proceed. Roy. Soc. N. S. Wales, xxiii. 388.

58Lewin,Wild Races of South-Eastern India, p. 256.

59Hodgson,Miscellaneous Essays, i. 123.

60Shaw, inAntananarivo Annual, iii. 82.

61Caillié,op. cit.i. 352.

62Seeinfra, on theSubjection of Children.

At a higher stage of civilisation reverence for parents reaches its pitch, and the duty of maintaining them in their old age is taken for a matter of course. Among the present Hindus “it would certainly be regarded as a most disgraceful thing were a man who could do anything for the support of an aged father or mother to allow the burden of their maintenance to fall on strangers”;63and it is common for unmarried soldiers to stint themselves almost to starvation point, that they may send home money to their parents.64The priesthood of modern Buddhism teach that children shall “respect their parents, and perform all kinds of offices for them, even though they should have servants whom they could command to do all that they require.”65At ancient Athens, before a man could become a magistrate, evidence was to be produced that he had treated his parents properly; and a person who refused his parents food and dwelling lost his right of speaking in the national assembly.66According tothe Icelandic Grágás, a man should maintain in the first place his mother, in the second his father, in the third his own children.67The Talmud enjoins the duty of maintaining parents;68and so does Muhammedan law, “if the parents are both poor and lastingly infirm, or both poor and insane.”69

63Wilkins,Modern Hinduism, p. 418.

64Monier Williams,Indian Wisdom, p. 440, n. 1.

65Hardy,op. cit.p. 494.Cf.ibid.p. 495.

66Schmidt,Ethik der alten Griechen, ii. 144.

67Grágás, Omaga-balkr, 1, vol. i. 232.

68Katz,Der wahre Talmudjude, p. 119.

69Sachau,op. cit.p. 17sq.

Christianity, as will be shown, in one essential point changed the notions of antiquity regarding children’s duties towards their parents: it made these duties subordinate to men’s duties towards God. “Verily I say unto you, There is no man that hath left house, or brethren, or sisters, or father, or mother, or wife, or children, or lands, for my sake, and the gospel’s, but he shall receive an hundredfold now in this time, houses, and brethren, and sisters, and mothers, and children, and lands, with persecutions; and in the world to come eternal life.”70There are numerous legends and lives of saints in which the desertion of the nearest relations is recorded as one of the leading features of their sanctity, and as one of their chief titles to honour.71Some Catholic writers were of opinion that a man might lawfully abandon his parents, even though they could not be supported without him, and enter religion, committing the care of them to God. But Thomas Aquinas says that this would be tempting God, adding however that he who has already professed religion “ought not, on any plea of supporting his parents, to quit the cloister in which he is buried with Christ, and entangle himself again in worldly business.”72Yet our duties towards our parents come next to our duties towards God. We ought to aid them when in want, and to supplicate God in their behalf that they may lead prosperous and happy lives.73

70St. Mark, x. 29sq.

71Cf.Farrer,Paganism and Christianity, p. 196.

72Thomas Aquinas,Summa Theologica, ii.-ii. 101. 4.

73Catechism of the Council of Trent, iii. 5. 10sq.

The duty of supporting aged parents has its root inthe sentiments of affection, gratitude, and regard, and, to some extent, in superstitious fear. However feeble they be, the parents have in their hands a powerful weapon—the curse; or, when they are dead, their ghosts may avenge their wrongs on their neglectful children. All these circumstances will be discussed in thechapterdealing with the subjection of children.

We have further to consider the duty of assisting brothers and sisters and more distant relatives. Among the Aleuts, says Veniaminof, a brother “must always aid his brother in war as well as in the chase, and each protect the other; but if anybody, disregarding this natural law, should go to live apart, caring only for himself, such a one should be discarded by his relatives in case of attack by enemies or animals, or in time of storms; and such dishonourable conduct would lead to general contempt.”74Among the Point Barrow Eskimo “the older children take very good care of the smaller ones”;75and of the Sia Indians (Pueblos) we are told that “a marked trait is their loving kindness and care for younger brothers and sisters.”76Dr. Schweinfurth writes:—“Notwithstanding … that certain instances may be alleged which seem to demonstrate that the character of the Dinka is unfeeling, these cases never refer to such as are bound by the ties of kindred. Parents do not desert their children, nor are brothers faithless to brothers, but are ever prompt to render whatever aid is possible.”77I presume that these examples of fraternal relations may, on the whole, be regarded as expressive of universal facts. According to Confucius, the love which brother should bear to brother is second only to that which is due from children to parents.78

74Veniaminof, quoted by Petroff,loc. cit.p. 155.

75Murdoch, inAnn. Rep. Bur. Ethn.ix. 417.

76Stevenson, ‘Sia,’ inAnn. Rep. Bur. Ethn.xi. 22.

77Schweinfurth,Heart of Africa, i. 169.

78Douglas,Confucianism and Taouism, p. 123.

The duty of assisting more distant relatives is much more variable. It may be said that, as a general rule, amongsavages and barbarians—with the exception, perhaps, of those who live in small family-groups—as also among the peoples of archaic culture, this duty is more prominent and extends further than amongst ourselves. The blood-tie has much greater strength, related families keep more closely together for mutual protection and aid. The Angmagsaliks of Eastern Greenland, says Lieutenant Holm, consider that the tie of blood imposes mutual assistance as a duty under all circumstances.79The Omahas maintain that “generosity cannot be exercised toward kindred, who have a natural right to our assistance.”80Among the natives of Madagascar “the claims of relationship are distinctly recognised by custom and law. If one branch of a family becomes poor, the members of the same family support him; if he be sold into slavery for debt, they often unite in furnishing the price of his redemption…. The laws facilitate and encourage, and sometimes even enforce, such acts of kindness.”81In his description of the Australian Bangerang, Mr. Curr observes, “Though their ways were different from ours, it always seemed to me that the bonds of friendship between blood relations were stronger, as a rule, with savages than amongst ourselves.”82Among the Philippine Islanders “families are very united, and claims for help and protection are admitted, however distant the relationship may be.”83Of the Burmans it is said, “No people can be more careful in preserving and acknowledging the bonds of family relationship to the remotest degrees, and not merely as a matter of form, but as involving the duty of mutual assistance.”84Among the ancient Hindus, Persians, Greeks, and Romans, persons belonging to the four generations of near relatives—the Sapindas, Syngeneis, Anchisteis, or Propinqui—were expected to assisteach other whenever it was needed.85The Scandinavians considered him to be a bad man who did not help his kindred against strangers, even though there was enmity between the relatives.86

79Holm, inMeddelelser om Grönland, x. 87.

80Dorsey, ‘Omaha Sociology,’ inAnn. Rep. Bur. Ethn.iii. 274.

81Ellis,History of Madagascar, i. 138.Cf.Sibree,The Great African Island, p. 256sq.

82Curr,Recollections of Squatting in Victoria, p. 274.

83Foreman,Philippine Islands, p. 186.

84Forbes,British Burma, p. 59.

85Leist,Alt-arisches Jus Civile, i. 47sqq., 231sqq.

86Rosenberg,Nordboernes Aandsliv, i. 488.

But the duty of helping the needy and protecting those in danger goes beyond the limits of the family and thekin. Uncivilised peoples are, as a rule, described as kind towards members of their own community or tribe. Between themselves charity is enjoined as a duty, and generosity is praised as a virtue. Indeed, their customs regarding mutual aid are often much more stringent than our own. And this applies even to the lowest savages.87

87The prevalence of mutual aid in uncivilised communities has been duly emphasised by Prince Kropotkin,Mutual Aid, p. 76sqq.

“La disposition à la générosité,” says M. Hyades, “est un trait charactéristique des Fuégiens. Ils aiment à partager ce qu’ils ont avec tous ceux qui les entourent.”88Captain Weddell likewise speaks of “the philanthropic principle which these people exhibit towards one another.”89Burchell tells us that the Bushmans, between themselves, “exercise the virtues of hospitality and generosity, often in an extraordinary degree.”90The Veddahs of Ceylon are friendly towards each other, and ready to help a person in distress.91The Andamanese display much mutual affection in their social relations, and frequently make presents of the best that they possess. “Every care and consideration,” says Mr. Man, “are paid by all classes to the very young, the weak, the aged, and the helpless, and these, being made special objects of interest and attention, invariably fare better in regard to the comforts and necessaries of daily life than any of the otherwise more fortunate members of the community.”92The Australian natives are almost universally praised for their friendly behaviour towards personsbelonging to their own people.93Presents given to one of a group are speedily divided as far as possible among the rest, and when a black man has employment at a station he generally gives away most of his earnings to his comrades in the camp.94“Between the males of a tribe,” says Mr. Curr, “there always exists a strong feeling of brotherhood, so that, come weal come woe, a man can always calculate on the aid, in danger, of every member of his tribe.”95Regarding the Central Australian natives, Messrs. Spencer and Gillen observe that their treatment of one another “is marked on the whole by considerable kindness, that is, of course, in the case of members of friendly groups, with every now and then the perpetration of acts of cruelty.”96Collins says that the aborigines about Botany Bay and Port Jackson “applauded acts of kindness and generosity, for of both these they were capable.”97

88Hyades and Deniker,Mission scientifique du Cap Horn, vii. 243.

89Weddell,op. cit.p. 168. According to other authorities, the Fuegians, though free from malevolence and cruelty, are not distinguished for active benevolence (Bridges, inA Voice for South America, xiii. 208, 213. Bove,Patagonia, pp. 133, 137. Lovisato, ‘Appunti etnografici sulla Terra del Fuoco,’ inCosmos di Guida Cora, viii. 145, 151.Cf.also Hyades and Deniker,op. cit.vii. 238, 240, 243sq.).

90Burchell,Travels in the Interior of Southern Africa, ii. 54.

91Sarasin,Ergebnisse naturwissenschaftlicher Forschungen auf Ceylon, iii. 545, 550. Schmidt,Ceylon, p. 276.

92Man, inJour. Anthr. Inst.xii. 93sq.Cf.Portman,ibid.xxv. 368.

93Curr,The Australian Race, i. 49. Hodgson,Reminiscences of Australia, p. 88. Oldfield, ‘Aborigines of Australia,’ inTrans. Ethn. Soc.N.S. iii. 226. Eyre,op. cit.ii. 385sq.Brough Smyth,op. cit.ii. 279. Lumholtz,Among Cannibals, p. 176. Mathew, inJour. & Proceed. Roy. Soc. N.S. Wales, xxiii. 387sq.Breton,Excursions in New South Wales, p. 218. Fison and Howitt,op. cit.p. 259. Wyatt, ‘Manners and Superstitions of the Adelaide and Encounter Bay Aboriginal Tribes,’ in Woods,Native Tribes of South Australia, p. 162. Schuermann, ‘Aboriginal Tribes of Port Lincoln,’ibid.pp. 243, 244, 247.

94Schuermann,loc. cit.p. 244. Ridley,Kámilarói, p. 158. Fison and Howitt,op. cit.p. 256. Lumholtz,Among Cannibals, pp. 199, 343. Stirling,Report of the Horn Expedition to Central Australia. Part IV. Anthropology, p. 36.

95Curr,The Australian Race, i. 62.

96Spencer and Gillen,Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 50.

97Collins,English Colony in New South Wales, i. 549.

Passing to savages and barbarians who have reached a somewhat higher level of culture:—We are told by Mr. Catlin, with reference to the North American Indians, that, “to their friends, there are no people on earth that are more kind.”98According to Adair, “they are very kind and liberal to every one of their own tribe, even to the last morsel of food they enjoy”; Nature’s school “teaches them the plain easy rule, ‘do to others, as you would be done by.’”99Harmon praises the generosity of the Indians:—“They are more ready, in proportion to their means, to assist a neighbour who may be in want, than the inhabitants, generally, of civilised countries. An Indian rarely kills an animal, without sending a part of it to a neighbour if he has one near him.”100The Naudowessies “supply the deficiency of their friends with any superfluity of their own,” and “in dangers they readily give assistance to those of their bandwho stand in need of it, without any expectation of return.”101Among the Iroquois “kindness to the orphan, hospitality to all, and a common brotherhood, were among the doctrines held up for acceptance by their religious instructors”; an Iroquois “would surrender his dinner to feed the hungry, vacate his bed to refresh the weary, and give up his apparel to clothe the naked.”102Among the Omahas grades of merit or bravery were of two sorts: to the first class belonged such as had given to the poor on many occasions, and had invited guests to many feasts. To the second class belonged those who, besides having done these things many times, had killed several of the foe, and had brought home many horses. When a person sees a poor man or woman, they said, he should make presents to the unfortunate being; thus he can gain the goodwill of Wakanda as well as that of his own people.103The Ahts of Vancouver Island succour any one in need of help, without looking for any ulterior benefit.104The Aleuts were instructed to be kind to others and to refrain from selfishness; it was the custom for the successful hunter or fisher, particularly in times of scarcity, to share his prize with all, not only taking no larger share, but often less than the others.105Among the Eskimo about Behring Strait, whenever a successful trader accumulates property and food, and is known to work solely for his own welfare, he becomes an object of enmity and hatred among his fellow-villagers, which ends in one of two ways—the villagers may compel him to make a feast and distribute his goods, or they may kill him and divide his property among themselves.106According to the Greenland creed, all those who had striven and suffered for the benefit of their fellow-men should find a happy existence after death in the abodes of the supreme being, Tornarsuk.107“The Greenlander,” says Dr. Nansen, “is the most compassionate of creatures with regard to his neighbour. His first social law is to help others.”108Captain Hall holds an equally favourable opinion of those Eskimo with whom he came in contact. “As between themselves,” he says, “there can be no people exceeding them in this virtue kindness of heart. Take, for instance, times of great scarcity of food. If one family happens to have any provisions onhand, these are shared with all their neighbours. If one man is successful in capturing a seal, though his family may need it all to save them from the pangs of hunger, yet the whole of his people about, including the poor, the widow, the fatherless, are at once invited to a seal-feast.”109They believe that all Innuits who have been good, “that is, who have been kind to the poor and hungry,” will after death go to Koodleparmiung, or heaven, whereas those who have been bad, “that is, unkind to one another,” will go to Adleparmeun, or hell.110Many of the South American peoples are praised for their kind disposition of mind;111the Guiana Indians seemed to a Christian missionary to be “generous to a fault.”112The Caribs had all their interests in common, lived in great harmony, and loved each other heartily.113

98Catlin,North American Indians, ii. 241.

99Adair,History of the American Indians, pp. 431, 429.

100Harmon,op. cit.p. 349.

101Carver,op. cit.p. 247.

102Morgan,League of the Iroquois, pp. 172, 329.

103Dorsey, ‘Omaha Sociology,’ inAnn. Rep. Bur. Ethn.iii. 333, 274.Cf.Idem, ‘Siouan Sociology,’ibid.xv. 232 (Kansas).

104Sproat,op. cit.p. 166.

105Veniaminof, quoted by Petroff,loc. cit.p. 155, and Dall,Alaska, p. 392.

106Nelson, ‘Eskimo about Bering Strait,’ inAnn. Rep. Bur. Ethn.xviii. 305.

107Rink,Greenland, p. 141.

108Nansen,First Crossing of Greenland, ii. 304.Cf.ibid.ii. 334; Nansen,Eskimo Life, pp. 116, 177; Egede,op. cit.pp. 123, 126sq.

109Hall,Arctic Researches, p. 567.

110Ibid.p. 571sq.

111von Martius,Beiträge zur Ethnographie Amerika’s, i. 217, 641 (Guarayos, Macusis). Musters,op. cit.p. 195 (Patagonians).

112Brett,Indian Tribes of Guiana, p. 276.

113de Poircy-Rochefort,Histoire naturelle et morale des Iles Antilles, p. 460.

Among the Tonga Islanders the sentiment of humanity, or a fellow-feeling for one another, is universally approved. They “are not only not selfish, but admire liberality, and are practically liberal.” When any one is about to eat, he always shares what he has with those about him without any hesitation, and not to do so would be considered exceedingly vile and selfish. So, also, “if one chief sees something in the possession of another, which he has a strong desire to have, he has only to ask him for it, and in all probability it is readily and liberally given.”114Not even the Fijians, who took great pains to instil into the minds of their youth a contempt for compassionate impulses and an admiration for relentless cruelty,115were destitute of humanity and friendly feelings.116In Aneiteum, of the New Hebrides, the people believed that the sin which would be visited with the severest punishment in the land of the dead was stinginess or niggardliness in giving away food, and that the virtue which received the highest reward was a generous hospitality and a giving liberally at feasts.117In Tana, another island belonging to the same group, “one man has only to ask anything from his neighbours, and he gets it.”118Of the New Caledonians Mr. Atkinson states that, among themselves, they are “of a generosity that seems to arise mainly from aversion to refuse any request.”119The Dyaks are described as hospitable,kindly, and humane, “to a degree which well might shame ourselves”;120whilst the practice of head-hunting is carried on by every tribe at the expense of its neighbour, the members of each community have strong feelings of sympathy for each other.121Among the Sea Dyaks, says Grassland, “if any are sick or unable to work, the rest help; and there seems to me a much stronger bond of union amongst them than I have ever seen among the labouring classes in England.”122

114Mariner,op. cit.ii. 153, 154, 165.

115Erskine,Cruise among the Islands of the Western Pacific, p. 247.

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