Chapter 91

118Hall,Arctic Researches, p. 566sq.

119Hale,U.S. Exploring Expedition. Vol. VI. Ethnography and Philology, p. 109.

120Keating,Expedition to the Source of St. Peter’s River, ii. 168. See also Boller,Among the Indians, p. 54sq.

121Williams,Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea Islands, p. 514.

122Williams and Calvert,Fiji, p. 105.

123Krasheninnikoff,History of Kamschatka, p. 224.

124Sauer,op. cit.p. 255.

125Batchelor, ‘Notes on the Ainu,’ inTrans. Asiatic Soc. Japan, x. 211sq.Howard,Life with Trans-Siberian Savages, p. 182.

126Nevill, inTaprobanian, i. 192. Sarasin,op. cit.iii. 530, 534. 553.

127Azara,Voyages dans l’Amérique méridionale, ii. 107.

128Nelson, ‘Eskimo about Bering Strait,’ inAnn. Rep. Bur. Ethn.xviii. 306sq.

129Cranz,History of Greenland, i. 126.

130Kidd,The Essential Kafir, p. 92.

131Turner, ‘Ethnology of the Ungava District,’ inAnn. Rep. Bur. Ethn.xi. 267.

132Marquette,Recit des voyages, p. 47sq.

133Brett,Indian Tribes of Guiana, p. 376.

134Curr,The Australian Race, i. 50. For other instances of national conceit or pride among savages see Darwin,Journal of Researches, p. 207 (Fuegians); von den Steinen,Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens, p. 332 (Bakaïri); von Humboldt,Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of the New Continent, v. 423, and Brett,op. cit.p. 128 (Guiana Indians); James,Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, i. 320 (Omahas); Murdoch, inAnn. Rep. Bur. Ethn.ix. 42 (Point Barrow Eskimo); Krasheninnikoff,op. cit.p. 180 (Kamchadales); Brough Smyth,op. cit.ii. 284 (Australian natives); Macpherson,op. cit.p. 67 (Kandhs); Munzinger,Ueber die Sitten und das Recht der Bogos, p. 94; Andersson,Lake Ngami, p. 198 (Ovambo).

We meet with similar feelings and ideas among the nations of archaic culture. The Chinese are taught to think themselves superior to all other peoples. In their writings, ancient and modern, the word “foreigner” is regularly joined with some disrespectful epithet, implying or expressing the ignorance, brutality, obstinacy, or meanness of alien nations, and their obligations to or dependence upon China.135To Confucius himself China was “the middle kingdom,” “the multitude of great states,” “all under heaven,” beyond which were only rude and barbarous tribes.136According to Japanese ideas, Nippon was the first country created, and the centre of the world.137The ancient Egyptians considered themselves as the peculiar people, specially loved by the gods. They alone were termed “men” (romet); other nations were negroes, Asiatics, or Libyans, but not men; and according to the myth these nations were descended from the enemies of the gods.138The national pride of the Assyrians, so often referred to by the Hebrew prophets,139is conspicuous everywhere in their cuneiform inscriptions: they are the wise, the brave, the powerful, who, like the deluge, carry away all resistance; their kings are the “matchless, irresistible”; and their gods are much exalted above the gods of all other nations.140To the Hebrews their own land was “an exceeding good land,” “flowing with milk and honey,” “the glory of all lands”;141and its inhabitants were a holypeople which the Lord had chosen “to be a special people unto Himself, above all people that are upon the face of the earth.”142Concerning the ancient Persians, Herodotus writes:—“They look upon themselves as very greatly superior in all respects to the rest of mankind, regarding others as approaching to excellence in proportion as they dwell nearer to them; whence it comes to pass that those who are the farthest off must be the most degraded of mankind.”143To this day the monarch of Persia retains the title of “the Centre of the Universe”; and it is not easy to persuade a native of Isfahan that any European capital can be superior to his native city.144The Greeks called Delphi—or rather the round stone in the Delphic temple—“the navel” or “middle point of the earth”;145and they considered the natural relation between themselves and barbarians to be that between master and slave.146

135Philip,Life and Opinions of the Rev. W. Milne, p. 257.Cf.Staunton, inNarrative of the Chinese Embassy to the Khan of the Tourgouth Tartars, p. viii.

136Legge,Chinese Classics, i. 107. See also Giles,op. cit.ii. 116, n. 2.

137Griffis,Religions of Japan, p. 207.

138Erman,Life in Ancient Egypt, p. 32.

139Isaiah, x. 7sqq.; xxxvii. 24sqq.Ezekiel, xxxi. 10sq.Zephaniah, ii. 15.

140Mürdter-Delitzsch,Geschichte Babyloniens und Assyriens, p. 104.

141Numbers, xiii. 27; xiv. 7.Ezekiel, xx. 6, 15.

142Deuteronomy, vii. 6.

143Herodotus, i. 134.

144Rawlinson, in his translation of Herodotus, i. 260sq.n. 5.

145Pindar,Pythia, vi. 3sq.Idem,Nemea, vii. 33sq.Aeschylus,Eumenides, 40, 166. Sophocles,Œdipus Tyrannus, 480, 898. Livy, xxxviii. 48.Cf.Herodotus’ theory of “extremities” (iii. 115sq.), and Rawlinson’s commentary, in his translation of Herodotus, i. 260sq.n. 6.

146Euripides,Iphigenia in Aulide, 1400sq.Aristotle,Politica, i. 2, 6, pp. 1252 b, 1255 a.

In the archaic State the national feeling is in some cases greatly strengthened by the religious feeling; whilst in other instances religion inspires devotion to the family, clan, or caste rather than to the nation, or constitutes a tie not only between compatriots but between members of different political communities. The ancestor-worship of the Chinese has hardly been conducive to genuine patriotism. Whatever devotion to the common weal may have prevailed among the Vedic Aryans, it has certainly passed away beneath the influence of Brahmanism, or been narrowed down to the caste, the village, or the family.147The Zoroastrian Ahura-Mazda was not a national god, but “the god of the Aryans,” that is, of all the peoples who inhabited ancient Iran; and these were constantly at warwith one another.148Muhammedans, whilst animated with a common hatred towards the Christians, show little public spirit in relation to their respective countries,149composed as they are of a variety of loosely connected, often very heterogeneous elements, ruled over by a monarch whose power is in many districts more nominal than real. In ancient Greece and Rome patriotism no doubt contained a religious element—each state and town had its tutelary gods and heroes, who were considered its proper masters;150but in the first place it was free citizens’ love of their native institutions, a civic virtue which grew up on the soil of liberty. When the two Spartans who were sent to Xerxes to be put to death were advised by one of his governors to surrender themselves to the king, their answer was, “Had you known what freedom is, you would have bidden us fight for it, not with the spear only, but with the battle-axe.”151And of the Athenians who lived at the time of the Persian wars, Demosthenes said that they were ready to die for their country rather than to see it enslaved, and that they considered the outrages and insults which befell him who lived in a subjugated city to be more terrible than death.152In classical antiquity “the influence of patriotism thrilled through every fibre of moral and intellectual life.”153In some Greek cities emigration was prohibited by law, at Argos even on penalty of death.154Plato, in the Republic, sacrificed the family to the interests of the State. Cicero placed our duty to our country next after our duty to the immortal gods and before our duty to our parents.155“Of all connections,” he says, “none is more weighty, none is more dear, than that between every individual and his country. Our parents are dear to us;our children, our kinsmen, our friends, are dear to us; but our country comprehends alone all the endearments of us all. What good man would hesitate to die for her if he could do her service?”156

147Wheeler,History of India, ii. 586sq.See also Leist,Alt-arisches Jus Gentium, p. 529.

148Meyer,Geschichte des Alterthums, i. 540. Spiegel,Erânische Alterthumskunde, iii. 687sqq.

149Polak,Persien, i. 12. Urquhart,Spirit of the East, ii. 427, 439 (Turks). Burckhardt,Bedouins and Wahábys, p. 204sq.(Turks and Arab settlers).

150Leist,Alt-arisches Jus Gentium, p. 529. Schmidt,Die Ethik der alten Griechen, ii. 221.

151Herodotus, vii. 134sq.

152Demosthenes,De Corona, 205, p. 296.

153Lecky,History of European Morals, i. 200.

154Plutarch,Lycurgus, xxvii. 5. Ovid,Metamorphoses, xv. 29.

155Cicero,De officiis, i. 45 (160).Cf.ibid.iii. 23 (90).

156Ibid.i. 17 (57).Cf.Cicero,De legibus, ii. 2, (5).

The duty of patriotism springs, in the first instance, from the patriotic feeling; when the love of country is common in a nation public resentment is felt towards him who does not act as that sentiment requires him to act. Moreover, lack of patriotism in a person may also be resented by his fellow-countrymen as an injury done to themselves; and as we have seen before, anger, and especially anger felt by a whole community, has a tendency to lead to moral disapproval. For analogous reasons deeds of patriotism are apt to evoke moral praise. However, in benefiting his own people the patriot may cause harm to other people; and where the altruistic sentiment is broad enough to extend beyond the limits of the State and strong enough to make its voice heard even in competition with the love of country and the love of self, his conduct may consequently be an object of reproach. At the lower stages of civilisation the interests of foreigners are not regarded at all, except when sheltered by the rule of hospitality; but gradually, owing to circumstances which will be discussed in the following chapter, altruism tends to expand, and men are at last considered to have duties to mankind at large. The Chinese moralists inculcated benevolence to all men without making any reference to national distinctions.157Mih-tsze, who lived in the interval between Confucius and Mencius, even taught that we ought to love all men equally; but this doctrine called forth protests as abnegating the peculiar devotion due to relatives.158In Thâi-Shang it is said that a good man will feel kindly towards every creature, and should not hurt even the insect tribes, grass, and trees.159Buddhismenjoins the duty of universal love:—“As a mother, even at the risk of her own life, protects her son, her only son, so let a man cultivate goodwill without measure toward all beings, … unhindered love and friendliness toward the whole world, above, below, around.”160According to the Hindu work Panchatantra it is the thought of little-minded persons to consider whether a man is one of ourselves or an alien, the whole earth being of kin to him who is generously disposed.161In Greece and Rome philosophers arose who opposed national narrowness and prejudice. Democritus of Abdera said that every country is accessible to a wise man, and that a good soul’s fatherland is the whole earth.162The same view was expressed by Theodorus, one of the later Cyrenaics, who denounced devotion to country as ridiculous.163The Cynics, in particular, attached slight value to the citizenship of any special state, declaring themselves to be citizens of the world.164But, as Zeller observes, in the mouth of the Cynic this doctrine was meant to express not so much the essential oneness of all mankind, as the philosopher’s independence of country and home.165It was the Stoic philosophy that first gave to the idea of a world-citizenship a definite positive meaning, and raised it to historical importance. The citizen of Alexander’s huge empire had in a way become a citizen of the world; and national dislikes were so much more readily overcome as the various nationalities comprised in it were united not only under a common government but also in a common culture.166Indeed, the founder of Stoicism was himself only half a Greek. But there is also an obvious connection between the cosmopolitan idea and the Stoicsystem in general.167According to the Stoics, human society has for its basis the identity of reason in individuals; hence we have no ground for limiting this society to a single nation. We are all, says Seneca, members of one great body, the universe; “we are all akin by Nature, who has formed us of the same elements, and placed us here together for the same end.”168“If our reason is common,” says Marcus Aurelius, “there is a common law, as reason commands us what to do and what not to do; and if there is a common law we are fellow-citizens; if this is so, we are members of some political community—the world is in a manner a state.”169To this great state, which includes all rational beings, the individual states are related as the houses of a city are to the city collectively;170and the wise man will esteem it far above any particular community in which the accident of birth has placed him.171

157Lun Yü, xii. 22. Mencius, vii. 1. 45. Douglas,Confucianism and Taouism, pp. 108, 205.

158Edkins,Religion in China, p. 119. Legge,Chinese Classics, ii. 476, n. 45. de Groot,Religious System of China, (vol. ii. book) i. 684.

159Thâi-Shang, 3.

160Quoted by Rhys Davids,Hibbert Lectures on the History of Buddhism, p. 111.

161Muir,Religious and Moral Sentiments rendered from Sanskrit Writers, p. 109.

162Stobæus,Florilegium, xl. 7, vol. ii. 80.Cf.Natorp,Die Ethika des Demokritos, p. 117, n. 41.

163Diogenes Laertius,Vitæ philosophorum, ii. 98sq.

164Ibid.vi. 12, 63, 72, 98. Epictetus,Dissertationes, iii. 24. 66. Stobæus, xlv. 28, vol. ii. 252.

165Zeller,Socrates and the Socratic Schools, p. 326sq.Idem,Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics, p. 327.

166Cf.Plutarch,De Alexandri Magni fortuna aut virtute, i. 6, p. 329.

167See Zeller,Stoics, &c.p. 327sq.

168Seneca,Epistulæ, xcv. 52.

169Marcus Aurelius,Commentarii, iv. 4.Cf.ibid.vi. 44, and ix. 9; Cicero,De legibus, i. 7 (23); Epictetus,Dissertationes, i. 13. 3.

170Marcus Aurelius, iii. 11.

171Seneca,De otio, iv. 1.Idem,Epistulæ, lxviii. 2. Epictetus,Dissertationes, iii. 22. 83sqq.

But the Roman ideal of patriotism, with its utter disregard for foreign nations,172was not opposed by philosophy alone: it met with an even more formidable antagonist in the new religion. The Christian and the Stoic rejected it on different grounds: whilst the Stoic felt himself as a citizen of the world, the Christian felt himself as a citizen of heaven, to whom this planet was only a place of exile. Christianity was not hostile to the State.173At the very time when Nero committed his worst atrocities, St. Paul declared that there is no power but of God, and that whosoever resists the power resists the ordinance of God and shall be condemned;174and Tertullian says that all Christians send up their prayers for the life of the emperors, for their ministers, for magistrates, for the good of theState and the peace of the Empire.175But the emperor should be obeyed only so long as his commands do not conflict with the law of God—a Christian ought rather to suffer like Daniel in the lions’ den than sin against his religion;176and nothing is more entirely foreign to him than affairs of State.177Indeed, in the whole Roman Empire there were no men who so entirely lacked patriotism as the early Christians. They had no affection for Judea, they soon forgot Galilee, they cared nothing for the glory of Greece and Rome.178When the judges asked them which was their country they said in answer, “I am a Christian.”179And long after Christianity had become the religion of the Empire, St. Augustine declared that it matters not, in respect of this short and transitory life, under whose dominion a mortal man lives, if only he be not compelled to acts of impiety or injustice.180Later on, when the Church grew into a political power independent of the State, she became a positive enemy of national interests. In the seventeenth century a Jesuit general called patriotism “a plague and the most certain death of Christian love.”181

172Cf.Lactantius,Divinæ Institutiones, vi. (‘De vero cultu’), 6 (Migne,Patrologiæ cursus, vi. 655).

173St. Matthew, xxii. 21.1 Peter, ii. 13sq.

174Romans, xiii. 1sq.See alsoTitus, iii. 1.

175Tertullian,Apologeticus, 39 (Migne,op. cit.i. 468). See also Ludwig,Tertullian’s Ethik, p. 98sq.

176Tertullian,De idololatria, 15 (Migne,op. cit.i. 684).

177Tertullian,Apologeticus, 38 (Migne,op. cit.i. 465):—“Nec ulla magis res aliena, quam publica.”

178See Renan,Hibbert Lectures on the Influence of Rome on Christianity, p. 28.

179Le Blant,Inscriptions chrétiennes, i. 128.

180St. Augustine,De Civitate Dei, v. 17.

181von Eicken,Geschichte und System der mittelalterlichen Weltanschauung, p. 809.

With the fall of the Roman Empire patriotism died out in Europe, and remained extinct for centuries. It was a feeling hardly compatible either with the migratory life of the Teutonic tribes or with the feudal system, which grew up wherever they fixed their residence. The knights, it is true, were not destitute of the natural affection for home. When Aliaumes is mortally wounded by Géri li Sors he exclaims, “Holy Virgin, I shall never more see Saint-Quentin nor Néèle”;182and the troubadour Bernard de Ventadour touchingly sings, “Quan la doussa aura venta—Deves nostre païs,—M’es veiaire que senta—Odor deParadis.”183But to a man of the Middle Ages “his country” meant little more than the neighbourhood in which he lived.184Kingdoms existed, but no nations. The first duty of a vassal was to be loyal to his lord;185but no national spirit bound together the various barons of one country. A man might be the vassal of the king of France and of the king of England at the same time; and often, from caprice, passion, or sordid interest, the barons sold their services to the enemies of the kingdom. The character of his knighthood was also perpetually pressing the knight to a course of conduct distinct from all national objects.186The cause of a distressed lady was in many instances preferable to that of the country to which he belonged—as when the Captal de Bouche, though an English subject, did not hesitate to unite his troops with those of the Compte de Foix to relieve the ladies in a French town, where they were besieged and threatened with violence by the insurgent peasantry.187When a knight’s duties towards his country are mentioned in the rules of Chivalry they are spoken of as duties towards his lord:—“The wicked knight,” it is said, “that aids not his earthly lord and natural country against another prince, is a knight without office.”188Far from being, as M. Gautier asserts,189the object of an express command in the code of Chivalry, true patriotism had there no place at all. It was not known as an ideal, still less did it exist as a reality, among either knights or commoners. As a duke of Orleans could bind himself by a fraternity of arms and alliance to a duke of Lancaster,190so English merchants were in the habit of supplying nations at war against England with provisions bought at English fairs, and weapons wrought by English hands.191If, as M. Gaston Paris maintains, adeep feeling of national union had inspired the Chanson de Roland,192it is a strange, yet undeniable, fact that no distinct trace of this feeling displayed itself in the mediæval history of France before the English wars.

182Li Romans de Raoul de Cambrai, 210, p. 185.

183Quoted by Gautier,La Chevalerie, p. 64.

184See Cibrario,Della economia politica del medio eve, i. 263; de Crozals,Histoire de la civilization, ii. 287.

185Ordre of Chyualry, foll. 13 b. 32 b.

186See Mills,History of Chivalry, i. 140sq.

187Scott,Essay on Chivalry, p. 31.

188Ordre of Chyualry, fol. 14 b.

189Gautier,op. cit.p. 33.

190Sainte-Palaye,Mémoires sur l’ancienne Chevalerie, ii. 72.

191Pike,History of Crime in England, i. 264sq.

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