Chapter 31

[125]Bücher,Arbeit und Rhythmus, passim.[126]Bücher,l.c. passim. Compare, however, p. 306 as to the difference between labour in the modern sense and the working activity of primitive man.[127]Cf. Souriau,L’esthétique du mouvement, p. 70.[128]Bourgoing,Modern State of Spain, ii. pp. 299, 300.[129]Vernon Lee and Anstrather Thompson, “Beauty and Ugliness,” in theContemporary Review, vol. lxxii. 1897, p. 559: “To this quality of mere complexity of surface, pattern adds by its regularity the power of compelling the eye and breath to move at an even and unbroken pace. Even the simplest, therefore, of the patterns ever used have a power akin to that of march music, for they compel our organism to a regular rhythmical mode of being.”[130]The expression “gymnastic,” as distinguished from pantomimic dance, is borrowed from Grosse,Die Anfänge der Kunst.[131]That the dances of salutation and homage in most cases really are to be derived from the expression of joy has been shown by Spencer,Principles of Sociology, iii. p. 201, and might be corroborated by instances referring to all the details of complimentary ceremonialism.[132]Carver,Travels, pp. 180-182 (Lake Pepin); Martin,Molukken, p. 57 (Lectimor); Polack,The New Zealanders, i. p. 88 (Maoris). Cf. also Rienzi,Océanie, iii. p. 170, on the frequent quarrels between Europeans and Maoris that have arisen from a misunderstanding of these kinds of salutation. Johnstone,Maoria, p. 49: “The war dance was practised both as a martial exercise and as an amusement, and was considered equally adapted to give honourable reception to friendly visitors or to intimidate an enemy on the field of battle.”[133]Cf. the instances collected by Féré,Pathology of Emotions, pp. 360-390; and Godfernaux,Le sentiment et la pensée, pp. 65sq.A powerful description of the mythogenic justifications by which anxiety creates to itself a reason is given in Maupassant’s poem “Terreur” inDes Vers, pp. 19, 20.[134]Cf. on the infectious influence of dramatic performances, Cahusac,La danse, i. pp. 166, 167; ii. pp. 61, 62; Jacobowski,Anfänge der Poesie, pp. 127-129; Tarde, “Foules et sectes,” inRevue des deux Mondes, vol. cxx. (1893), especially p. 368. It is scarcely necessary to point out to how great an extent the emotional conveyance by means of dramatic action must have been strengthened by the chorus, which, by its laughter or wailing, affords a kind of model expression to the spectator. Possibly, indeed, the Greek chorus developed from a ceremonial in which chorus and audience were not distinct but identical—a ritual of wailings or rejoicings provoked by the recital of a traditional story. This view, curiously in advance of his times, is suggested by Brown, an eighteenth century philosopher (History of the Rise of Poetry, pp. 126-128): “How came it to pass that in the more barbarous periods the number [of the chorus] should be so much greater? Manifestly because that rude age bordered on the savage times, when thewhole audiencehadsympathisedwith thenarrative actor, and became as one general choir.”[135]Engel,Ideen zu einer Mimic, i. pp. 86-88; cf. also Seckendorff,Vorlesungen über Declamation und Mimik, ii. p. 5; Sully-Prudhomme,L’expression dans les-beaux arts, pp. 96, 97.[136]Lichtenberg,Briefe aus England, Vermischte Schriften, iii. p. 262.[137]Lange,Nydelsernes fysiologi, pp. 168, 169. As to the importance of imitative reaction for our enjoyment of sculpture, cf. Vernon Lee and Anstruther Thompson,The Contemporary Review, vol. lxxii., pp. 677-679.[138]Sully-Prudhomme,L’expression dans les beaux-arts, pp. 4, 5.[139]Nietzsche,Die Geburt der Tragödie, p. 8.[140]Goethe,Dichtung und Wahrheit, iii. p. 132. This instance has been adduced by Professor Julius Lange in support of his emotionalistic art-theory;Om Kunstvœrdi, pp. 72-84.[141]Wallaschek,Mind, N.S. iv. p. 34, “On the Difference of Time and Rhythm in Music;” Bücher,Arbeit und Rhythmus, p. 306.[142]Cf. Emmanuel,La danse grecque antique, p. 127.[143]Cf. Creuzer,Symbolik und Mythologie, iii. p. 155; Ruskin avails himself of the same allegory inThe Queen of the Air, pp. 66-70.[144]Revue Critique, 1896, ii. pp. 386, 387; cf. also Groos,Die Spiele der Menschen, pp. 110, 476.[145]Spencer,Essays, ii. 460.[146]Cf. Charcot and Richer,Les démoniaques dans l’art, p. 37; Emmanuel,La danse grecque antique, pp. 102, 196-198, 302, 303.[147]Michelet,La Sorcière, p. 80.[148]Cf. for example, Dyer,Gods in Greece, pp. 114-117.[149]Cf. Brown,The Fine Arts, pp. 22-35, 41-70; and Hill inPop. Sc. Monthly, vol. xlii. pp. 734-749.[150]Rapp,Rheinisches Museum, xxvii. p. 2 (“Die Mänade im griechischen Cultus”).[151]Rohde,Psyche, pp. 331, 343.[152]Nietzsche,Die Geburt der Tragödie, pp. 6, 7.[153]A detailed treatment of gracefulness in art and life has been given by the author inFörstudier till en konstfilosofi, pp. 132-147.[154]Cf. Holz,Die Kunst, p. 117. It is only fair to add that in their own novels the authors of this school have involuntarily failed to support their theoretical principles.[155]Cf. chap. i.[156]Cf. Taine,Philosophie de l’art, pp. 72, 73.[157]Ibid.pp. 52, 53.[158]Hemsterhuis,Œuvres, i. pp. 14-18, 24, 66 (Lettre sur la sculpture, Lettre sur les désirs). A similar thought was applied by Poe to the fundamental principles in poetic composition and has exercised a great influence on recent literary movements. Cf. Poe,Works, vi. pp. 3-6 (The poetic principle). For a further elaboration of this notion cf. Bourget,Études et portraits, i. pp. 225, 226; Hansson,Kåserier i mystik, pp. 140, 141; Symons,The Symbolist Movement, p. 137 (Stéphane Mallarmé).[159]Carlyle,Sartor Resartus, p. 180.[160]Wagner,Ges. Schriften, iv. p. 39 (Oper und Drama).[161]Cf. chap. ii. in the preceding.[162]Cf. the quotations adduced by Harnack,Die klassische Ästhetik, pp. 124, 143, 161, 164, 165. Cf. also von Stein,Goethe und Schiller, Ästhetik der deutschen Klassiker, pp. 25, 27.[163]Taine,De l’idéal dans l’art, pp. 19, 50, 130, 175.[164]For an interesting comparison between French and English ideals of art, compare the aphorisms of Mr. Quilter inSententiæ Artis, pp. 7, 121, with the views of Taine, as expressed, for example, inL’idéal dans l’art, p. 148.[165]Cf. Ruskin,Modern Painters, 1, i. ii. § 8; iii. iv. 3, §§ 21, 24, 28.[166]Tolstoy,What is Art?Julius Lange,Om Kunstværdi. Cf. also the remarks in Carpenter,Angels’ Wings, the poetic theory of Holmes, as set forth inWhat is Poetry?and the definition of March, “Evolution and Psychology in Art,”Mind, N.S. v. p. 442.[167]Taine,Philosophie de l’art, p. 50. For a just appreciation of the part of feeling in art see alsoDe l’idéal dans l’art, p. 152; Ruskin,The Laws of Fésole, chap. i. pp. 1-7;Modern Painters, iii. iv. i. §§ 13, 14;Lectures on Art, pp. 80, 81.[168]Hirth,Aufgaben der Kunstphysiologie, pp. 14-16.[169]Cf. von Stein,Goethe und Schiller, Ästhetik der deutschen Klassiker, p. 32.[170]Cf. the quotations from Schiller’s letters to Goethe, adduced by Harnack inDie klassische Ästhetik der Deutschen, pp. 89-92.[171]Leconte de Lisle,Poèmes barbares, p. 221.[172]Van Dyke,Principles of Art, p. 281.[173]Groos,The Play of Animals, pp. 327, 328.[174]Cf. especially March, “Evolution and Psychology in Art,” inMind, N.S. v. (1896); Balfour,The Evolution of Decorative Art; Haddon,Evolution in Art, and the papers of Holmes inRep. Bur. Ethn.iii. iv. vi., and inThe American Anthropologist, iii.[175]For a recent defence of this theory see Tarde,La logique sociale, pp. 445, 446.[176]Cf. chap. vi. in the preceding.[177]Cf. Mallery inRep. Bur. Ethn.i. pp. 283, 284, 347; Sayce,Introd. to the Science of Language, i. pp. 92-94, 105-107; ii. pp. 306-308. It is to be remarked that in maintaining the priority of pantomimic language Mr. Mallery always emphasises the “instinctive” character of this means of communication. Cp.Rep. Bur.i. pp. 340, 347. Professor Sayce seems to conceive gesture-language as consisting only of dramatically imitating “moves” or sounds, (l.c.i. p. 107). Professor Tylor, on the other hand, who takes up a critical position with regard to the theory of gesture-language as an intermediate stage of evolution, speaks of gesture-language as made up by delineations and indications (Early Hist. of Mankind, pp. 15, 16). In a theoretical discussion it is evidently necessary to maintain a strict distinction between these different kinds of pantomimic thought-conveyance, which are no doubt accompanied by different degrees of intention. Cp. Romanes,Mental Evol. in Man, pp. 86, 103.[178]Cf. Kussmaul in Ziemssen’sCyclopædia, p. 14, esp. p. 587 (Disturbances of Speech.)[179]Cf. Romanes,l.c.pp. 113, 148, 149, on the influence exercised by the constructions of spoken language on the gesture-language of deaf-mutes.[180]Cf. Tylor,l.c.pp. 74-79, on the improbability of the stories about tribes who cannot make themselves understood by each other without the help of gestures. Dr. Tylor’s criticism of Captain Burton’s statement that the Aropahos “can hardly converse with one another in the dark” has been amply confirmed by the subsequent researches of Mallery. Cf.Rep. Bur. Ethn.i. pp. 314, 315. Naturally, therefore, one feels inclined to adopt a sceptical attitude with regard to Miss Kingsley’s assertion that the language of the Bubis “depends so much on gesture that they cannot talk in it to each other in the dark” (Travels in West Africa, p. 439). Cf., however, with regard to the element of gesture in West African languages, Kingsley,West African Studies, p. 237.[181]Wood,Nat. Hist. of Man, i. p. 266 (Bushmen); Cranz,Historie von Grönland, i. p. 279. As to the Australians the statements are somewhat contradictory. Mr. Curr (The Australian Race, i. p. 93) says that “some tribes express a few things by signs made with their hands; but, on the whole, the Australian is very little given to gesticulation.” This statement, however, has been expressly encountered by Mr. Stirling, who describes a very extensive system of signs.Rep. Horn Exped.iv. Anthropology, pp. 111-125. Cf. also Spencer and Gillen,Native Tribes, p. 500.[182]Stirling,l.c.p. 112.[183]Roth, W. E.,N.W.C. Queensland Aborigines, pp. 71sq.[184]Fraser,Aborigines of New South Wales, p. 25.[185]Roth, W. E.,N.W.C. Queensland, p. 71. Cf. a remark in the same direction by Mallery,Rep. Bur. Ethn.i. p. 312.[186]See Tylor,Primitive Culture, i. p. 187; Mallery,l.c.pp. 295, 307; Sayce,Introd. Science of Lang.i. p. 93. Compare also the classic instance of Sicily, meeting-ground of so many peoples.[187]Fraser,Aborigines of New South Wales, p. 25; Roth,l.c.p. 71.[188]Steinen,Unter den Naturvölkern Central-Brasiliens, p. 72; Mallery,l.c.p. 307.[189]Mallery,l.c.pp. 311, 312. That the gesture-language of the North American Indians is to be explained as a result of peculiar geographical conditions was remarked already by Dugald Stewart,Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind, iii. pp. 19-22.[190]Cf. the interesting descriptions of Maori political meetings in Earle,New Zealand, p. 91; Shortland,Traditions of the New Zealanders, p. 171.[191]Home,Elements of Criticism, i. p. 435.[192]For an appreciation of pantomimic action as means of conveying religious feelings see Mr. Tylor’s description of the service in the deaf-dumb institution of Berlin,Early History of Mankind, p. 33.[193]Mallery inRep. Bur. Ethnol.i. p. 370.[194]Von den Steinen,Unter den Naturvölkern Central-Brasiliens, p. 244.[195]Mallery inRep. Bur. Ethnol.i. p. 370. Cf. also Mallery,l.c.x. (1888-89), (Picture-writing of the N.A. Indians). That the pictographic elements to a large extent have been influenced by the manual signs was remarked already in 1836 by Rafinesque. Cf. Brinton,The Lenape, p. 152, where the merits and the priority of this peculiar author are vindicated.[196]Groos,Die Spiele der Menschen, p. 406.[197]For examples of pictorial art subservient to such purely practical purposes see Mallery,l.c.x. pp. 329-375.[198]Im Thurn,Primitive Games, pp. 273, 275.[199]Roth,N.W.C. Queensland Aborigines, pp. 117, 118. Oldfield (“The Aborigines of Australia,” inTrans. Ethnol. Soc.N.S. iii. p. 257) describes a Watchandie pantomime, imitating the proceedings of the white man in hunting whales, and composed by an old native who had some time before visited the coast.[200]Wilson and Felkin,Uganda, ii. p. 45. For imitations of the white man in dramatic dances see also Lander,Clapperton’s Last Expedition, i. pp. 120, 121; Cook,Voyage Towards the South Pole(2 Voy.), i. p. 368.[201]Cook,Voyage Towards the South Pole(2 Voy.), i. p. 356 (Huaheine).[202]Levertin,Fars och farsörer, p. 78, especially the quotation from Chappuy’s “L’avare cornu” (1580).[203]For songs describing the incidents in a travel see Batchelor,The Ainu, pp. 123, 124; Chamisso, in Kotzebue’sReisen, iii. p. 67 (Radack); Woods,Native Tribes, pp. 38, 39 (Taplin, “The Narrinyeri”); Grey,Journals, ii. p. 253; Polack,New Zealanders, ii. pp. 167, 168. On current events as subjects of primitive poetry cf. Bonwick,Tasmanians, p. 29; Kingsley,Travels, p. 66, (Bubis); Curr,Australian Race, iii. p. 169 (Mathew,Mary River Natives); Metz,Neilgherry Hills, p. 30 (Todas); Ahlqvist,Acta Soc. Scient. Fenn.xiv. (“Wogulen und Ostjaken”); Day,Proceedings of the As. Soc.1870, p. 157 (Observ. on the Andamanese); Ehrenreich inZeitschrift für Ethnologie, xix. p. 32 (Botokudos); Erman,Travels in Siberia, ii. pp. 42, 43 (Ostyak songs and pantomimes).[204]Cf. Bonwick,Daily Life and Origin of the Tasmanians, p. 29; Lenz,Skizzen aus West Afrika, pp. 110, 111 (Abongos); Schneider,Die Naturvölker, ii. p. 235, 236 (Interior Africa).[205]Cf. Eyre,Expeditions into Central Australia, ii. p. 240; Cruickshank,Eighteen Years on the Gold Coast, ii. p. 266.[206]St. John,Far East, i. p. 114 (Kayans of Baram); Petherick,Egypt, p. 130 (Hassanyeh Arabs); Mollien,Travels, p. 74 (Joloffs).[207]Woods,l.c.pp. 38, 39 (Taplin, “The Narrinyeri”). Cf. the solos in the Atiu canoe-song, describing the guns of Captain Cook. Gill,From Darkness to Light, p. 263. On the song of the Marshall Islanders describing the ships of the Russian expedition, the dresses of the sailors, etc., see Rienzi,Océanie, ii. p. 196.[208]Varigny,Quatorze ans aux Iles Sandwich, pp. 18-23, particularly p. 19. A short reference to the same song can be found in Fornander,The Polynesian Race, ii. p. 171.[209]Steinen,Unter den Naturvölkern, pp. 244sq., 248, 249.[210]Hyades, inMission scientifique du Cap Horn, vii. p. 253.[211]Martial,ibid.i. p. 214.[212]Mr. Bridges’ unpublished work, quoted by Hyades,l.c.vii. p. 377.[213]Cranz,Historie von Grönland, i. p. 292.[214]Cranz,l.c.p. 229.[215]Codrington,The Melanesians, pp. 47, 48; cf. Romilly,My Verandah in New Guinea, p. 87.[216]Kleinschmidt, inJournal des Museum Godeffroy, xiv. 1879, p. 268. (“Reisen auf den Viti Inseln. Insel Vatu Lele”). Williams,Fiji, pp. 99, 142; Spencer,Descriptive Sociology, Division I. Nr. iii. p. 60.[217]Letherman, inSmithsonian Report, 1855, pp. 295, 296 (The Navajo tribe).[218]Cf. Matthews,Navaho Legends, pp. 22-26, where the assertions of Dr. Letherman are quoted and opposed.[219]Cook. (1st)Voyage, p. 388; Lubbock,Prehistoric Times, p. 426; Spencer,Principles of Sociology, iii. p. 78.[220]Schoolcraft,Indian Tribes, ii. p. xii.[221]Schoolcraft,l.c.i. p. 18.[222]Lubbock,l.c.p. 426.[223]Kane,Wanderings, p. 179.[224]Seeinfra, p. 175.[225]With regard to the traditional art of the Australian natives compare Spencer and Gillen,Native Tribes, pp. 220sq.473, 485; Lloyd,Tasmania and Victoria, p. 466.[226]Cf.e.g.Steinen,Durch Central Brasilien, pp. 266, 267, on a Yuruna dance.[227]Cf. Bourke,Scatologic Rites, p. 25.[228]Bourke, “The Medicine-men of the Apache,” inRep. Bur. Ethnol.ix. 1887-88.[229]Cf. Bourke,Scatologic Rites, pp. 6, 7, 64, and the author’sFörstudier till en konstfilosofi, pp. 114, 119.[230]Bourke,The Snake-Dance of the Moquis, pp. 178, 179.[231]Cf. the author’sSkildringar ur Pueblo folkens konstlif(The Art-life of the Pueblo-Indians),passim.[232]Cf. Spencer,Principles of Sociology, i. p. 797.[233]Cf. especially Fewkes, “The Snake Ceremonials at Walpi,” inJourn. American Ethnology and Archæology, vol. iv., especially pp. 119, 124.[234]A detailed account of these prayers has been given inPueblo folkens konstlif, passim.[235]Cf. Tylor,Prim. Culture, i. pp. 392sq.[236]Mooney, inThe American Anthropologist, iii. pp. 108, 109 (“The Cherokee Ball-Play”).[237]Groos,Die Spiele der Menschen, pp. 246, 247.[238]Réclus,Les Primitifs, p. 356. For some unmistakable examples of myths secondary to the corresponding rites see Spencer and Gillen,Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 443.[239]Cf. Abercromby,Pre-and Proto-historic Finns, i. pp. 358, 359, ii. p. 41.[240]Erman,Travels, ii. pp. 50, 51.[241]Lubbock,Origin of Civilisation, pp. 356sq.[242]Cf. Kingsley,Travels, p. 473. On the difficulty of deciding whether a given piece of sculpture is to be interpreted as an idol or as a merely memorial portrait, see Brinton,Report upon the Collections, etc., p. 33.[243]Schweinfurth,Artes Africanæ, pl. viii. f. 5; Cruickshank,Eighteen Years on the Gold Coast, ii. pp. 270, 271; Schmeltz,Ethnol. Abtheil. des Mus. Godeffroy, p. 241.[244]Codrington,The Melanesians, pp. 173, 174. The same views have been expressed by Finsch,Ethnologische Erfahrungen, pp. 255-257;Samoafahrten, pp. 47-49, 75, 175.[245]Polack,New Zealand, i. pp. 115, 116, 236, 237; Robley,Moko, pp. 88sq.Cf. about “Moko”-tattooing as a means of recognising individuals, living or dead, Robley,l.c.pp. 131, 146, 147, 159.[246]Andree,Ethnographische Parallelen, i. pp. 258-261. The remarks of Herr Andree have been emphatically supported by von den Steinen,Unter den Naturvölkern Central Brasiliens, p. 244; cf. also Hoffman,Ethnographic Observations, in U.S. Geol. and Geogr. Survey, 1876, especially p. 475.[247]Im Thurn,Indians of Guiana, pp. 403-410. On similar grounds the application of Herr Andree’s theory to the North American Petroglyphs has been opposed by Mallery, inRep. Bur. Ethnol.x. pp. 28, 29 (“Picture-writing of the American Indians”).[248]Svoboda, inArchiv für Ethnographie, v. pp. 162, 163. Cf. also Meyer,Bilderschriften des Ostindischen Archipels, p. 1.[249]Cf. Grey,Journals, ii. p. 310.[250]As typical illustrations of this class of legends we may instance the Polynesian poems quoted by Fornander,The Polynesian Race, ii. 12-19, 284-286.[251]Cf. pp. 160, 161, in the preceding, and Gill,From Darkness to Light, pp. 248-264.[252]See Ellis,Polynesian Researches, i. p. 286; iv. pp. 79, 101, 105; Pritchard,Polynesian Reminiscences, p. 125; Polack,New Zealanders, ii. p. 167; and, above all, the collection of traditional war-poetry from the Hervey Group, published by Gill inFrom Darkness to Light.[253]Cf. above, p. 165.[254]Oviedo,Histoire des Indes, pp. 69, 70; Markham, in the Introduction to his translation ofOllanta, pp. 1, 2; Spencer,Descr. Soc.ii. pp. 13, 68, 70, 71; Forbes,Dahomey, ii. p. 13. On historical songs among the military tribes of Africa cf. also Shooter,The Kafirs, p. 268; Burton,Lake Regions, i. p. 263 (Wagogos). As regards the influence of war on early Arab poetry see Posnett,Comparative Literature, p. 133.[255]Cf.e.g.the humble traditions of the Kubus, as quoted by Forbes,Wanderings, p. 243.[256]Laing,Travels, p. 186 (Village Kamia); Dobrizhoffer,The Abipones, ii. pp. 430, 431.[257]Parker,Aborigines of Australia, pp. 25, 26; Howitt inJourn. Anthr. Inst.xiii. pp. 453, 454 (Australian ceremonies of initiation), and Cameron in the same journal, xiv. p. 358 (Tribes of N.S. Wales); the last two instances quoted in Frazer,Totemism, p. 47. See also Fison, “The Nanga,” inJ. A. I.xiv., esp. p. 22, on an initiation ceremony in Fiji, representing the ancestors lying dead and coming to life again, which curiously resembles Collins’s description and pictures of an Australian initiation (Collins,N.S. Wales, i. p. 575). For a somewhat analogous drama in East Africa see Dale,Journ. Anthr. Inst.xxv. p. 189 (Bondi country). For interpretation of all these rites see Frazer,Totemism, p. 47; andThe Golden Bough, ii. pp. 343-359.[258]Carver,Travels, pp. 175-180; Schoolcraft,Information, v. pp. 428sq.Both quoted by Frazer. To be compared with the initiation into the Secret Society of Nkimba—Ward inJourn. Anthr. Inst.xxiv. pp. 288, 289 (Congo tribes).

[125]Bücher,Arbeit und Rhythmus, passim.

[126]Bücher,l.c. passim. Compare, however, p. 306 as to the difference between labour in the modern sense and the working activity of primitive man.

[127]Cf. Souriau,L’esthétique du mouvement, p. 70.

[128]Bourgoing,Modern State of Spain, ii. pp. 299, 300.

[129]Vernon Lee and Anstrather Thompson, “Beauty and Ugliness,” in theContemporary Review, vol. lxxii. 1897, p. 559: “To this quality of mere complexity of surface, pattern adds by its regularity the power of compelling the eye and breath to move at an even and unbroken pace. Even the simplest, therefore, of the patterns ever used have a power akin to that of march music, for they compel our organism to a regular rhythmical mode of being.”

[130]The expression “gymnastic,” as distinguished from pantomimic dance, is borrowed from Grosse,Die Anfänge der Kunst.

[131]That the dances of salutation and homage in most cases really are to be derived from the expression of joy has been shown by Spencer,Principles of Sociology, iii. p. 201, and might be corroborated by instances referring to all the details of complimentary ceremonialism.

[132]Carver,Travels, pp. 180-182 (Lake Pepin); Martin,Molukken, p. 57 (Lectimor); Polack,The New Zealanders, i. p. 88 (Maoris). Cf. also Rienzi,Océanie, iii. p. 170, on the frequent quarrels between Europeans and Maoris that have arisen from a misunderstanding of these kinds of salutation. Johnstone,Maoria, p. 49: “The war dance was practised both as a martial exercise and as an amusement, and was considered equally adapted to give honourable reception to friendly visitors or to intimidate an enemy on the field of battle.”

[133]Cf. the instances collected by Féré,Pathology of Emotions, pp. 360-390; and Godfernaux,Le sentiment et la pensée, pp. 65sq.A powerful description of the mythogenic justifications by which anxiety creates to itself a reason is given in Maupassant’s poem “Terreur” inDes Vers, pp. 19, 20.

[134]Cf. on the infectious influence of dramatic performances, Cahusac,La danse, i. pp. 166, 167; ii. pp. 61, 62; Jacobowski,Anfänge der Poesie, pp. 127-129; Tarde, “Foules et sectes,” inRevue des deux Mondes, vol. cxx. (1893), especially p. 368. It is scarcely necessary to point out to how great an extent the emotional conveyance by means of dramatic action must have been strengthened by the chorus, which, by its laughter or wailing, affords a kind of model expression to the spectator. Possibly, indeed, the Greek chorus developed from a ceremonial in which chorus and audience were not distinct but identical—a ritual of wailings or rejoicings provoked by the recital of a traditional story. This view, curiously in advance of his times, is suggested by Brown, an eighteenth century philosopher (History of the Rise of Poetry, pp. 126-128): “How came it to pass that in the more barbarous periods the number [of the chorus] should be so much greater? Manifestly because that rude age bordered on the savage times, when thewhole audiencehadsympathisedwith thenarrative actor, and became as one general choir.”

[135]Engel,Ideen zu einer Mimic, i. pp. 86-88; cf. also Seckendorff,Vorlesungen über Declamation und Mimik, ii. p. 5; Sully-Prudhomme,L’expression dans les-beaux arts, pp. 96, 97.

[136]Lichtenberg,Briefe aus England, Vermischte Schriften, iii. p. 262.

[137]Lange,Nydelsernes fysiologi, pp. 168, 169. As to the importance of imitative reaction for our enjoyment of sculpture, cf. Vernon Lee and Anstruther Thompson,The Contemporary Review, vol. lxxii., pp. 677-679.

[138]Sully-Prudhomme,L’expression dans les beaux-arts, pp. 4, 5.

[139]Nietzsche,Die Geburt der Tragödie, p. 8.

[140]Goethe,Dichtung und Wahrheit, iii. p. 132. This instance has been adduced by Professor Julius Lange in support of his emotionalistic art-theory;Om Kunstvœrdi, pp. 72-84.

[141]Wallaschek,Mind, N.S. iv. p. 34, “On the Difference of Time and Rhythm in Music;” Bücher,Arbeit und Rhythmus, p. 306.

[142]Cf. Emmanuel,La danse grecque antique, p. 127.

[143]Cf. Creuzer,Symbolik und Mythologie, iii. p. 155; Ruskin avails himself of the same allegory inThe Queen of the Air, pp. 66-70.

[144]Revue Critique, 1896, ii. pp. 386, 387; cf. also Groos,Die Spiele der Menschen, pp. 110, 476.

[145]Spencer,Essays, ii. 460.

[146]Cf. Charcot and Richer,Les démoniaques dans l’art, p. 37; Emmanuel,La danse grecque antique, pp. 102, 196-198, 302, 303.

[147]Michelet,La Sorcière, p. 80.

[148]Cf. for example, Dyer,Gods in Greece, pp. 114-117.

[149]Cf. Brown,The Fine Arts, pp. 22-35, 41-70; and Hill inPop. Sc. Monthly, vol. xlii. pp. 734-749.

[150]Rapp,Rheinisches Museum, xxvii. p. 2 (“Die Mänade im griechischen Cultus”).

[151]Rohde,Psyche, pp. 331, 343.

[152]Nietzsche,Die Geburt der Tragödie, pp. 6, 7.

[153]A detailed treatment of gracefulness in art and life has been given by the author inFörstudier till en konstfilosofi, pp. 132-147.

[154]Cf. Holz,Die Kunst, p. 117. It is only fair to add that in their own novels the authors of this school have involuntarily failed to support their theoretical principles.

[155]Cf. chap. i.

[156]Cf. Taine,Philosophie de l’art, pp. 72, 73.

[157]Ibid.pp. 52, 53.

[158]Hemsterhuis,Œuvres, i. pp. 14-18, 24, 66 (Lettre sur la sculpture, Lettre sur les désirs). A similar thought was applied by Poe to the fundamental principles in poetic composition and has exercised a great influence on recent literary movements. Cf. Poe,Works, vi. pp. 3-6 (The poetic principle). For a further elaboration of this notion cf. Bourget,Études et portraits, i. pp. 225, 226; Hansson,Kåserier i mystik, pp. 140, 141; Symons,The Symbolist Movement, p. 137 (Stéphane Mallarmé).

[159]Carlyle,Sartor Resartus, p. 180.

[160]Wagner,Ges. Schriften, iv. p. 39 (Oper und Drama).

[161]Cf. chap. ii. in the preceding.

[162]Cf. the quotations adduced by Harnack,Die klassische Ästhetik, pp. 124, 143, 161, 164, 165. Cf. also von Stein,Goethe und Schiller, Ästhetik der deutschen Klassiker, pp. 25, 27.

[163]Taine,De l’idéal dans l’art, pp. 19, 50, 130, 175.

[164]For an interesting comparison between French and English ideals of art, compare the aphorisms of Mr. Quilter inSententiæ Artis, pp. 7, 121, with the views of Taine, as expressed, for example, inL’idéal dans l’art, p. 148.

[165]Cf. Ruskin,Modern Painters, 1, i. ii. § 8; iii. iv. 3, §§ 21, 24, 28.

[166]Tolstoy,What is Art?Julius Lange,Om Kunstværdi. Cf. also the remarks in Carpenter,Angels’ Wings, the poetic theory of Holmes, as set forth inWhat is Poetry?and the definition of March, “Evolution and Psychology in Art,”Mind, N.S. v. p. 442.

[167]Taine,Philosophie de l’art, p. 50. For a just appreciation of the part of feeling in art see alsoDe l’idéal dans l’art, p. 152; Ruskin,The Laws of Fésole, chap. i. pp. 1-7;Modern Painters, iii. iv. i. §§ 13, 14;Lectures on Art, pp. 80, 81.

[168]Hirth,Aufgaben der Kunstphysiologie, pp. 14-16.

[169]Cf. von Stein,Goethe und Schiller, Ästhetik der deutschen Klassiker, p. 32.

[170]Cf. the quotations from Schiller’s letters to Goethe, adduced by Harnack inDie klassische Ästhetik der Deutschen, pp. 89-92.

[171]Leconte de Lisle,Poèmes barbares, p. 221.

[172]Van Dyke,Principles of Art, p. 281.

[173]Groos,The Play of Animals, pp. 327, 328.

[174]Cf. especially March, “Evolution and Psychology in Art,” inMind, N.S. v. (1896); Balfour,The Evolution of Decorative Art; Haddon,Evolution in Art, and the papers of Holmes inRep. Bur. Ethn.iii. iv. vi., and inThe American Anthropologist, iii.

[175]For a recent defence of this theory see Tarde,La logique sociale, pp. 445, 446.

[176]Cf. chap. vi. in the preceding.

[177]Cf. Mallery inRep. Bur. Ethn.i. pp. 283, 284, 347; Sayce,Introd. to the Science of Language, i. pp. 92-94, 105-107; ii. pp. 306-308. It is to be remarked that in maintaining the priority of pantomimic language Mr. Mallery always emphasises the “instinctive” character of this means of communication. Cp.Rep. Bur.i. pp. 340, 347. Professor Sayce seems to conceive gesture-language as consisting only of dramatically imitating “moves” or sounds, (l.c.i. p. 107). Professor Tylor, on the other hand, who takes up a critical position with regard to the theory of gesture-language as an intermediate stage of evolution, speaks of gesture-language as made up by delineations and indications (Early Hist. of Mankind, pp. 15, 16). In a theoretical discussion it is evidently necessary to maintain a strict distinction between these different kinds of pantomimic thought-conveyance, which are no doubt accompanied by different degrees of intention. Cp. Romanes,Mental Evol. in Man, pp. 86, 103.

[178]Cf. Kussmaul in Ziemssen’sCyclopædia, p. 14, esp. p. 587 (Disturbances of Speech.)

[179]Cf. Romanes,l.c.pp. 113, 148, 149, on the influence exercised by the constructions of spoken language on the gesture-language of deaf-mutes.

[180]Cf. Tylor,l.c.pp. 74-79, on the improbability of the stories about tribes who cannot make themselves understood by each other without the help of gestures. Dr. Tylor’s criticism of Captain Burton’s statement that the Aropahos “can hardly converse with one another in the dark” has been amply confirmed by the subsequent researches of Mallery. Cf.Rep. Bur. Ethn.i. pp. 314, 315. Naturally, therefore, one feels inclined to adopt a sceptical attitude with regard to Miss Kingsley’s assertion that the language of the Bubis “depends so much on gesture that they cannot talk in it to each other in the dark” (Travels in West Africa, p. 439). Cf., however, with regard to the element of gesture in West African languages, Kingsley,West African Studies, p. 237.

[181]Wood,Nat. Hist. of Man, i. p. 266 (Bushmen); Cranz,Historie von Grönland, i. p. 279. As to the Australians the statements are somewhat contradictory. Mr. Curr (The Australian Race, i. p. 93) says that “some tribes express a few things by signs made with their hands; but, on the whole, the Australian is very little given to gesticulation.” This statement, however, has been expressly encountered by Mr. Stirling, who describes a very extensive system of signs.Rep. Horn Exped.iv. Anthropology, pp. 111-125. Cf. also Spencer and Gillen,Native Tribes, p. 500.

[182]Stirling,l.c.p. 112.

[183]Roth, W. E.,N.W.C. Queensland Aborigines, pp. 71sq.

[184]Fraser,Aborigines of New South Wales, p. 25.

[185]Roth, W. E.,N.W.C. Queensland, p. 71. Cf. a remark in the same direction by Mallery,Rep. Bur. Ethn.i. p. 312.

[186]See Tylor,Primitive Culture, i. p. 187; Mallery,l.c.pp. 295, 307; Sayce,Introd. Science of Lang.i. p. 93. Compare also the classic instance of Sicily, meeting-ground of so many peoples.

[187]Fraser,Aborigines of New South Wales, p. 25; Roth,l.c.p. 71.

[188]Steinen,Unter den Naturvölkern Central-Brasiliens, p. 72; Mallery,l.c.p. 307.

[189]Mallery,l.c.pp. 311, 312. That the gesture-language of the North American Indians is to be explained as a result of peculiar geographical conditions was remarked already by Dugald Stewart,Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind, iii. pp. 19-22.

[190]Cf. the interesting descriptions of Maori political meetings in Earle,New Zealand, p. 91; Shortland,Traditions of the New Zealanders, p. 171.

[191]Home,Elements of Criticism, i. p. 435.

[192]For an appreciation of pantomimic action as means of conveying religious feelings see Mr. Tylor’s description of the service in the deaf-dumb institution of Berlin,Early History of Mankind, p. 33.

[193]Mallery inRep. Bur. Ethnol.i. p. 370.

[194]Von den Steinen,Unter den Naturvölkern Central-Brasiliens, p. 244.

[195]Mallery inRep. Bur. Ethnol.i. p. 370. Cf. also Mallery,l.c.x. (1888-89), (Picture-writing of the N.A. Indians). That the pictographic elements to a large extent have been influenced by the manual signs was remarked already in 1836 by Rafinesque. Cf. Brinton,The Lenape, p. 152, where the merits and the priority of this peculiar author are vindicated.

[196]Groos,Die Spiele der Menschen, p. 406.

[197]For examples of pictorial art subservient to such purely practical purposes see Mallery,l.c.x. pp. 329-375.

[198]Im Thurn,Primitive Games, pp. 273, 275.

[199]Roth,N.W.C. Queensland Aborigines, pp. 117, 118. Oldfield (“The Aborigines of Australia,” inTrans. Ethnol. Soc.N.S. iii. p. 257) describes a Watchandie pantomime, imitating the proceedings of the white man in hunting whales, and composed by an old native who had some time before visited the coast.

[200]Wilson and Felkin,Uganda, ii. p. 45. For imitations of the white man in dramatic dances see also Lander,Clapperton’s Last Expedition, i. pp. 120, 121; Cook,Voyage Towards the South Pole(2 Voy.), i. p. 368.

[201]Cook,Voyage Towards the South Pole(2 Voy.), i. p. 356 (Huaheine).

[202]Levertin,Fars och farsörer, p. 78, especially the quotation from Chappuy’s “L’avare cornu” (1580).

[203]For songs describing the incidents in a travel see Batchelor,The Ainu, pp. 123, 124; Chamisso, in Kotzebue’sReisen, iii. p. 67 (Radack); Woods,Native Tribes, pp. 38, 39 (Taplin, “The Narrinyeri”); Grey,Journals, ii. p. 253; Polack,New Zealanders, ii. pp. 167, 168. On current events as subjects of primitive poetry cf. Bonwick,Tasmanians, p. 29; Kingsley,Travels, p. 66, (Bubis); Curr,Australian Race, iii. p. 169 (Mathew,Mary River Natives); Metz,Neilgherry Hills, p. 30 (Todas); Ahlqvist,Acta Soc. Scient. Fenn.xiv. (“Wogulen und Ostjaken”); Day,Proceedings of the As. Soc.1870, p. 157 (Observ. on the Andamanese); Ehrenreich inZeitschrift für Ethnologie, xix. p. 32 (Botokudos); Erman,Travels in Siberia, ii. pp. 42, 43 (Ostyak songs and pantomimes).

[204]Cf. Bonwick,Daily Life and Origin of the Tasmanians, p. 29; Lenz,Skizzen aus West Afrika, pp. 110, 111 (Abongos); Schneider,Die Naturvölker, ii. p. 235, 236 (Interior Africa).

[205]Cf. Eyre,Expeditions into Central Australia, ii. p. 240; Cruickshank,Eighteen Years on the Gold Coast, ii. p. 266.

[206]St. John,Far East, i. p. 114 (Kayans of Baram); Petherick,Egypt, p. 130 (Hassanyeh Arabs); Mollien,Travels, p. 74 (Joloffs).

[207]Woods,l.c.pp. 38, 39 (Taplin, “The Narrinyeri”). Cf. the solos in the Atiu canoe-song, describing the guns of Captain Cook. Gill,From Darkness to Light, p. 263. On the song of the Marshall Islanders describing the ships of the Russian expedition, the dresses of the sailors, etc., see Rienzi,Océanie, ii. p. 196.

[208]Varigny,Quatorze ans aux Iles Sandwich, pp. 18-23, particularly p. 19. A short reference to the same song can be found in Fornander,The Polynesian Race, ii. p. 171.

[209]Steinen,Unter den Naturvölkern, pp. 244sq., 248, 249.

[210]Hyades, inMission scientifique du Cap Horn, vii. p. 253.

[211]Martial,ibid.i. p. 214.

[212]Mr. Bridges’ unpublished work, quoted by Hyades,l.c.vii. p. 377.

[213]Cranz,Historie von Grönland, i. p. 292.

[214]Cranz,l.c.p. 229.

[215]Codrington,The Melanesians, pp. 47, 48; cf. Romilly,My Verandah in New Guinea, p. 87.

[216]Kleinschmidt, inJournal des Museum Godeffroy, xiv. 1879, p. 268. (“Reisen auf den Viti Inseln. Insel Vatu Lele”). Williams,Fiji, pp. 99, 142; Spencer,Descriptive Sociology, Division I. Nr. iii. p. 60.

[217]Letherman, inSmithsonian Report, 1855, pp. 295, 296 (The Navajo tribe).

[218]Cf. Matthews,Navaho Legends, pp. 22-26, where the assertions of Dr. Letherman are quoted and opposed.

[219]Cook. (1st)Voyage, p. 388; Lubbock,Prehistoric Times, p. 426; Spencer,Principles of Sociology, iii. p. 78.

[220]Schoolcraft,Indian Tribes, ii. p. xii.

[221]Schoolcraft,l.c.i. p. 18.

[222]Lubbock,l.c.p. 426.

[223]Kane,Wanderings, p. 179.

[224]Seeinfra, p. 175.

[225]With regard to the traditional art of the Australian natives compare Spencer and Gillen,Native Tribes, pp. 220sq.473, 485; Lloyd,Tasmania and Victoria, p. 466.

[226]Cf.e.g.Steinen,Durch Central Brasilien, pp. 266, 267, on a Yuruna dance.

[227]Cf. Bourke,Scatologic Rites, p. 25.

[228]Bourke, “The Medicine-men of the Apache,” inRep. Bur. Ethnol.ix. 1887-88.

[229]Cf. Bourke,Scatologic Rites, pp. 6, 7, 64, and the author’sFörstudier till en konstfilosofi, pp. 114, 119.

[230]Bourke,The Snake-Dance of the Moquis, pp. 178, 179.

[231]Cf. the author’sSkildringar ur Pueblo folkens konstlif(The Art-life of the Pueblo-Indians),passim.

[232]Cf. Spencer,Principles of Sociology, i. p. 797.

[233]Cf. especially Fewkes, “The Snake Ceremonials at Walpi,” inJourn. American Ethnology and Archæology, vol. iv., especially pp. 119, 124.

[234]A detailed account of these prayers has been given inPueblo folkens konstlif, passim.

[235]Cf. Tylor,Prim. Culture, i. pp. 392sq.

[236]Mooney, inThe American Anthropologist, iii. pp. 108, 109 (“The Cherokee Ball-Play”).

[237]Groos,Die Spiele der Menschen, pp. 246, 247.

[238]Réclus,Les Primitifs, p. 356. For some unmistakable examples of myths secondary to the corresponding rites see Spencer and Gillen,Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 443.

[239]Cf. Abercromby,Pre-and Proto-historic Finns, i. pp. 358, 359, ii. p. 41.

[240]Erman,Travels, ii. pp. 50, 51.

[241]Lubbock,Origin of Civilisation, pp. 356sq.

[242]Cf. Kingsley,Travels, p. 473. On the difficulty of deciding whether a given piece of sculpture is to be interpreted as an idol or as a merely memorial portrait, see Brinton,Report upon the Collections, etc., p. 33.

[243]Schweinfurth,Artes Africanæ, pl. viii. f. 5; Cruickshank,Eighteen Years on the Gold Coast, ii. pp. 270, 271; Schmeltz,Ethnol. Abtheil. des Mus. Godeffroy, p. 241.

[244]Codrington,The Melanesians, pp. 173, 174. The same views have been expressed by Finsch,Ethnologische Erfahrungen, pp. 255-257;Samoafahrten, pp. 47-49, 75, 175.

[245]Polack,New Zealand, i. pp. 115, 116, 236, 237; Robley,Moko, pp. 88sq.Cf. about “Moko”-tattooing as a means of recognising individuals, living or dead, Robley,l.c.pp. 131, 146, 147, 159.

[246]Andree,Ethnographische Parallelen, i. pp. 258-261. The remarks of Herr Andree have been emphatically supported by von den Steinen,Unter den Naturvölkern Central Brasiliens, p. 244; cf. also Hoffman,Ethnographic Observations, in U.S. Geol. and Geogr. Survey, 1876, especially p. 475.

[247]Im Thurn,Indians of Guiana, pp. 403-410. On similar grounds the application of Herr Andree’s theory to the North American Petroglyphs has been opposed by Mallery, inRep. Bur. Ethnol.x. pp. 28, 29 (“Picture-writing of the American Indians”).

[248]Svoboda, inArchiv für Ethnographie, v. pp. 162, 163. Cf. also Meyer,Bilderschriften des Ostindischen Archipels, p. 1.

[249]Cf. Grey,Journals, ii. p. 310.

[250]As typical illustrations of this class of legends we may instance the Polynesian poems quoted by Fornander,The Polynesian Race, ii. 12-19, 284-286.

[251]Cf. pp. 160, 161, in the preceding, and Gill,From Darkness to Light, pp. 248-264.

[252]See Ellis,Polynesian Researches, i. p. 286; iv. pp. 79, 101, 105; Pritchard,Polynesian Reminiscences, p. 125; Polack,New Zealanders, ii. p. 167; and, above all, the collection of traditional war-poetry from the Hervey Group, published by Gill inFrom Darkness to Light.

[253]Cf. above, p. 165.

[254]Oviedo,Histoire des Indes, pp. 69, 70; Markham, in the Introduction to his translation ofOllanta, pp. 1, 2; Spencer,Descr. Soc.ii. pp. 13, 68, 70, 71; Forbes,Dahomey, ii. p. 13. On historical songs among the military tribes of Africa cf. also Shooter,The Kafirs, p. 268; Burton,Lake Regions, i. p. 263 (Wagogos). As regards the influence of war on early Arab poetry see Posnett,Comparative Literature, p. 133.

[255]Cf.e.g.the humble traditions of the Kubus, as quoted by Forbes,Wanderings, p. 243.

[256]Laing,Travels, p. 186 (Village Kamia); Dobrizhoffer,The Abipones, ii. pp. 430, 431.

[257]Parker,Aborigines of Australia, pp. 25, 26; Howitt inJourn. Anthr. Inst.xiii. pp. 453, 454 (Australian ceremonies of initiation), and Cameron in the same journal, xiv. p. 358 (Tribes of N.S. Wales); the last two instances quoted in Frazer,Totemism, p. 47. See also Fison, “The Nanga,” inJ. A. I.xiv., esp. p. 22, on an initiation ceremony in Fiji, representing the ancestors lying dead and coming to life again, which curiously resembles Collins’s description and pictures of an Australian initiation (Collins,N.S. Wales, i. p. 575). For a somewhat analogous drama in East Africa see Dale,Journ. Anthr. Inst.xxv. p. 189 (Bondi country). For interpretation of all these rites see Frazer,Totemism, p. 47; andThe Golden Bough, ii. pp. 343-359.

[258]Carver,Travels, pp. 175-180; Schoolcraft,Information, v. pp. 428sq.Both quoted by Frazer. To be compared with the initiation into the Secret Society of Nkimba—Ward inJourn. Anthr. Inst.xxiv. pp. 288, 289 (Congo tribes).

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