Chapter 33

[387]Johnston,British Central Africa, p. 408.[388]Kidd,Social Evolution, p. 279; cf. Spencer,Principles of Sociology, i. pp. 88, 89.[389]Johnstone,Maoria, p. 43.[390]Cf. Burton,Mission to Gelele, i. pp. 46, 51, 210, 267, 382; ii. p. 10; Forbes,Dahomey, i. p. 24.[391]Woods,Native Tribes, p. 37 (Taplin, “The Narrinyeri”).[392]Burton,Mission to Gelele, i. pp. 149, 150; Acosta,History of the Indies, ii. p. 444. For European trade dances see,e.g., Böhme,Tanz in Deutschland, i. pp. 63sq., 209.[393]Féré,Sensation et mouvement, p. 4.[394]Cf. Spencer,Principles of Sociology, i. p. 48.[395]Rengger,Saeugethiere von Paraguay, p. 12.[396]Cf. the facts adduced by Rengger,l.c.p. 11.[397]Salvado,Voyage en Australie, pp. 182, 183.[398]As regards the general psychology of musical and poetical exhortation to work cf. Chardin,Voyages, i. p. 160, quoted in Bücher’sArbeit und Rhythmus, pp. 48, 367. For typical instances see Reade,The African Sketch Book, ii. p. 313 (Krumen); Wissman,Unter deutschen Flagge, p. 43 (West African Carriers); Burton,Lake Regions, ii. p. 291 (East Africa); Grove,Dancing, p. 16 (Egypt); Turner,Nineteen Years in Polynesia, pp. 317, 345; Lewin,Wild Races, p. 271 (Lhoosai); Thomson,New Zealand, i. p. 167; Dieffenbach,New Zealand, ii. p. 57.[399]Cf. The satirical and erotic boat songs of the Gold Coast Negroes—Winterbottom,Africans of Sierra Leone, i. p. 112, and the historical and erotic ploughing songs of the ancient Peruvians—Markham,Ollanta, pp. 1, 2.[400]A collection of such working songs from among various civilised nations has been brought together by Professor Bücher in hisArbeit und Rhythmus.[401]Cf.e.g.the interesting chapter on mill songs in Bücher’s above-mentioned work. As an addendum to this collection we may adduce the corn-grinding song of the Mapuché women—Smith,The Araucanians, p. 306.[402]Noiré,Der Ursprung der Sprache, pp. 331sq.[403]Cf.e.g.Lenz,Skizzen aus Westafrica, pp. 198, 199, on the exciting effects exercised by tam-tam music on the Okandes.[404]See the boat-building songs of the Hervey Islanders (Gill,South Pacific, p. 22), which form so striking an analogy to the magical “Runos” of the old Finns. Cf. also Mason,Origins of Invention, p. 150 (Maoris).[405]Lagrange,Physiologie des exercises du corps, pp. 32-35; Souriau,L’esthétique du movement, pp. 58, 59.[406]Féré,Sensation et mouvement, p. 12.[407]Cf. the dynamogenic experiments of Féré,Sensation et mouvement, pp. 13, 14, and the remarks of Schmidkunz,Psychologie der Suggestion, p. 222.[408]Bücher,Arbeit und Rhythmus, p. 261; Polack,New Zealanders, i. p. 222; ii. pp. 31-32 (on the chiefs who, standing up in the canoes, direct the rowing with help of their spear-truncheons); Kollman,The Victoria Nyanza, p. 164 (Ussukuma).[409]Cf. pp. 87-91 in the preceding.[410]Spencer,Principles of Sociology, ii. pp. 271, 272.[411]Laing,Travels, pp. 252, 253; Brenner,Kannibalen Sumatras, p. 258; Shortland,Traditions and Superstitions of the New Zealanders, pp. 140, 144, 145, 150.[412]Vodskov,Sjæledyrkelse og Naturdyrkelse, pp. lxxix.-lxxxi.; Ratzel,Völkerkunde, I. Einleitung, p. 89.[413]On songs and dances connected with boating see Muller,Industrie des Cafres, p. 47; Burton,Gorilla Land, i. pp. 166, 167; Spencer,Descr. Soc.Div. i. Nr. 3, p. 62 (Javanese); Angas,Savage Life, i. p. 102 (Australia, canoe dance of the Rufus); Smyth,Victoria, i. pp. 174, 175 (Australian canoe dance); Rienzi,Océanie, iii. p. 159 (New Zealand), and the facts collected by Bücher,Arbeit und Rhythmus, pp. 180-191.[414]Bücher,l.c.pp. 200-202.[415]Spencer,Principles of Sociology, i. pp. 553-555, 567-574.[416]Mitchell,The Past in the Present, p. 192; Groos,Die Spiele der Menschen, pp. 435, 437.[417]Cf. Wallaschek inInternational Congress of Psychology, 2nd Session, p. 75.[418]Cf.e.g.Lafitau,Mœurs des sauvages, i. p. 522 (“Les Iroquois, et les autres sauvages leurs voisins”); Powers,Tribes of California, p. 29 (Karok).[419]Cf. Forbes,Dahomey, ii. p. 61. Mr. Forbes’s admiration for the discipline and order displayed in the mass movements will be well understood by all who witnessed the Dahomeyan dances performed at the Crystal Palace in the summer season 1893.[420]Thomson,New Zealand, i. pp. 126, 127; Earle,New Zealand, p. 70; Mundy,Our Antipodes, pp. 129, 183; Shortland,Trad. and Superst. of the New Zealanders, pp. 150-152.[421]Cruise,New Zealand, pp. 30, 31.[422]Bidwill,Rambles in New Zealand, pp. 81, 82.[423]On ensemble and exact time in dancing cf. Cook, (1st)Voyage, pp. 206-208 (Tahiti); (3rd)Voyage, i. p. 188 (Wateoo), pp. 247, 248, 255 (Hapaee); Ellis,Pol. Res.i. p. 215; Marques inBoletim, etc., viii. p. 59 (Samoa); Reeves,Brown Men and Women, p. 158 (Samoa); Williams,Fiji, p. 142; Kleinschmidt inJourn. d. Mus. Godeffroy, xiv. p. 268 (Fiji); Lütke,Voyage, i. p. 383 (Ualan. Caroline Islands); Tetens and Kubary inJourn. d. Mus. Godeffroy, ii. p. 23 (Yap, Caroline Islands); Hernsheim,Sudsee-Erinnerungen, p. 34 (Yap).The same virtues have also been admired in Australian dancing. Seee.g.Fraser,Aborigines of N.S. Wales, p. 66; Smyth,Victoria, i. p. 168; ii. p. 294; Woods,Native Tribes, pp. xxxii., xxxiii., 272. Cf. also Dalton,Ethnology of Bengal, pp. 254, 255 (Oráons); Lewin,Wild Races, p. 227 (Kumis); p. 313 (Shendoos).[424]Fritsch,Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas, p. 91 (Ama Xosa); Casalis,The Basutos, p. 147 (Kaffir and Basuto dance).[425]Fritsch,l.c.p. 328. The authority of Herr Fritsch gives sufficient credit to this assertion, although it is in direct opposition to the statement of Kolbe,Reise, pp. 530, 531. Herr Fritsch’s account of Hottentot dancing is, moreover, in substantial agreement with Sparrman’s description,Resa, i. pp. 375, 376.[426]Cf. with regard to the employment of horns, drums, pipes, etc., as military signals, Wallaschek,Primitive Music, pp. 88, 99, 100, 104, 111-113.[427]See, for instance, the descriptions of Khond warfare in Spencer,Descriptive Sociology, Division I. Nr. 5, p. 17 (quoting Campbell,Khondistan, p. 42), and the reflections of Mr. Bidwill on Maori courage as dependent upon musical and saltatory stimulation,Rambles in New Zealand, pp. 82, 83. As these instances refer to tribes which have been noted for the personal bravery which they develop when excited, the need of artificial excitement must be far stronger among timid tribes.[428]Cf. the acute reflections of Cook, (1st)Voyage, p. 344.[429]Beecham,Ashanti, p. 211; Schoolcraft,Information, i. pp. 79, 80 (Dacotas); Wood,Nat. Hist. of Man, i. p. 116 (Kaffir war medicine).[430]Kubary on Micronesian war tattooings in Joest,Tätowiren, p. 80.[431]Mann inTrans. Ethn. Soc.N. S. v. p. 295 (Kaffirs); Livingstone,Miss. Travels, pp. 198, 199 (Makololo dance demonstration as a preparation to an intended fight); Schoolcraft,Information, iv. p. 62 (Dacotas dance when they come in the neighbourhood of the enemy’s country); Schomburgk,Guiana, ii. (Macusis); Cook, (1st)Voyage, pp. 467, 468, and Angas,Savage Life, i. pp. 328, 329 (Maoris); Cahusac,La danse, i. p. 108, on the ancient Ethiopians, quoting Lukianos.Ethnological literature affords numberless descriptions of dances performed as an exercise to battle. As in the present connection we have only to deal with means of stimulation, which immediately precede the real action, all these instances are not to the point.[432]Carver,Travels, pp. 174, 175; Schoolcraft,Information, iii. p. 187, quoting Colden (of 1747) on the Iroquois; Acosta,History of the Indies, ii. p. 444 (Peru); cf. also Lang,Australia, p. 29; Blumentritt,Filippinen, p. 16 (Tagal excitement during the performance of war-pantomimes).[433]Heckewelder,Hist. of the Indian Nations, p. 209; Schoolcraft,Informationii. p. 59 (N.A. Indians in general); v. pp. 526, 684 (Chippewas and Comanches); Morgan,Iroquois, pp. 268, 339; Burton,City of the Saints, p. 177 (Prairie Indians); Casalis,The Basutos, pp. 334, 335; Czervinski,Geschichte des Tanzes, pp. 251, 252 (Hungary).[434]Joest,Weltfahrten, ii. pp. 160, 161. On a similar institution among the Negroes see Mantegazza,Physiologie des Hasses, p. 318.[435]Grey,Journals, ii. p. 303; cf. also Calvert,Western Australia, p. 32; Salvado,Voyage, p. 182.[436]Sproat,Scenes and Studies, p. 190.[437]Cf. especially the quotations from Dupuis in Spencer,Descr. Soc.Division I. Nr. 4, p. 47 (Ashantis); Ellis,Pol. Res.i. p. 287 (Tahiti); Cook, (1st)Voyage, p. 344 (New Zealand).[438]Dobrizhoffer,The Abipones, ii. pp. 366, 367, 422-424, 427; Thomson,New Zealand, i. pp. 126, 169.[439]Dobrizhoffer,l.c.pages adduced above; Steinen,Durch Central-Brazilien, p. 175, cf. also p. 165.[440]Cf. Dobrizhoffer,l.c.ii. pp. 376, 385sq.[441]Cf. Ellis,Pol. Res.i. p. 286 (Tahiti); Spencer,Descr. Soc.Division I. Nr. 3, p. 15 (Fiji); Thomson,New Zealand, i. p. 128; Pritchard,Pol. Rem.p. 56; Wood,Nat. Hist. of Man, ii. pp. 58, 59, 280, 356 (Australia, Fiji, Samoa).How great a part of the boastful expressions of contempt for the enemy plays in the warfare of the American tribes can be seen from Heriot,Travels, p. 449 (Iroquois). Cf. also Eyre,Expeditions into Central Australia, ii. p. 224; Schweinfurth,Im Herzen von Afrika, ii. p. 25 (Niam Niam); Shooter,The Kafirs, pp. 197-199; Wood,Nat. Hist. of Man, i. p. 581 (Cammas).[442]Wood,Nat. Hist. of Man, i. p. 581. A typical and instructive example of undangerous warfare on the Marshall Islands is described by Finsch inEthnologische Erfahrungen, p. 392.[443]Bidwill,Rambles in New Zealand, p. 81; cf. Cook, (3rd)Voyage, pp. 161, 162.[444](Maning),Old New Zealand, p. 49; Polack,New Zealanders, i. p. 88; ii. pp, 166, 167.[445]Polack,l.c.i. p. 28.[446]Richardson,Arctic Expedition, i. p. 356; Bancroft,Native Races, i. p. 68.[447]Angas,Savage Life, ii. pp. 149, 150; Wood,Nat. Hist. of Man, ii. pp. 161, 162.[448]Macpherson,Memorials of Service in India, p. 79.[449]Cf. Grosse,Anfänge der Kunst, pp. 58-60.[450]Wuttke,Geschichte der Schrift, p. 74, quoting Silius Italicus, Aelianus, and Valerius Maximus. Further quotations adduced in Farrer,Military Manners and Customs, pp. 222-224. Cf. also Letourneau,La guerre, p. 153.[451]Cf. the remarks of Wood inNat. Hist. of Man, ii. p. 599.[452]Clavigero,The History of Mexico, i. p. 371.[453]As to magical paintings on banners, standards, and shields, see Hein,Die bildenden Künste bei den Dayaks auf Borneo, pp. 71, 72. Cf. also the old Slavonic traditions related by Nagele inZeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie, xvii. p. 278 (Der Schlangen-Cultus).[454]Joest,Tätowiren, p. 20; Polack,New Zealanders, i. p. 28 (Tahiti deformations of the skull).[455]Bancroft,Native Races, i. pp. 101, 105 (Thlinkeets).[456]Romilly,My Verandah, p. 42; Finsch,Samoafahrten, p. 91, Atlas, Tafel xxii.;Ethnologische Erfahrungen, p. 99 (Motu, New Guinea), p. 243 (Kaiser Wilhelms Land, New Guinea), p. 630 (Bismarck-Archipel). Some fine specimens to be seen in the British Museum.[457]In later times, however, the Dyaks have begun to avail themselves for this purpose of the hair of their deceased. Cf. Hein,Die Bildenden Künste bei den Dayaks, p. 74.[458]Hein,Die Bildenden Künste bei den Dayaks auf Borneo, p. 85.[459]Marryat,Borneo, pp. 14, 15, 74-76; Selenka,Sonnige Welten, pp. 80, 81.[460]Hein,l.c.p. 19.[461]For detailed arguments on this point see the author’sFörstudier till en konstfilosofi, chap, iv., “On Gracefulness.”[462]Cf. the illustrations in Hamilton’sThe Art Workmanship of the Maori Race.[463]Earle,New Zealand, pp. 160, 161; cf. also Johnstone,Maoria, p. 50.[464]Cf. especially the specimens translated in Schoolcraft,Information, ii. pp. 59sq.[465]See the specimens of leather, bone, and textile works preserved in ethnological collections, especially in Musée de Trocadéro, Paris.[466]Cf. Posnett,Comparative Literature, p. 133.[467]Spencer,Principles of Sociology, vol. i. p. 102; Lang,Myth, Ritual, and Religion, i. pp. 94-100; Frazer,The Golden Bough, i. pp. 9-12, 193-206. For further instructive instances see Ellis,Eẃe Peoples, pp. 98, 99;Tshi Peoples, pp. 108, 109; Curr,Australian Race, i. pp. 45-48; Woods,Native Tribes, pp. 23-26 (Facts referring to Polynesia and Australia); Kotzebue,Entdeckungsreise, ii. p. 20 (Hawaji); Dieffenbach,New Zealand, ii. p. 59; Musters,Patagonia, p. 12 (Tehuelches).[468]See literature on the Couvade, and on the precautions to be observed by men who expect to become fathers. We cannot here dwell on the interesting theories, according to which totemistic doctrines and regulations ought to be interpreted as based upon the conception of a quite material substratum, connecting for eternity with each other all individuals and generations of the same family. However fantastic they may have appeared, the probability of these views has undeniably been increased by the publication of those hitherto unknown details of Australian ceremonialism that have been brought to light by Messrs. Spencer and Gillen. But in questions like these it seems almost impossible to discriminate between symbolical ideas and actions on the one hand, and magical practices based on a real belief on the other.[469]Cf. Andree,Ethnographische Parallelen, Neue Folge, p. 46; Hartland,The Legend of Perseus, ii. p. 267.[470]Cf. Rochas,L’extériorisation de la sensibilité, pp. 117-139.[471]Ibid.p. 72.[472]For the most illustrious and at the same time most lucid statement of this analogy see the remarks of Milton in the preface toSamson Agonistes.[473]Cf. the curious instances and interpretations in Brière,Essai sur le symbolisme, pp. 38-41.[474]For dramatic elements in the ceremonies of rain-making, see Frazer,The Golden Bough, i. pp. 13-18, 20; Bérenger-Féraud,Superstitions et survivances, i. chap. viii.; iii. pp. 177-207; Grimm,Teutonic Mythology, pp. 593-595 (vol. ii.); Lang,Myth, Ritual, and Religion, i. pp. 97, 98; ii. p. 78. Further instances in Roth,N. W. C. Queensland, pp. 167, 168; Woods,Native Tribes, pp. 276-278 (Gason, “Dieyerie Tribe”); Williams,Fiji, p. 194; Dalton,Ethnology of Bengal, p. 261 (Oraons); Skeat,Malay Magic, p. 108; Weston inJourn. Anthr. Inst.xxvi. p. 30 (Highlands of Central Japan); Stevenson inRep. Bur. Ethn.1889-90, pp. 80, 94, 110, 111, 115, 116 (The Sia); Ralston,Songs of the Russian People, pp. 227, 228; Bonghi,Römische Feste, p. 181. Equally interesting is the curious kind of negative magic that is practised by the Javanese “rain preventers.” SeeGlimpses of the Eastern Archipelago, pp. 68-70 (J. Kreemer, “Rain Preventers”).[475]Frazer,The Golden Bough, i. pp. 22, 23; Grove,Dancing, p. 85; Ralston,Songs of the Russian People, pp. 186-188, 243sq.[476]Grimm,Teutonic Mythology, pp. 764-772 (vol. ii.); Ralston,l.c.pp. 210, 244-246; Zacher, “Kampf des Sommers und Winters,” inGlobus, xxxi. pp. 266-269, 284-286.[477]Bérenger-Féraud,l.c.v. pp. 177-266; Hartland,The Legend of Perseus, i. pp. 173, 174; Soldi,La langue sacrée, p. 317 (France); Powers,Tribes of California, p. 169 (The Senel).[478]Selenka,Sonnige Welten, pp. 429-431 (Sinhalese); Fraser,Aborigines of New South Wales, p. 65.[479]That the priests who in dance and drama impersonate a god are considered—and perhaps also consider themselves—as embodiments of this god is a view the probability of which is borne out by many details of religious ritualism. If definite proofs are wanted we need only refer to the express statements of the Zuñi Indians as related by Mrs. Stevenson,Rep. Bur. Ethn.1889-90, p. 116 (Stevenson, “The Sia”); 1883-84, p. 549 (Stevenson, “Religious Life of the Zuñi Child”).[480]Fairer,Primitive Manners and Customs, pp. 65, 66. This view may of course also be applied to the interpretation of “pictorial prayers,” such ase.g.the wonderful sand-mosaics of the Pueblo Indians.[481]Collins,The English Colony of N.S. Wales, i. p. 367.[482]As regards this almost universal practice see the collection of instances in Tylor,Early History, pp. 277-279; andPrimitive Culture, ii. p. 146; Peschel,Völkerkunde, p. 274; Stoll,Suggestion und Hypnotismus, pp. 166, 167. Further instructive instances in Brinton,Nagualism, p. 11 (Modern Mexico); Castréu,Nordiska Resor.i. p. 137 (Russian Lapps); Casalis,The Basutos, p. 280; Lumholtz,Among Cannibals, p. 281 (Australia). Winterbottom,Native Africans of Sierra Leone, i. pp. 252, 253, adduces some ethnological examples, and refers for comparison to Paracelsus.[483]Bérenger-Féraud,Superst. et surviv.i. pp. 523-540; cf. also Gaidoz,Un vieux rite medical, pp. 73-84.[484]Nyrop, “Kludetraedet” inDania, i., particularly pp. 21-23; cf. alsoDania, i. p. 310; iii. pp. 139-141.[485]Lenormant,Magie und Wahrsagekunst der Chaldäer, p. 73; Rochas,L’extériorisation de la sensibilité, pp. 74-113 (rich collection of instances referring to savage tribes, to mediæval Europe, and to modern folklore); further instances in Skeat,Malay Magic, pp. 569-574; Romilly,Western Pacific, p. 35 (New Britain); Selenka,Sonnige Welten, p. 215 (Japan). That this crude superstition has been at the bottom of many ceremonies which, from our point of view, appear purely symbolical is shown by the curious death-sentences on absent criminals—to be executed in effigy, “jusqu’à mort s’en suive”—which M. Tarde has unearthed from among the old law-proceeds of Périgord. Tarde,Études pénales et sociales, p. 241.[486]Cf. as to dolls representing the corn spirits, Frazer,The Golden Bough, i. pp. 332-346.[487]Haddon inJourn. Anthr. Inst.xix. p. 427 (Tribe of Torres Strait; Models of Dugong used as charms to attract the fishes); Woldt inArch, für Ethnographie, i. p. 106 (Kultusgegenstände der Golden und Giljaken; sculptures of fishes used for the same purpose by the Golds); Spencer, quoting Motolinia,Descr. Soc.Div. ii. Nr. 2, p. 39 (similar customs among the old Azteks).[488]Cf. especially the Sinhalese masks representing the symptoms of various diseases as exhibited in the Museum für Völkerkunde in Berlin.[489]On images of children worn by barren women in order to remove sterility see Binger,Du Niger, ii. p. 230 (Agnis, Wolofs); Casalis,The Basutos, p. 251; Taylor,Te Ika a Maui, p. 213; Powers,Tribes of California, p. 318 (Nishinam). In this connection we may also refer to the bird-shaped amulets of the North American Indians, which by some authors have been explained as emblematic of maternity. Cf. Abbott,Primitive Industry, p. 370. Whether they also have been thought of as possessing a magical efficacy is, however, impossible to decide.[490]Guaita,Sciences maudites, ii., i. p. 185.[491]Raffles,History of Java, i. pp. 375, 376. For a similar reasoning cf. Skeat,Malay Magic, pp. 23, 24.[492]Bock,Temples and Elephants, p. 245.[493]Rochas,L’extériorisation de la sensibilité, p, 101.[494]Cf.e.g.Gooneratne inJourn. Ceylon Branch R. Asiatic Soc.1865, 1866, p. 71 (Demonology in Ceylon); Skeat,Malay Magic, pp. 45, 571. The same combination of the two classes of magic, as applied to a medical cure, is instanced by Walhouse inJourn. Anthr. Inst.iv. p. 372 (Account of a leaf-wearing tribe).[495]Cf. Ellis,Yoruba Peoples, pp. 99, 278;Tshi Peoples, pp. 98, 101, 176, 195.[496]Schurtz inAbhandlungen d. Sächs. Ges. d. Wissensch.Ph. Cl. xv. p. 52, quoting De Clercq en Schmeltz,Nieuw Guinea, p. 185. For an interesting analogy see De Landa,Relation des causes de Yucatan, p. 199.[497]Schurtz,l.c.p. 47. Cf. with regard to other means of animating idols by contact, Brenner,Kannibalen Sumatras, pp. 225, 226; Pleyte Wzn inGlobus, lx. p. 289 (Religiöse Anschaungen der Bataks).[498]Matthews, The Mountain Chant, inRep. Bur. Ethn.1883, 1884, especially pp. 426, 427.[499]Cf. the Kalmuck tales quoted in Stoll,Suggestion und Hypnotismus, p. 31.[500]Cf. Lucretius,De rerum natura, iv. vv. 1-1035.[501]Cf. the facts collected by Réclus in his pamphlet,L’âme comme souffle, ombre et reflet, and by Frazer inThe Golden Bough, i. pp. 143-149.[502]Rochas,L’extériorisation de la sensibilité, p. 103.[503]Andree,Ethnographische Parallelen, Neue Folge, p. 19.[504]Cf. Ellis,Eẃe-speaking Peoples, p. 98.[505]Cf. as the perhaps most typical example, Matthews, “The Prayer of a Navajo Shaman,” inThe American Anthropologist, i. (1888).[506]Cf.e.g.Svoboda,Gesch. d. Ideale, i. pp. 495, 496.[507]Cf. the theories of Réclus and Svoboda referred to in p. 217, note 4, of the preceding.[508]Cf.e.g.the typical instances of Naga funeral ceremonies described by Dalton inEthnology of Bengal, p. 40.[509]This interpretation seems to be indicatede.g.in the case of the rope-pulling at Chukma funerals (Lewin,Wild Races, p. 185). As to the use of tugs of war for purposes of agricultural magic cf. Haddon,The Study of Man, pp. 270-276.

[387]Johnston,British Central Africa, p. 408.

[388]Kidd,Social Evolution, p. 279; cf. Spencer,Principles of Sociology, i. pp. 88, 89.

[389]Johnstone,Maoria, p. 43.

[390]Cf. Burton,Mission to Gelele, i. pp. 46, 51, 210, 267, 382; ii. p. 10; Forbes,Dahomey, i. p. 24.

[391]Woods,Native Tribes, p. 37 (Taplin, “The Narrinyeri”).

[392]Burton,Mission to Gelele, i. pp. 149, 150; Acosta,History of the Indies, ii. p. 444. For European trade dances see,e.g., Böhme,Tanz in Deutschland, i. pp. 63sq., 209.

[393]Féré,Sensation et mouvement, p. 4.

[394]Cf. Spencer,Principles of Sociology, i. p. 48.

[395]Rengger,Saeugethiere von Paraguay, p. 12.

[396]Cf. the facts adduced by Rengger,l.c.p. 11.

[397]Salvado,Voyage en Australie, pp. 182, 183.

[398]As regards the general psychology of musical and poetical exhortation to work cf. Chardin,Voyages, i. p. 160, quoted in Bücher’sArbeit und Rhythmus, pp. 48, 367. For typical instances see Reade,The African Sketch Book, ii. p. 313 (Krumen); Wissman,Unter deutschen Flagge, p. 43 (West African Carriers); Burton,Lake Regions, ii. p. 291 (East Africa); Grove,Dancing, p. 16 (Egypt); Turner,Nineteen Years in Polynesia, pp. 317, 345; Lewin,Wild Races, p. 271 (Lhoosai); Thomson,New Zealand, i. p. 167; Dieffenbach,New Zealand, ii. p. 57.

[399]Cf. The satirical and erotic boat songs of the Gold Coast Negroes—Winterbottom,Africans of Sierra Leone, i. p. 112, and the historical and erotic ploughing songs of the ancient Peruvians—Markham,Ollanta, pp. 1, 2.

[400]A collection of such working songs from among various civilised nations has been brought together by Professor Bücher in hisArbeit und Rhythmus.

[401]Cf.e.g.the interesting chapter on mill songs in Bücher’s above-mentioned work. As an addendum to this collection we may adduce the corn-grinding song of the Mapuché women—Smith,The Araucanians, p. 306.

[402]Noiré,Der Ursprung der Sprache, pp. 331sq.

[403]Cf.e.g.Lenz,Skizzen aus Westafrica, pp. 198, 199, on the exciting effects exercised by tam-tam music on the Okandes.

[404]See the boat-building songs of the Hervey Islanders (Gill,South Pacific, p. 22), which form so striking an analogy to the magical “Runos” of the old Finns. Cf. also Mason,Origins of Invention, p. 150 (Maoris).

[405]Lagrange,Physiologie des exercises du corps, pp. 32-35; Souriau,L’esthétique du movement, pp. 58, 59.

[406]Féré,Sensation et mouvement, p. 12.

[407]Cf. the dynamogenic experiments of Féré,Sensation et mouvement, pp. 13, 14, and the remarks of Schmidkunz,Psychologie der Suggestion, p. 222.

[408]Bücher,Arbeit und Rhythmus, p. 261; Polack,New Zealanders, i. p. 222; ii. pp. 31-32 (on the chiefs who, standing up in the canoes, direct the rowing with help of their spear-truncheons); Kollman,The Victoria Nyanza, p. 164 (Ussukuma).

[409]Cf. pp. 87-91 in the preceding.

[410]Spencer,Principles of Sociology, ii. pp. 271, 272.

[411]Laing,Travels, pp. 252, 253; Brenner,Kannibalen Sumatras, p. 258; Shortland,Traditions and Superstitions of the New Zealanders, pp. 140, 144, 145, 150.

[412]Vodskov,Sjæledyrkelse og Naturdyrkelse, pp. lxxix.-lxxxi.; Ratzel,Völkerkunde, I. Einleitung, p. 89.

[413]On songs and dances connected with boating see Muller,Industrie des Cafres, p. 47; Burton,Gorilla Land, i. pp. 166, 167; Spencer,Descr. Soc.Div. i. Nr. 3, p. 62 (Javanese); Angas,Savage Life, i. p. 102 (Australia, canoe dance of the Rufus); Smyth,Victoria, i. pp. 174, 175 (Australian canoe dance); Rienzi,Océanie, iii. p. 159 (New Zealand), and the facts collected by Bücher,Arbeit und Rhythmus, pp. 180-191.

[414]Bücher,l.c.pp. 200-202.

[415]Spencer,Principles of Sociology, i. pp. 553-555, 567-574.

[416]Mitchell,The Past in the Present, p. 192; Groos,Die Spiele der Menschen, pp. 435, 437.

[417]Cf. Wallaschek inInternational Congress of Psychology, 2nd Session, p. 75.

[418]Cf.e.g.Lafitau,Mœurs des sauvages, i. p. 522 (“Les Iroquois, et les autres sauvages leurs voisins”); Powers,Tribes of California, p. 29 (Karok).

[419]Cf. Forbes,Dahomey, ii. p. 61. Mr. Forbes’s admiration for the discipline and order displayed in the mass movements will be well understood by all who witnessed the Dahomeyan dances performed at the Crystal Palace in the summer season 1893.

[420]Thomson,New Zealand, i. pp. 126, 127; Earle,New Zealand, p. 70; Mundy,Our Antipodes, pp. 129, 183; Shortland,Trad. and Superst. of the New Zealanders, pp. 150-152.

[421]Cruise,New Zealand, pp. 30, 31.

[422]Bidwill,Rambles in New Zealand, pp. 81, 82.

[423]On ensemble and exact time in dancing cf. Cook, (1st)Voyage, pp. 206-208 (Tahiti); (3rd)Voyage, i. p. 188 (Wateoo), pp. 247, 248, 255 (Hapaee); Ellis,Pol. Res.i. p. 215; Marques inBoletim, etc., viii. p. 59 (Samoa); Reeves,Brown Men and Women, p. 158 (Samoa); Williams,Fiji, p. 142; Kleinschmidt inJourn. d. Mus. Godeffroy, xiv. p. 268 (Fiji); Lütke,Voyage, i. p. 383 (Ualan. Caroline Islands); Tetens and Kubary inJourn. d. Mus. Godeffroy, ii. p. 23 (Yap, Caroline Islands); Hernsheim,Sudsee-Erinnerungen, p. 34 (Yap).The same virtues have also been admired in Australian dancing. Seee.g.Fraser,Aborigines of N.S. Wales, p. 66; Smyth,Victoria, i. p. 168; ii. p. 294; Woods,Native Tribes, pp. xxxii., xxxiii., 272. Cf. also Dalton,Ethnology of Bengal, pp. 254, 255 (Oráons); Lewin,Wild Races, p. 227 (Kumis); p. 313 (Shendoos).

The same virtues have also been admired in Australian dancing. Seee.g.Fraser,Aborigines of N.S. Wales, p. 66; Smyth,Victoria, i. p. 168; ii. p. 294; Woods,Native Tribes, pp. xxxii., xxxiii., 272. Cf. also Dalton,Ethnology of Bengal, pp. 254, 255 (Oráons); Lewin,Wild Races, p. 227 (Kumis); p. 313 (Shendoos).

[424]Fritsch,Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas, p. 91 (Ama Xosa); Casalis,The Basutos, p. 147 (Kaffir and Basuto dance).

[425]Fritsch,l.c.p. 328. The authority of Herr Fritsch gives sufficient credit to this assertion, although it is in direct opposition to the statement of Kolbe,Reise, pp. 530, 531. Herr Fritsch’s account of Hottentot dancing is, moreover, in substantial agreement with Sparrman’s description,Resa, i. pp. 375, 376.

[426]Cf. with regard to the employment of horns, drums, pipes, etc., as military signals, Wallaschek,Primitive Music, pp. 88, 99, 100, 104, 111-113.

[427]See, for instance, the descriptions of Khond warfare in Spencer,Descriptive Sociology, Division I. Nr. 5, p. 17 (quoting Campbell,Khondistan, p. 42), and the reflections of Mr. Bidwill on Maori courage as dependent upon musical and saltatory stimulation,Rambles in New Zealand, pp. 82, 83. As these instances refer to tribes which have been noted for the personal bravery which they develop when excited, the need of artificial excitement must be far stronger among timid tribes.

[428]Cf. the acute reflections of Cook, (1st)Voyage, p. 344.

[429]Beecham,Ashanti, p. 211; Schoolcraft,Information, i. pp. 79, 80 (Dacotas); Wood,Nat. Hist. of Man, i. p. 116 (Kaffir war medicine).

[430]Kubary on Micronesian war tattooings in Joest,Tätowiren, p. 80.

[431]Mann inTrans. Ethn. Soc.N. S. v. p. 295 (Kaffirs); Livingstone,Miss. Travels, pp. 198, 199 (Makololo dance demonstration as a preparation to an intended fight); Schoolcraft,Information, iv. p. 62 (Dacotas dance when they come in the neighbourhood of the enemy’s country); Schomburgk,Guiana, ii. (Macusis); Cook, (1st)Voyage, pp. 467, 468, and Angas,Savage Life, i. pp. 328, 329 (Maoris); Cahusac,La danse, i. p. 108, on the ancient Ethiopians, quoting Lukianos.Ethnological literature affords numberless descriptions of dances performed as an exercise to battle. As in the present connection we have only to deal with means of stimulation, which immediately precede the real action, all these instances are not to the point.

Ethnological literature affords numberless descriptions of dances performed as an exercise to battle. As in the present connection we have only to deal with means of stimulation, which immediately precede the real action, all these instances are not to the point.

[432]Carver,Travels, pp. 174, 175; Schoolcraft,Information, iii. p. 187, quoting Colden (of 1747) on the Iroquois; Acosta,History of the Indies, ii. p. 444 (Peru); cf. also Lang,Australia, p. 29; Blumentritt,Filippinen, p. 16 (Tagal excitement during the performance of war-pantomimes).

[433]Heckewelder,Hist. of the Indian Nations, p. 209; Schoolcraft,Informationii. p. 59 (N.A. Indians in general); v. pp. 526, 684 (Chippewas and Comanches); Morgan,Iroquois, pp. 268, 339; Burton,City of the Saints, p. 177 (Prairie Indians); Casalis,The Basutos, pp. 334, 335; Czervinski,Geschichte des Tanzes, pp. 251, 252 (Hungary).

[434]Joest,Weltfahrten, ii. pp. 160, 161. On a similar institution among the Negroes see Mantegazza,Physiologie des Hasses, p. 318.

[435]Grey,Journals, ii. p. 303; cf. also Calvert,Western Australia, p. 32; Salvado,Voyage, p. 182.

[436]Sproat,Scenes and Studies, p. 190.

[437]Cf. especially the quotations from Dupuis in Spencer,Descr. Soc.Division I. Nr. 4, p. 47 (Ashantis); Ellis,Pol. Res.i. p. 287 (Tahiti); Cook, (1st)Voyage, p. 344 (New Zealand).

[438]Dobrizhoffer,The Abipones, ii. pp. 366, 367, 422-424, 427; Thomson,New Zealand, i. pp. 126, 169.

[439]Dobrizhoffer,l.c.pages adduced above; Steinen,Durch Central-Brazilien, p. 175, cf. also p. 165.

[440]Cf. Dobrizhoffer,l.c.ii. pp. 376, 385sq.

[441]Cf. Ellis,Pol. Res.i. p. 286 (Tahiti); Spencer,Descr. Soc.Division I. Nr. 3, p. 15 (Fiji); Thomson,New Zealand, i. p. 128; Pritchard,Pol. Rem.p. 56; Wood,Nat. Hist. of Man, ii. pp. 58, 59, 280, 356 (Australia, Fiji, Samoa).How great a part of the boastful expressions of contempt for the enemy plays in the warfare of the American tribes can be seen from Heriot,Travels, p. 449 (Iroquois). Cf. also Eyre,Expeditions into Central Australia, ii. p. 224; Schweinfurth,Im Herzen von Afrika, ii. p. 25 (Niam Niam); Shooter,The Kafirs, pp. 197-199; Wood,Nat. Hist. of Man, i. p. 581 (Cammas).

How great a part of the boastful expressions of contempt for the enemy plays in the warfare of the American tribes can be seen from Heriot,Travels, p. 449 (Iroquois). Cf. also Eyre,Expeditions into Central Australia, ii. p. 224; Schweinfurth,Im Herzen von Afrika, ii. p. 25 (Niam Niam); Shooter,The Kafirs, pp. 197-199; Wood,Nat. Hist. of Man, i. p. 581 (Cammas).

[442]Wood,Nat. Hist. of Man, i. p. 581. A typical and instructive example of undangerous warfare on the Marshall Islands is described by Finsch inEthnologische Erfahrungen, p. 392.

[443]Bidwill,Rambles in New Zealand, p. 81; cf. Cook, (3rd)Voyage, pp. 161, 162.

[444](Maning),Old New Zealand, p. 49; Polack,New Zealanders, i. p. 88; ii. pp, 166, 167.

[445]Polack,l.c.i. p. 28.

[446]Richardson,Arctic Expedition, i. p. 356; Bancroft,Native Races, i. p. 68.

[447]Angas,Savage Life, ii. pp. 149, 150; Wood,Nat. Hist. of Man, ii. pp. 161, 162.

[448]Macpherson,Memorials of Service in India, p. 79.

[449]Cf. Grosse,Anfänge der Kunst, pp. 58-60.

[450]Wuttke,Geschichte der Schrift, p. 74, quoting Silius Italicus, Aelianus, and Valerius Maximus. Further quotations adduced in Farrer,Military Manners and Customs, pp. 222-224. Cf. also Letourneau,La guerre, p. 153.

[451]Cf. the remarks of Wood inNat. Hist. of Man, ii. p. 599.

[452]Clavigero,The History of Mexico, i. p. 371.

[453]As to magical paintings on banners, standards, and shields, see Hein,Die bildenden Künste bei den Dayaks auf Borneo, pp. 71, 72. Cf. also the old Slavonic traditions related by Nagele inZeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie, xvii. p. 278 (Der Schlangen-Cultus).

[454]Joest,Tätowiren, p. 20; Polack,New Zealanders, i. p. 28 (Tahiti deformations of the skull).

[455]Bancroft,Native Races, i. pp. 101, 105 (Thlinkeets).

[456]Romilly,My Verandah, p. 42; Finsch,Samoafahrten, p. 91, Atlas, Tafel xxii.;Ethnologische Erfahrungen, p. 99 (Motu, New Guinea), p. 243 (Kaiser Wilhelms Land, New Guinea), p. 630 (Bismarck-Archipel). Some fine specimens to be seen in the British Museum.

[457]In later times, however, the Dyaks have begun to avail themselves for this purpose of the hair of their deceased. Cf. Hein,Die Bildenden Künste bei den Dayaks, p. 74.

[458]Hein,Die Bildenden Künste bei den Dayaks auf Borneo, p. 85.

[459]Marryat,Borneo, pp. 14, 15, 74-76; Selenka,Sonnige Welten, pp. 80, 81.

[460]Hein,l.c.p. 19.

[461]For detailed arguments on this point see the author’sFörstudier till en konstfilosofi, chap, iv., “On Gracefulness.”

[462]Cf. the illustrations in Hamilton’sThe Art Workmanship of the Maori Race.

[463]Earle,New Zealand, pp. 160, 161; cf. also Johnstone,Maoria, p. 50.

[464]Cf. especially the specimens translated in Schoolcraft,Information, ii. pp. 59sq.

[465]See the specimens of leather, bone, and textile works preserved in ethnological collections, especially in Musée de Trocadéro, Paris.

[466]Cf. Posnett,Comparative Literature, p. 133.

[467]Spencer,Principles of Sociology, vol. i. p. 102; Lang,Myth, Ritual, and Religion, i. pp. 94-100; Frazer,The Golden Bough, i. pp. 9-12, 193-206. For further instructive instances see Ellis,Eẃe Peoples, pp. 98, 99;Tshi Peoples, pp. 108, 109; Curr,Australian Race, i. pp. 45-48; Woods,Native Tribes, pp. 23-26 (Facts referring to Polynesia and Australia); Kotzebue,Entdeckungsreise, ii. p. 20 (Hawaji); Dieffenbach,New Zealand, ii. p. 59; Musters,Patagonia, p. 12 (Tehuelches).

[468]See literature on the Couvade, and on the precautions to be observed by men who expect to become fathers. We cannot here dwell on the interesting theories, according to which totemistic doctrines and regulations ought to be interpreted as based upon the conception of a quite material substratum, connecting for eternity with each other all individuals and generations of the same family. However fantastic they may have appeared, the probability of these views has undeniably been increased by the publication of those hitherto unknown details of Australian ceremonialism that have been brought to light by Messrs. Spencer and Gillen. But in questions like these it seems almost impossible to discriminate between symbolical ideas and actions on the one hand, and magical practices based on a real belief on the other.

[469]Cf. Andree,Ethnographische Parallelen, Neue Folge, p. 46; Hartland,The Legend of Perseus, ii. p. 267.

[470]Cf. Rochas,L’extériorisation de la sensibilité, pp. 117-139.

[471]Ibid.p. 72.

[472]For the most illustrious and at the same time most lucid statement of this analogy see the remarks of Milton in the preface toSamson Agonistes.

[473]Cf. the curious instances and interpretations in Brière,Essai sur le symbolisme, pp. 38-41.

[474]For dramatic elements in the ceremonies of rain-making, see Frazer,The Golden Bough, i. pp. 13-18, 20; Bérenger-Féraud,Superstitions et survivances, i. chap. viii.; iii. pp. 177-207; Grimm,Teutonic Mythology, pp. 593-595 (vol. ii.); Lang,Myth, Ritual, and Religion, i. pp. 97, 98; ii. p. 78. Further instances in Roth,N. W. C. Queensland, pp. 167, 168; Woods,Native Tribes, pp. 276-278 (Gason, “Dieyerie Tribe”); Williams,Fiji, p. 194; Dalton,Ethnology of Bengal, p. 261 (Oraons); Skeat,Malay Magic, p. 108; Weston inJourn. Anthr. Inst.xxvi. p. 30 (Highlands of Central Japan); Stevenson inRep. Bur. Ethn.1889-90, pp. 80, 94, 110, 111, 115, 116 (The Sia); Ralston,Songs of the Russian People, pp. 227, 228; Bonghi,Römische Feste, p. 181. Equally interesting is the curious kind of negative magic that is practised by the Javanese “rain preventers.” SeeGlimpses of the Eastern Archipelago, pp. 68-70 (J. Kreemer, “Rain Preventers”).

[475]Frazer,The Golden Bough, i. pp. 22, 23; Grove,Dancing, p. 85; Ralston,Songs of the Russian People, pp. 186-188, 243sq.

[476]Grimm,Teutonic Mythology, pp. 764-772 (vol. ii.); Ralston,l.c.pp. 210, 244-246; Zacher, “Kampf des Sommers und Winters,” inGlobus, xxxi. pp. 266-269, 284-286.

[477]Bérenger-Féraud,l.c.v. pp. 177-266; Hartland,The Legend of Perseus, i. pp. 173, 174; Soldi,La langue sacrée, p. 317 (France); Powers,Tribes of California, p. 169 (The Senel).

[478]Selenka,Sonnige Welten, pp. 429-431 (Sinhalese); Fraser,Aborigines of New South Wales, p. 65.

[479]That the priests who in dance and drama impersonate a god are considered—and perhaps also consider themselves—as embodiments of this god is a view the probability of which is borne out by many details of religious ritualism. If definite proofs are wanted we need only refer to the express statements of the Zuñi Indians as related by Mrs. Stevenson,Rep. Bur. Ethn.1889-90, p. 116 (Stevenson, “The Sia”); 1883-84, p. 549 (Stevenson, “Religious Life of the Zuñi Child”).

[480]Fairer,Primitive Manners and Customs, pp. 65, 66. This view may of course also be applied to the interpretation of “pictorial prayers,” such ase.g.the wonderful sand-mosaics of the Pueblo Indians.

[481]Collins,The English Colony of N.S. Wales, i. p. 367.

[482]As regards this almost universal practice see the collection of instances in Tylor,Early History, pp. 277-279; andPrimitive Culture, ii. p. 146; Peschel,Völkerkunde, p. 274; Stoll,Suggestion und Hypnotismus, pp. 166, 167. Further instructive instances in Brinton,Nagualism, p. 11 (Modern Mexico); Castréu,Nordiska Resor.i. p. 137 (Russian Lapps); Casalis,The Basutos, p. 280; Lumholtz,Among Cannibals, p. 281 (Australia). Winterbottom,Native Africans of Sierra Leone, i. pp. 252, 253, adduces some ethnological examples, and refers for comparison to Paracelsus.

[483]Bérenger-Féraud,Superst. et surviv.i. pp. 523-540; cf. also Gaidoz,Un vieux rite medical, pp. 73-84.

[484]Nyrop, “Kludetraedet” inDania, i., particularly pp. 21-23; cf. alsoDania, i. p. 310; iii. pp. 139-141.

[485]Lenormant,Magie und Wahrsagekunst der Chaldäer, p. 73; Rochas,L’extériorisation de la sensibilité, pp. 74-113 (rich collection of instances referring to savage tribes, to mediæval Europe, and to modern folklore); further instances in Skeat,Malay Magic, pp. 569-574; Romilly,Western Pacific, p. 35 (New Britain); Selenka,Sonnige Welten, p. 215 (Japan). That this crude superstition has been at the bottom of many ceremonies which, from our point of view, appear purely symbolical is shown by the curious death-sentences on absent criminals—to be executed in effigy, “jusqu’à mort s’en suive”—which M. Tarde has unearthed from among the old law-proceeds of Périgord. Tarde,Études pénales et sociales, p. 241.

[486]Cf. as to dolls representing the corn spirits, Frazer,The Golden Bough, i. pp. 332-346.

[487]Haddon inJourn. Anthr. Inst.xix. p. 427 (Tribe of Torres Strait; Models of Dugong used as charms to attract the fishes); Woldt inArch, für Ethnographie, i. p. 106 (Kultusgegenstände der Golden und Giljaken; sculptures of fishes used for the same purpose by the Golds); Spencer, quoting Motolinia,Descr. Soc.Div. ii. Nr. 2, p. 39 (similar customs among the old Azteks).

[488]Cf. especially the Sinhalese masks representing the symptoms of various diseases as exhibited in the Museum für Völkerkunde in Berlin.

[489]On images of children worn by barren women in order to remove sterility see Binger,Du Niger, ii. p. 230 (Agnis, Wolofs); Casalis,The Basutos, p. 251; Taylor,Te Ika a Maui, p. 213; Powers,Tribes of California, p. 318 (Nishinam). In this connection we may also refer to the bird-shaped amulets of the North American Indians, which by some authors have been explained as emblematic of maternity. Cf. Abbott,Primitive Industry, p. 370. Whether they also have been thought of as possessing a magical efficacy is, however, impossible to decide.

[490]Guaita,Sciences maudites, ii., i. p. 185.

[491]Raffles,History of Java, i. pp. 375, 376. For a similar reasoning cf. Skeat,Malay Magic, pp. 23, 24.

[492]Bock,Temples and Elephants, p. 245.

[493]Rochas,L’extériorisation de la sensibilité, p, 101.

[494]Cf.e.g.Gooneratne inJourn. Ceylon Branch R. Asiatic Soc.1865, 1866, p. 71 (Demonology in Ceylon); Skeat,Malay Magic, pp. 45, 571. The same combination of the two classes of magic, as applied to a medical cure, is instanced by Walhouse inJourn. Anthr. Inst.iv. p. 372 (Account of a leaf-wearing tribe).

[495]Cf. Ellis,Yoruba Peoples, pp. 99, 278;Tshi Peoples, pp. 98, 101, 176, 195.

[496]Schurtz inAbhandlungen d. Sächs. Ges. d. Wissensch.Ph. Cl. xv. p. 52, quoting De Clercq en Schmeltz,Nieuw Guinea, p. 185. For an interesting analogy see De Landa,Relation des causes de Yucatan, p. 199.

[497]Schurtz,l.c.p. 47. Cf. with regard to other means of animating idols by contact, Brenner,Kannibalen Sumatras, pp. 225, 226; Pleyte Wzn inGlobus, lx. p. 289 (Religiöse Anschaungen der Bataks).

[498]Matthews, The Mountain Chant, inRep. Bur. Ethn.1883, 1884, especially pp. 426, 427.

[499]Cf. the Kalmuck tales quoted in Stoll,Suggestion und Hypnotismus, p. 31.

[500]Cf. Lucretius,De rerum natura, iv. vv. 1-1035.

[501]Cf. the facts collected by Réclus in his pamphlet,L’âme comme souffle, ombre et reflet, and by Frazer inThe Golden Bough, i. pp. 143-149.

[502]Rochas,L’extériorisation de la sensibilité, p. 103.

[503]Andree,Ethnographische Parallelen, Neue Folge, p. 19.

[504]Cf. Ellis,Eẃe-speaking Peoples, p. 98.

[505]Cf. as the perhaps most typical example, Matthews, “The Prayer of a Navajo Shaman,” inThe American Anthropologist, i. (1888).

[506]Cf.e.g.Svoboda,Gesch. d. Ideale, i. pp. 495, 496.

[507]Cf. the theories of Réclus and Svoboda referred to in p. 217, note 4, of the preceding.

[508]Cf.e.g.the typical instances of Naga funeral ceremonies described by Dalton inEthnology of Bengal, p. 40.

[509]This interpretation seems to be indicatede.g.in the case of the rope-pulling at Chukma funerals (Lewin,Wild Races, p. 185). As to the use of tugs of war for purposes of agricultural magic cf. Haddon,The Study of Man, pp. 270-276.

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