Special Foods
The articleFlour and Flour Manufacture(Vol. 10, p. 548), by George F. Zimmer, not only describes the processes of milling and of dressing and bleaching the flour, but also gives the history of milling from the earliest times, and deals with the special customs of different countries. There is a very full articleBread(Vol. 4, p. 465), by the same contributor. It is not generally known that there are in existence remains of cakes made by the Swiss lake-dwellers in the Stone Age. The author says that, in all probability, they were baked on hot stones. The machine bakeries of the present day are described; and there are sections on sanitation of bakehouses, quality, flavour and colour of flour, baking powders, methods of dough making (the ferment-and-dough, the sponge-and-dough, and other systems), leavened, unleavened and aerated bread, and the recently invented Apostolov process, which among other advantages, permits the utilization of about 87½% of the wheat berry in bread making. A complete modern bread-making plant is described, together with the latest types of machine kneaders, dough dividers and mixers, and baking ovens. There are also articles onBiscuit(Vol. 3, p. 992),Macaroni(Vol. 17, p. 192),Vermicelli(Vol. 27, p. 1024), andGluten(Vol. 12, p. 145).
The articleStarch(Vol. 25, p. 794) treats of the manufacture of this most important alimentary substance. The materials from which the chief food starches are made are described inMaize(Vol. 7, p. 448),Arrowroot(Vol. 2, p. 649), with illustrations showing the appearance under the microscope of the substances which pass commercially under the name of arrowroot or farina;Sago(Vol. 23, p. 1003),Tapioca(Vol. 26, p. 413), andCassava(Vol. 5, p. 457).Oat(Vol. 19, p. 938) has information about the manufacture of oatmeal.
The articleSugar(Vol. 26, p. 35) is by two practical experts, Alfred and Valentine W. Chapman. It deals with the chemistry, manufacture, history and statistics of this important food product as well as with the cultivation of the sugar cane and beet.
Among articles on the products in the manufacture of which sugar is employed isJams and Jellies(Vol. 15, p. 150), by Otto Hehner. The author points out many things of interest, for example why starch-glucose is an ingredient and not an adulterant of these products, and he shows the baselessness of the prejudice against the use of beet sugar in their manufacture. The manufacturer of jellies and preserves will find separate articles on all the fruits employed, and other information inGelatin(Vol. 11, p. 554); inIrish Moss(Vol. 14, p. 795) as to the properties of vegetable gelatin; and inIsinglass(Vol. 14, p. 872), which, besides its gelatinous qualities, possesses the property of clarifying wines, beers, and other liquids.Confectionery(Vol. 6, p. 898) describes an important industry—which until the middle of the 19th century was part of the druggist’s business. See alsoChocolate(Vol. 6, p. 259) andJujube(Vol. 15, p. 546).
Salt(Vol. 24, p. 87) covers the manufacture of salt very fully. It is curious to note that the termination “wich” in English place-names points to localities of ancient salt manufacture, for “wich” is an old English word meaning saltspring. This article contains an interesting section on theAncient History andReligious Symbolismof salt (p. 90), by the late Dr. William Robertson Smith. The preservative qualities of salt were held to make it a peculiarly fitting symbol of any enduring compact, and in more than one part of the world cakes of salt have been used as money.
Dairy Products
Butter and cheese manufacture fall under the articleDairy and Dairy Farming(Vol. 7, p. 737), illustrated, by the late Dr. William Fream, of Edinburgh University. There are sections onMilk Production;Cheese and Cheesemaking, including Canadian and American factory practice and the Babcock and Russell investigations in Wisconsin which have opened up a new field for commercial exploitation (the varieties of English, French, German, and Italian cheeses being also described);Butter and Butter-making,Dairy Factories,Adulteration of Dairy Produce;The Milk Trade,American Dairying, etc.Margarine, the “perfectly wholesome butter substitute” is the subject of a separate article (Vol. 17, p. 704).
There is an article onLard(Vol. 16, p. 214), showing what real leaf lard is, and how the term is applied in commerce.Oils(Vol. 20, p. 43), by Dr. Julius Lewkowitsch, author ofChemical Technology and Analysis of Oils, Fats, and Waxes, deals with the fixed oils and fats, and essential, etheral or volatile oils. Some of these are among the most important articles of food, and the oil and fat industry may be considered as old as the human race itself. The three processes of oil extraction are described, also refining and bleaching, methods of testing, etc. A list of all oils and fats, including those that are edible, is given. For the chief oils used as food seeOlive(Vol. 20, p. 85),Cotton,Cotton-seed(Vol. 7, p. 260),Sesame(Vol. 24, p. 701),Sunflower(Vol. 26, p. 102),Poppy Oil(Vol. 22, p. 91).
Other articles on foods deal with the preparation for the market of such products asGinger(Vol. 12, p. 27),Mustard(Vol. 19, p. 97),Pepper(Vol. 21, p. 127), with the different varieties distinguished,Cayenne Pepper(Vol. 5, p. 589),Vinegar(Vol. 28, p. 96),Pimento(Vol. 21, p. 614),Cloves(Vol. 6, p. 562),Cinnamon(Vol. 6, p. 376),Curry(Vol. 7, p. 649),Caviare(Vol. 5, p. 582), from which we learn that the finer grades rarely find their way out of Russia;Ketchup(Vol. 15, p. 761),Chutney(Vol. 6, p. 350),Pickle(Vol. 21, p. 584),Vanilla(Vol. 27, p. 894),Raisin(Vol. 22, p. 864),Currant(Vol. 7, p. 648),Prune(Vol. 22, p. 518),Fig(Vol. 10, p. 332), andGuava(Vol. 12, p. 665).
Beverages, Tea and Coffee
The same completeness is displayed in the Britannica articles on beverages.Tea(Vol. 26, p. 476), by John McEwan, has an admirable historical introduction. It was not until the middle of the 17th century that the English began to use tea. It is a curious fact that whereas 35 years ago China practically supplied the world with tea, to-day Russia alone takes half of her export. The reason for this is explained. The characteristics of all varieties of tea are given and the main facts about the cultivation and manufacture.Tea AdulterationandEffects on Healthare other sections of this valuable article.
Coffee(Vol. 6, p. 646) is treated in very similar fashion by A. B. Rendle and W. G. Freeman. This beverage, in spite of fierce religious opposition, became the national beverage of the Arabians, and finally appeared in Europe in the 17th century. The physiological action of coffee has a section all to itself. Coffee consumption, roasting and adulteration are also discussed. It is of interest to note that while one branch of the Anglo-Saxon race, namely the people of the United States, is near the head of the list of coffee consumers, others, especially Great Britain, Canada and Australia “are almost at the foot, using only about1 lb. of coffee per head each year.” In the United States “the average consumption per head is about 11 or 12 lbs. per annum.”
Cocoa(Vol. 6, p. 628) is an interesting and valuable article on “the food of the gods”—the great beverage and dietary substance which America has given the world. Modern lovers of chocolate as a beverage (which is the same as cocoa save that the fat has not been extracted) will envy the digestive powers of the Emperor Montezuma of Mexico who had, each day, 50 jars of chocolate prepared for his personal consumption.
Beer(Vol. 3, p. 642), by Dr. Philip Schidrowitz, member of the Institute of Brewery Council, confines itself to the history of this important beverage, the chemical composition of beers of different types, and information in regard to production and consumption. InBrewing(Vol. 4, p. 506) this same author enters very fully into the manufacturing operations. The English and foreign systems are described and there are many illustrations. It is curious to note that Pliny, who is the earliest writer to mention beer, describes it as scorned by the Romans, who looked upon it as only fit for barbarians, and he thought it a more sinful drink than wine. “So exquisite,” he says, “is the cunning of mankind in gratifying their vicious appetites, that they have invented a method to make water itself produce intoxication.” The section onBrewing Chemistryis very valuable. In connection with Brewing there is an article onMalt(Vol. 17, p. 499), illustrated and very complete in its treatment, by Arthur R. Ling, editorJournal of the Institute of Brewing, and one onHop(Vol. 13, p. 677), by the late Dr. Wm. Fream. Dr. Schidrowitz also contributes the articleWine(Vol. 28, p. 716). The art of wine-making is thoroughly described, and there are most interesting sections on the wines of France, Spain, Portugal, Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary, United States, classifying the different varieties and affording a full survey of the industry.
Spirits(Vol. 25, p. 694), illustrated, and also by Dr. Schidrowitz, is a general article covering the subject of the distillation of fermented saccharine and starchy liquids. The account is both historical and technical, and there are separate and more specific articles onBrandy(Vol. 4, p. 428),Rum(Vol. 23, p. 825),Arrack(Vol. 2, p. 642),Whisky(Vol. 28, p. 591), in which the difference between three main types—Scotch, Irish and American—is carefully explained;Vodka(Vol. 28, p. 170),Gin(Vol. 12, p. 26). The many flavoured and sweetened forms of alcohol are described in the articleLiqueurs(Vol. 16, p. 744), where we also learn the difference between a “cordial” and a “liqueur.” There are separate articles onAbsinthe(Vol. 1, p. 75),Benedictine(Vol. 3, p. 721),Chartreuse(Vol. 5, p. 954),Curaçoa(Vol. 7, p. 636),Kirsch(Vol. 15, p. 834), andVermouth(Vol. 27, p. 1029).
Mineral Waters(Vol. 18, p. 517) classifies all the great springs according to their mineral constituents, and discusses the effects upon digestion of their use, and their value in medical treatment.
The appended list includes a large number of articles of interest to the food producers, including chemical compounds and flavouring extracts.
For the insurance man, whether veteran or tyro, the newEncyclopaedia Britannicahas much of value and importance,and it has it in quickly available form so that the desired information may be readily found, whether the experienced student wants an authoritative statement on a difficult point, or the beginner wishes an outline course of the subject. This availability, whether for the expert or the novice, is secured by the Index (the 29th volume), which guides the reader immediately to desired information, if he does not find it in the alphabetically arranged articles in the body of the book upon first turning up the article in which he expects the subject to be treated.
To be more concrete—if you want to know something about insurance, turn first to the articleInsurancein Volume 14, beginning on p. 656. You find an elaborate article, which would occupy about 75 pages if printed in type and on a page like this Guide.
In other encyclopaediasyou would have no clue to the whereabouts of any information about insurance except what would be given in the articleInsuranceor in articles to which it might refer you in that article. For anything else you would have to guess how the editor’s mind had worked to find where in the book he had put other information about insurance; and to guess how each contributor’s mental processes have been related to his interest in insurance so that you might know whether in some article, on a topic apparently not related to insurance at all, the contributor had put in some interesting and important fact about insurance.
But in the Britannica you have one entire volume, the 29th, which was made for the sole purpose of increasing the practical efficiency of the other 28 volumes. Under the headingInsurancein this index, you will find references to many articles and cross references to Title Insurance and to Title Guarantee Companies.
Apart from the fact that he has the initialassurancethat what he gets from the Britannica in the first place is fuller and better than he would get from another work of reference, what are the advantages offered by the index in this particular instance?
First: Instead of having a reference to volume 14 only he has references to volumes 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27 and 28,—nineteen volumes in all,—say a gain of 1800% in efficiency.
Second: Instead of having one article Insurance to refer to, he has reference to specific information in the following articles:
That is, to 28 new articles,—say 2800% additional gain.
Observe, too, that this is a gain that cannot be expressed in figures. The index references are classified. First there is a main headInsurance; then subheads,Fire,Life,Marine,Title,Workmen’s; and under the subheads special topics arranged alphabetically.
In brief, the Index facilitates and accelerates reference to anything in the Britannica that bears on any desired topic.
The articleInsuranceopens with a definition of that word and with drawing a distinction between it and “assurance.” The general history of insurance traces marine insurance back to Greek commerce in the 4th century B.C., but shows that modern methods of marine insurance were unknown until the 14th century; that fire insurance dates from the 17th century and especially from the Great Fire of London in 1666; and that, although there were a few instances of life insurance in the 16th and 17th centuries, it did not become a regular business until the 18th century and was not widely extended until the 19th century. Separate sections of the article deal withCasualty(or accident) andMiscellaneous Insurance,Fire Insurance,Life Insurance,British Post Office Insurance, andMarine Insurance.
The section on British Post-Office Insurance will give to the American insurance man a knowledge of this innovation in the post-office to which the American post-office seems to be tending, if one may judge by the introduction of postal savings-banks and the adoption of the parcels-post system.
In the same way the articleOld Age Pensionswill make you acquainted with another radical measure which has been adopted in Great Britain, Germany, France, Denmark, Victoria and notably New Zealand, with fuller description in the articleNew Zealand. The importance of the subject to the American insurance man lies in the fact that similar schemes are under consideration or actual operation in Massachusetts, New Jersey, and other states of the United States. In the same way the article onEmployers LiabilityandWorkmen’s Insurancewill give him a wider grasp of the subject of state insurance, mandatory or elective, for workmen.
The principal articles on insurance topics have already been mentioned. It is to be noted, however, that the actuary will find important information in the mathematical articlesMensurationandProbability; that the articleFriendly Societiesis supplemented by such special articles asFree Masonry,B’nai Brith,Building Societies,Burial Societies,Odd Fellows, etc.
In theClassified List of Articlesin the Index Volume the student of insurance will find on page 893 a list of articles in the field of economics and social science, many of which will bear more or less directly on the subject. Among these articles and sub-articles are:
Although architecture is more and more coming to be recognized as one of the fine arts, it is at the same time so largely practical and utilitarian that its theory and methods may to a great extent be gathered from systematic reading. In the article Fine Arts in the Britannica, by Sir Sidney Colvin, it is well said that “The original or rudimentary type of the architect, considered not as a mere builder but as an artist, is the savage, who, when his tribe had taken to live in tents or huts instead of caves, first arranged the skins and timbers of his tent or hut in one way because it pleased his eye, rather than in some other way which was as good for shelter.” Whether the architect wishes to learn how the eye may be pleased, to study critically the history of architecture, or, like the less imaginative savage who failed of being the first inspired architect, to consider comfort and shelter rather than beauty and charm, he will find much to help him in the Britannica. If his interest is chiefly practical, he should consult the chapterFor Buildersin this Guide.
The architect should read first—and he will constantly be referring to it afterwards—the articleArchitecture(Vol. 2, p. 369), equivalent in length to 235 pages of this Guide and illustrated by 140 figures, about one-third of which are photogravures. The article is historical in the main and a brief outline of it is as follows:—
The part of the article dealing with Modern Architecture is by H. H. Statham author of a well-known book on the subject. Earlier sections are by R. Phené Spiers, late master of the Royal Academy’s Architectural School, with sections on the Romanesque and Gothic in France by W. R. Lethaby, principal of the Central (London County) School of Arts and Crafts.
Before continuing his more systematic historical readings the student may well read the articleHouse(Vol. 13, p. 810), illustrated with 12 figures (3 plates), including four particularly fine examples of “half timbered buildings,” and one English house, the Jew’s House at Lincoln, dating from the 12th century. An interesting article onMural Decoration(Vol. 19, p. 16) is by a remarkably distinguished trio: William Morris, poet, craftsman and painter, John Henry Middleton, late Slade professor of fine art, Cambridge, and Walter Crane, the well-known illustrator and decorator. This is illustrated with 16 figures in black and white and with a reproduction in colours of a wall-painting from a Roman villa of the early Empire. The article deals with: reliefs in marble and stone; marble veneer; glazed bricks or tiles; hard stucco; sgraffito; stamped leather; painted cloth; printed hangings and wall-papers; and painting.
If the student of architecture would know about the buildings of prehistoric times, in which there was little architecture in the sense of a fine art, he should read the articlesArchaeology, (Vol. 2, p. 344),Lake Dwellings(Vol. 16, p. 91),Stonehenge(Vol. 25, p. 961) andStone Monuments, Primitive(Vol. 25, p. 962),—the last two of particular interest to the building engineer because it is so puzzling a problem how these great blocks could have been brought such distances and set in place without modern appliances.
Early Oriental Architecture
Engineering problems will be the most interesting in a large part of the student’s reading about Egyptian architecture. Supplementing the 4,000 or 5,000 words on this subject underArchitecture, accompanied by seven illustrations, there is much information in the articlesEgypt(Vol. 9, p. 21);Abydos(Vol. 1, p. 81) andKarnak(Vol. 15, p. 680); and in the articlesPyramid(Vol. 22, p. 683), (by W. M. Flinders Petrie) andSphinx(Vol. 25, p. 662) by Francis Llewellyn Griffith, another well-known Egyptologist. In the former article the author points out that the outside and inside work on all the pyramids was excellent and that the casings were not a mere veneer but were “of massive blocks, usually greater in thickness than in height, and in some cases (as at South Dahshur) reminding the observer of horizontal leaves with sloping edges.” The massive character of the roofing of the sepulchral chambers is indicated by Prof. Petrie’s estimate that “in Pepi’s pyramid it is of three layers of stone beams, each deeper than their breadth, resting one on another, the thirty stones weighing more than 30 tons each.” But neither Stonehenge nor the pyramid was really an engineering problem. Here, and as in all his studies of early architecture, artist or engineer will find religion and worship the aim and the reason of the building even more, if that is possible,than in the great European cathedrals of comparatively recent times.
In the articleBabyloniaandAssyriathere is a brief section (Vol. 3, p. 108) onArt, supplementing the treatment underArchitecture. It is interesting to note that even in Assyria architecture was trammelled, reactionary, governed by Babylonian styles and using brick and clay because Babylon did, although there was stone in Assyria, and none in Babylonia; and keeping the heavy brick platform foundation which the Babylonian architects had adopted because of the marshy character of their country, although there was no need of such construction in Assyria. Here too the function of architecture was largely as an aid to religion: as shown in the articleNippur(Vol. 19, p. 707), with its description of the “ziggurat” or artificial mountain in the shrine, built probably 40 or 45 centuries B. C. One temple was 272 ft. square, with seven storeys, each smaller than the one below and thus surrounded by a terrace, each dedicated to a planet, each coloured a separate tint, the first probably 45 ft. high, and the total height 160 ft.
In Assyria great palaces of the 9th, 8th and 7th centuries B. C. have been found, and these are probably the earliest large buildings of any architectural importance not religious in their purpose; but this distinction must not be carried too far, for the king was sacrosanct, half priest and half god, and his palace was a shrine.
Greece and Rome
Although the main treatment of Greek and Roman architecture is in the articleArchitecture, the student should read the articlesGreek Art(Vol. 12, p. 470; equivalent to 70 pages in this Guide; written by Percy Gardner, author ofGrammar of Greek Art) andRoman Art(Vol. 23, p. 474; equivalent to 40 pages of this Guide; written by H. Stuart Jones, director of the British School at Rome). The article onGreek Artcontains 82 illustrations, many of them halftones. It makes clear the dependence of the other fine arts in Greece on architecture—and on religion—in showing that the greatest sculptures were adjuncts to temples, and (p. 471–472) in a discussion of the architecture of Greek temples calls attention to four basal principles of Greek architecture:
(1) Each member of the building has one function and only one, and this function controls even the decoration of that member. Pillars support architraves; their perpendicular flutings emphasize this. Moulding at a column’s base suggests the support of a great weight.
(2) Simple and natural relations prevailed between various members of a construction.
(3) Rigidity of simple lines is avoided; scarcely any outline is actually straight. Columns are not equidistant.
(4) Elaborate decoration is reserved for those parts of the temple which have, or seem to have, no strain laid upon them.
The articleTemple(Vol. 26, p. 603) gives plans and general information about Greek and Roman sacred architecture, as well as Hebrew, Egyptian and Assyrian temples; and the reader should study the articleParthenon(Vol. 20, p. 869) and the diagram in that article, and the articlePergamum(Vol. 21, p. 142) and the two plates which accompany it.
The articleRoman Art(Vol. 23, p. 474) is probably the first brief and authoritative treatment of a topic long overshadowed in popular interest by the earlier art of Greece and the later art of Italy. It begins with a history of recent research. Architecture, pre-eminently the most Roman of the arts as combining utility with beauty, is outlined (pp. 476–477 especially) and the main point in regard to Roman architecture is brought out as follows: “the specificachievement of the Roman architect was the artistic application of a new set of principles—those which are expressed in the arch, the vault and the dome,” as contrasted with the rectilinear buildings of the Greeks. The arch, particularly the triumphal arch, is specifically a Roman product and is specifically Roman besides in being an expression of reverence for governmental authority,—which, it should, however, be remembered, cannot be separated from religion. Among the most important of Roman sculptures and particularly reliefs are those of the arches, described in the articlesArch(Vol. 2, p. 342) andTriumphal Arch(Vol. 27, p. 297), the latter with eight figures. The part of the articleAqueductwhich deals with Roman aqueducts (Vol. 2, pp. 241–243, with 2 plates, 6 illustrations) will interest the architect as well as the contractor or engineer. And he should read the article on the Roman architect and writer on architecture,Vitruvius(Vol. 28, p. 150), whose book so strongly affected the Renaissance.
Before taking up modern architecture as distinguished from ancient, the student will do well to examine the architecture of some more remote peoples—for instance,
Modern Architecture
The last topic will serve as a transition to the modern architecture of Europe, especially because the influence of the Byzantine was so strong in the early church.
The study of the Italian Romanesque and Gothic in an elaborate section ofArchitecture(Vol. 2, p. 391) may well be supplemented by reading the articles on the Italian cities in which this art is preserved. The following list is roughly chronological, the cities named first being those in which there are the oldest churches.
In the same way, for Gothic in other countries, the student should read:
and in general, the articlesCathedral,Nave,Aisle,Choir,Apse,Chevet,Lady-Chapel,Vault,Flying Buttress,Pinnacle,ClerestoryandTriforium. The article Cathedral has plans of Canterbury, Salisbury, Durham, Ely, Chartres, Sens and Angoulême and a perspective of Amiens cathedral.
In the same way the student of the Renaissance architecture may supplement the section in the articleArchitecture(p. 408, etc.) by reference to the articles on the cities in which the great Renaissance buildings stand. But now “the career of the individual has to be taken into consideration,” so true is it that the Renaissance in architecture as in scholarship was intensely individualistic. The articleArchitecturepoints this out and in this section is largely biographical in its treatment. The reader should study the following separate articles also
For this period, less individual than in Italy, the reader will find it best to study the geographical articles. Let him read