William the ConquerorWilliam RufusHenry IStephen and MatildaHenry II
William I, “The Conqueror” (Vol.28, p. 659), by H. W. Carless Davis of Oxford, author ofEngland under the Normans and Angevins;Hereward(Vol. 13, p. 363), by J. H. Round, author ofFeudal England, etc.;Feudalism(Vol. 10, p. 297), by Prof. George Burton Adams, Yale University, author ofPolitical History of England, 1066–1216, etc.;Domesday Book(Vol. 8, p. 398), by J. H. Round;William II, “Rufus” (Vol. 28, p. 661) andLanfranc(Vol. 16, p. 169), both by H. W. Carless Davis;Anselm(Vol. 2, p. 81);Henry I(Vol. 13, p. 279),Stephen(Vol. 25, p. 881),Matilda(Vol. 17, p. 888),Henry II(Vol. 13, p. 281),Becket, Thomas(Vol. 3, p. 608),Richard I, “Coeur de Lion” (Vol. 23, p. 294), all by H. W. Carless Davis.
John Henry III Edward I to III
In connection with the third section of the articleEnglish Historydealing with the struggle for constitutional liberty from 1199 to 1337 (Vol. 9, pp. 486–501) the following supplementary articles are among the many to which the student should turn:John(Vol. 15, p. 439), andLangton, Stephen(Vol. 16, p. 178), both by H. W. Carless Davis;Magna Carta(Vol. 16, p. 314), by A. W. Holland, late scholar of St. John’s, Oxford;Henry III(Vol. 13, p. 282),Pembroke(Vol. 21, p. 78),Montfort, Simon de(Vol. 18, p. 781),Evesham(Vol. 10, p. 10);Edward I(Vol. 8, p. 991–993), by Prof. T. F. Tout, University of Manchester, author ofEdward I;Mortmain(Vol. 18, p. 880);Westminster, Statutes of(Vol. 28, p. 551);Edward II(Vol. 8, p. 993);Lancaster, HenryandThomas, Earls of(Vol. 16, pp. 144 and 148);Despenser, Hugh Le(Vol. 8, p. 101);Mortimerfamily (Vol. 18, p. 879); andEdward III(Vol. 8, p. 994).
Richard II Henry IV to VI
On the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453) and contemporary history, see the section inEnglish History(Vol. 8, pp. 501–516); the articleHundred Years’ War(Vol. 13, p. 893), by Jules Viard, archivist of the National Archives, Paris;Sluys, Battle of(Vol. 25, p. 246), by D. Hannay, author ofShort History of the Royal Navy;Crécy(Vol. 7, p. 389);Poitiers, Battle of(Vol. 21, p. 898);Edward, The Black Prince(Vol. 8, p. 999), by Prof. Tout;Wycliffe(Vol. 28, p. 866), by R. Lane Poole, author ofWycliffe and Movements for Reform, and W. Alison Phillips, author ofModern Europe, etc.;Lancaster, John of Gaunt, Duke of(Vol. 16, p. 146), by C. Lethbridge Kingsford, biographer of Henry V;Richard II(Vol. 23, p. 295), also by C. L. Kingsford;Tyler, Wat(Vol. 27, p. 495);Ball, John(Vol. 3, p. 263);Lollards(Vol. 16, p. 929), by Dr. T. M. Lindsay, author ofHistory of the Reformation;Gloucester, Thomas, Duke of(Vol. 12, p. 130);Norfolk, Thomas Mowbray, Duke of(Vol. 19, p. 742);Henry IV(Vol. 13, p. 283), by C. L. Kingsford;Glendower, Owen(Vol. 12, p. 120);Northumberland(Vol. 19, p. 787);Henry V(Vol. 13, p. 284) andOldcastle, Sir John(Vol. 20, p. 66), by C. L. Kingsford;Agincourt(Vol. 1, p. 375);Henry VI(Vol. 13, p. 285) andGloucester, Humphrey, Duke of(Vol. 12, p. 129), both by C. L. Kingsford;Bedford John, Duke of(Vol. 3, p. 616);Joan of Arc(Vol. 15, p. 520), by Prof. J. T. Shotwell of Columbia University and Hugh Chisholm, editor-in-chief of the Encyclopaedia Britannica;Beaufortfamily (Vol. 3, p. 585);Cade, John(Vol. 4, p. 927).
Edward IV and VRichard IIIHenry VII
On the fifth period of English history, read section 5,The Wars of the Roses (1453–1497)in the articleEnglishHistory(Vol. 9, pp. 516–525); the separate article,Roses, Wars of the(Vol. 23, p. 735); and the articles:York, House of(Vol. 28, p. 924), andLancaster, House of(Vol. 16, p. 143), both by James Gairdner, author ofThe Houses of Lancaster and York, etc.;York, Richard, Duke of(Vol. 28, p. 926),Warwick, Richard Neville, Earl of(Vol. 28, p. 339),Edward IV(Vol. 8, p. 996),Margaret of Anjou(Vol. 17, p. 702),Clarence, George, Duke of(Vol. 6, p. 428),Edward V(Vol. 8, p. 996),Richard III(Vol. 23, p. 296), andBuckingham, Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of(Vol. 4, p. 726), all by C. L. Kingsford;Henry VII(Vol. 13, p. 286), by James Gairdner, author ofThe Houses of Lancaster and York, and biographer of Henry VII;Warbeck, Perkin(Vol. 28, p. 316).
Henry VIII Edward VI Mary Elizabeth
The sixth section of the articleEnglish History, dealing with the years 1497–1528 (Vol. 9, pp. 525–530), should be supplemented by the latter part of James Gairdner’s article onHenry VIIand by the articles:Reformation(Vol. 23, p. 4), by Prof. James Harvey Robinson, Columbia University, author ofHistory of Western Europe, etc.;Henry VIII(Vol. 13, p. 287) andFox, Richard(Vol. 10, p. 766), both by Prof. A. F Pollard;Wolsey, Thomas(Vol. 28, p 779);Catherine of Aragon(Vol. 5 p. 529) andBoleyn, Anne(Vol. 4, p. 159), by P. C. Yorke, Oxford;Cromwell Thomas(Vol. 7, p. 499);Cranmer Thomas(Vol. 7, p. 375);Fisher, John(Vol. 10, p. 427), by Rev. E. L. Taunton, author ofThe English Black Monks of St. Benedict, etc.;More, Sir Thomas(Vol. 18, p. 822), by Mark Pattison, late rector of Lincoln College, Oxford;Howard, Catherine(Vol. 13, p. 832);Parr, Catherine(Vol. 20, p. 861);Norfolk, Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of(Vol. 19, p. 743);Askew, Anne(Vol. 2, p. 762), by A. F. Pollard;Edward VI(Vol. 8, p. 996);Somerset, Edward Seymour, Duke of(Vol. 25, p. 386);Northumberland, John Dudley, Earl of Warwick, and Duke of(Vol. 19, p. 788);Grey, Lady Jane(Vol. 12, p. 590);Mary I(Vol. 17, p. 814) andGardiner, Stephen(Vol. 11, p. 460), both by James Gairdner;Wyat, Sir Thomas(Vol. 28, p. 862);Pole, Cardinal(Vol. 21, p. 974), by E. L. Taunton;Ridley, Nicholas(Vol. 23, p. 320);Latimer, Hugh(Vol. 16, p. 242), by T. F. Henderson, author ofMary Queen of Scots and the Casket Letters;Elizabeth(Vol. 9, p. 282);Mary Queen of Scots(Vol. 17, p. 817), by A. C. Swinburne;Norfolk, Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of(Vol. 19, p. 744);Armada(Vol. 2, p. 560);Hawkins, Sir Richard(Vol. 13, p. 99);Drake, Sir Francis(Vol. 8, p. 473);Raleigh, Sir Walter(Vol. 22, p. 869);Leicester, Robert Dudley, Earl of(Vol. 16, p. 390);Essex, Robert Devereux, Earl of(Vol. 9, p. 782);Bacon, Francis(Vol. 3, p. 135), by Prof. Robert Adamson of Glasgow, and J. Malcolm Mitchell, University of London;Burghley, William Cecil, Baron(Vol. 4, p. 816); and—for this whole period the articleEngland, Church of(Vol. 9, especially pp. 447–448), by William Hunt, author ofHistory of the English Church.
James I Charles I The Commonwealth Charles II James II
The seventh part of the articleEnglish History(Vol. 9, pp. 535–542) deals with theStuart Monarchy, the Great Rebellion and the Restoration (1603–1689). From the great wealth of supplementary material in the Britannica on this interesting period, at least the following articles should be selected:StewartorStuartfamily (Vol. 12, p. 911);James I(Vol. 15, p. 136);GunpowderPlot(Vol. 12, p. 727);Bible, English(Vol. 3, p. 894);Salisbury, Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of(Vol. 24, p. 76);Buckingham, George Villiers, 1st Duke of(Vol. 4, p. 722);Thirty Years’ War(Vol. 26, p. 852);Charles I(Vol. 5, p. 906) andLaud, William(Vol. 16, p. 276), both by P. Chesney York;Ship-Money(Vol. 24, p. 982);Hampden, John(Vol. 12, p. 900);Pym, John(Vol. 22, p. 680) andStrafford, Thomas Wentworth, Earl of(Vol. 25, p. 978), both by P. C. Yorke;Great Rebellion(Vol. 12, p. 403);Cromwell, Oliver(Vol. 7, p. 487), by P. C. Yorke, C. F. Atkinson and R. J. McNeill; Cromwell, Richard (Vol. 7, p. 498); for the military operations of the Great Rebellion, the articles listed under that heading in the chapter of this Guide entitledFor Army Officers;Monk, George(Vol. 18, p. 723);Charles II, (Vol. 5, p. 912);Clarendon, Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of(Vol. 6, p. 428);Buckingham, George Villiers, 2nd Duke of(Vol. 4, p. 724);Cleveland, Duchess of(Vol. 6, p. 500);Portsmouth, Duchess of(Vol. 22, p. 131);Gwyn, Nell(Vol. 12, p. 750);Lauderdale, Duke of(Vol. 16, p. 279);Shaftesbury, 1st Earl(Vol. 24, p. 760) by Osmund Airy, biographer of Charles II;Dutch Wars(Vol. 9, p. 729);Test Acts(Vol. 26, p. 665);James II(Vol. 15, p. 138);Argyll, 9th Earl of(Vol. 2, p. 484);Monmouth, Duke of(Vol. 18, p. 725);Tyrconnell(Vol. 27, p. 548).
William and Mary; Anne
On the Revolution and the age of Anne (1689–1714) see the articleEnglish History(Vol. 9, pp. 542–544), andWilliam III. (Vol. 28, p. 662);Mary II. (Vol. 17, p. 816);Burnet, Gilbert(Vol. 4, p. 851);Grand Alliance(Vol. 12, p. 342), and for additional military articles the chapterFor Army Officersin this Guide;Anne(Vol. 2, p. 65);Marlborough, 1st Duke of(Vol. 17, p. 737), by W. Prideaux Courtney;Masham, Lady(Vol. 17, p. 836);Godolphin(Vol. 12, p. 174);Somers(Vol. 25, p. 384);Halifax, 1st Marquess of(Vol. 12, p. 839);Oxford, 1st Earl(Vol. 20, p. 403);Bolingbroke, Viscount(Vol. 4, p. 161);Shrewsbury, Duke of(Vol. 24, p. 1016).
George I to IV William IV
The part of the articleEnglish Historydealing with the Hanoverian Kings, 1714–1793 (Vol. 9, pp. 544–551) and that on the Revolutionary epoch, the reaction and the triumph of reform, 1793–1837 (pp. 551–558) are respectively by S. R. Gardiner and W. Alison Phillips. They should be supplemented by S. R. Gardiner’s articles on the four Georges (Vol. 11, pp. 737–745);South Sea Bubble(Vol. 25, p. 515);Stanhope, 1st Earl(Vol. 25, p. 773);Walpole, Horatio(Vol. 28, p. 288);Whig and Tory(Vol. 28, p. 588);Townshend, Charles(Vol. 27, p. 111);Caroline(Vol. 5, p. 380);Pelham, Henry(Vol. 21, p. 67);Charles Edward, “the Young Pretender” (Vol. 5, p. 940), by H. M. Vaughan, author ofThe Last of the Royal Stuarts;Methodism(Vol. 18, p. 293);Wesley, John(Vol. 28, p. 527);Newcastle, Thomas Pelham Holles, Duke of(Vol. 19, p. 471);Chatham, William Pitt, 1st Earl of(Vol. 6, p. 1);Seven Years’ War(Vol. 24, p. 715) and, for engagements and commanders in the war, see the chapter in this GuideFor Army Officers;India,History(Vol. 14, especially pp. 407–409);Canada,History(Vol. 5, especially p. 158);Bute, 3rd Earl of(Vol. 4, p. 877);Grenville, George(Vol. 12, p. 580);Rockingham, Marquess of(Vol. 23, p. 434);Guilford, 2nd Earl, Lord North (Vol. 12, p. 691);Wilkes, John(Vol. 28, p. 642);Burke, Edmund(Vol. 4, p. 824), by John Morley;Fox, Charles James(Vol. 10, p. 761);Gordon, Lord George(Vol. 12, p. 253);Lansdowne, Marquess of, Lord Shelburne (Vol. 16, p.184);Portland, 3rd Duke(Vol. 22, p. 119);Pitt, William(Vol. 21, p. 667);French Revolutionary Wars(Vol. 11, p. 171),Napoleonic Campaigns(Vol. 19, p. 216) and, for leaders and engagements in these wars, in the Peninsular War, and in the American War for Independence, see the chapter in this GuideFor Army Officers;Caroline Amelia Augusta(Vol. 5, p. 380);Wellesley, Marquess(Vol. 28, p. 506);Londonderry, Marquess of, Castlereagh (Vol. 16, p. 969);Canning, George(Vol. 5, p. 186);Corn Laws(Vol. 7, p. 174);Cobbett, William(Vol. 6, p. 606);Wellington, Duke of(Vol. 28, p. 507);William IV.(Vol. 28, p. 664);Grey, 2nd Earl(Vol. 12, p. 586);Brougham, Lord(Vol. 4, p. 652);Parliament(Vol. 20, especially p. 843);Melbourne, 2nd Viscount(Vol. 18, p. 90);Peel, Sir Robert(Vol. 21, p. 40).
Victoria
On the reign of Victoria the section of the articleEnglish History(Vol. 9, pp. 558–582) gives a very full treatment, which should be supplemented by the study of such articles as:Victoria(Vol. 28, p. 28), by Hugh Chisholm, editor-in-chief of the Encyclopaedia Britannica;Albert(Vol. 1, p. 495), by the same author;Palmerston(Vol. 20, p. 645);Russell, 1st Earl(Vol. 23, p. 863);O’Brien, William Smith(Vol. 19, p. 953);Chartism(Vol. 5, p. 953);Derby, 14th Earl(Vol. 8, p. 66);Crimean War(Vol. 7, p. 450);“Alabama” Arbitration(Vol. 1, p. 464);Bright, John(Vol. 4, p. 567);Cobden, Richard(Vol. 6, p. 607);Beaconsfield(Vol. 3, p. 563);Gladstone, W. E.(Vol. 12, p. 66), by G. W. E. Russell, biographer of Gladstone;Salisbury(Vol. 24, p. 72);Transvaal,History(Vol. 27, p. 193);Parnell, C. S.(Vol. 20, p. 854);Gordon, C. G.(Vol. 11, p. 249);Rosebery(Vol. 23, p. 731);Rhodes, C. J.(Vol. 23, p. 254).
Edward VII George V
For the years since Victoria’s death see the articles:Edward VII. (Vol. 8, p. 997) andGeorge V. (Vol. 11, p. 745), and the articles on recent political leaders:Balfour(Vol. 3, p. 250);Chamberlain(Vol. 5, p. 813);Campbell-Bannerman(Vol. 5, p. 131);Asquith(Vol. 2, p. 769); andLloyd George(Vol. 16, p. 832); and on the reform of the House of LordsParliament(Vol. 20, especially pp. 845–847) andRepresentation(Vol. 23, especially pp. 111–113).
The articleFrancein the Encyclopaedia Britannica includes a section onHistory(Vol. 10, pp. 801–906) equivalent to 320 pages of this Guide, of which the first part, down to 1870, is by Paul Wiriath, director of the École Supérieure Pratique de Commerce et d’Industrie, Paris, and the part since 1870 is by J. E. C. Bodley, author ofFrance, etc. Opposite page 802 are four coloured historical maps showing France at the end of the 10th, 13th and 14th centuries, and the changes in the eastern frontier from 1598 to 1789. The historical part of the article closes with a historiographic section, or critical summary of French historical writing, by Charles Bémont of the University of Paris.
Supplementing this main treatment, see:
Early History of France
On prehistoric and Roman France,Gaul(Vol. 11, p. 533), by Prof. F. J. Haverfield, Oxford, the well-known authority on Roman occupation of Britain and Gaul;Bibracte,Alesia,Itius Portus,Druidism, and, on Caesar’s campaigns,Caesar, Julius; and, on Roman remains,Arles,Nîmes,Orange,Architecture,Aqueduct, andAmphitheatre.
On the Franks, the articlesFranks(Vol. 11, p. 35) andSalic Law(Vol. 24, p. 68), by Prof. Christian Pfister of the Sorbonne; and the articles,Austrasia,Merovingians,Childeric,Clovis,Childebert,Clotaire,Sigebert,Charibert,Guntram,Fredegond,Brunhilda,Clotaire II,Dagobert,PippinI, II and III,Ebroin,Carolingians,Charles Martel(Vol. 5, p. 942),Carloman,Childeric;Charlemagne,Roland,Einhard,Alcuin;Louis I“the Pious,”Lothair(Vol. 17, p. 17);Charles II“the Bald” (Vol. 5, p. 897);Feudalism;LouisII and III;Charles III“the Fat” (Vol. 5, p. 898);Odo;Louis IV(Vol. 17, p. 35), by Dr. René Poupardin, secretary of the École des Charles;Lothair(Vol. 17, p. 18);Bruno;Louis V.
Medieval France
For the Capetian period, the articlesCapet(Vol. 5, p. 251);Robert“the Strong” (Vol. 23, p. 402);Hugh“the Great” (Vol. 13, p. 857);Hugh Capet(Vol. 13, p. 858);Robert“the Pious” (Vol. 23, p. 399);Henry I(Vol. 13, p. 290);Philip I(Vol. 21, p. 378);Louis VI(Vol. 17, p. 35), by Prof. J. T. Shotwell, Columbia University; Prof. Shotwell’s article onLouis VII;Suger;Eleanor of Aquitaine(Vol. 9, p. 168);Philip Augustus(Vol. 21, p. 378);Ingeborg;Albigenses; and for French and English relations,Richard IandJohnof England;Louis VIII;Blanche of Castile(Vol. 4, p. 40); Prof. Shotwell’s article onLouis IX“St. Louis”; and the articleCrusades;Philip III“the Bold” (Vol. 21, p. 381);Philip IV;Boniface VIII;Saisset;Nogaret;Templars;Louis X;Philip VandCharles IV.
For the Valois line and the history of the period (1328–1498), the articleHundred Years’ War;Sluys;Crécy; and for detail of the war the articles under that head in the chapterFor the Army Officerin this Guide; andPhilip VI(Vol. 21, p. 383);Flanders;Artevelde(Jacob and Philip van);Dauphiné;Dauphin;Gabelle;John II(Vol. 15, p. 441);Poitiers;Marcel;Le Coq;States General;Charles IIof Navarre (Vol. 5, p. 924);Charles V(Vol. 5, p. 917);Jacquerie;du Guesclin;Charles VI;Armagnac;Isabellaof Bavaria (Vol. 14, p. 860);Benedict XIII(Vol. 3, p. 718);John“the Fearless” (Vol. 15, p. 445);Agincourt;Charles VII;Arthur IIIof Brittany (Vol. 2, p. 682);Joan of Arc;Coeur;Agnes Sorel(Vol. 25, p. 432);Brézé;Praguerie;Louis XI;Balue;Le Daim;Liège,History;Charles“the Bold” of Burgundy (Vol. 5, p. 932);Charles VIII;Anneof France (Vol. 2, p. 70);Anneof Brittany (Vol. 2, p. 69).
16th Century
For the years, 1498–1589, and the Orleans dynasty,Louis XIIandAmboise, by Prof. Jules Isaac of the Lyons Lycée;Mary(Vol. 17, p. 824);Francis I(Vol. 10, p. 934), by Prof. Isaac;Louise of Savoy;Marignano;Pavia;Marguerite D’Angoulême(Vol. 17, p. 706);Étampes(Vol. 9, p. 803);Du Prat,Anne de Montmorency(Vol. 18, p. 787);Henry II(Vol. 13, p. 291);Diane de Poitiers;Catherine de’ Medici;Francis II;Guise(Vol. 12, p. 699);L’Hôpital;Condé;Amboise;Romorantin;Huguenots;Charles IX;Coligny;Saint André;St. Bartholomew;Henry III.
The Bourbons
For the Bourbon kings, beginning 1589—Bourbon(with genealogical chart);Henry IV; Duke ofMayenne;Edict of Nantes(Vol. 19, p. 165);Sully;Louis XIII;Marie de’ Medici;Richelieu, by Prof. J. T. Shotwell, Columbia University;Concini;Luynes;Cinque-Mars;Rohan;Soubise;Jansenism;Thirty Years’ War; and for leaders and engagements in that conflict the titles listed in the chapter in this Guide entitledFor Army Officers;Louis XIV, by Prof. A. J. Grant of Leeds University;Mazarin, by Prof. H. Morse Stephens, University of California;Marie Therèse;La Vallière;Montespan;Maintenon; Duc deBeaufort;Fronde;Turenne;RetzandLa Rochefoucauld, by Prof. George Saintsbury of Edinburgh University;Fouquet;Colbert, by Prof. J. T. Shotwell, Columbia;Champlain;La Salle;Louvois;Camisards, by M. Frank Puaux, president of the Socíeté de l’Histoire du Protestantisme Français;Jansenism, by Viscount St. Cyres;Port Royal;Bossuet;Fenelon;Le Tellier;Grand Alliance; and for details of military operations and sketches of commanders the articles enumerated in the chapter in this GuideFor Army Officers;Louis XV; Philip II, Duke ofOrleans(Vol. 20, p. 286);Fleury;Austrian SuccessionandSeven Years’ Warand articles under these heads in the chapter in this GuideFor Army Officers;Chateauroux;Pompadour;Du Barry;Comte d’ Argenson(Vol. 2, p. 459),Choiseul;Maupeou;Aiguillon.
The Revolution
On the Revolution and the period immediately before it, the articlesLouis XVI, by Robert Anchel, archivist to the Department de l’Eure;Marie Antoinette;Beaumarchais;Maurepas;Turgot;Necker;Vergennes;Calonne;Diamond Necklace;Loménie de Brienne;French Revolution(Vol. 10, p. 154, equivalent to 58 pages of this Guide), by Prof. F. C. Montague, University College, London;Des Moulins;Mirabeau;Sieyès;Danton;Robespierre;Mounnier;La Fayette;Montmorin de Saint-Hérem;Marat;Corday;Talleyrand;Assignats;Narbonne-Lara;Jacobins;Girondists;Roland;Brissot;Mountain;Directory;Babeuf;French Revolutionary Wars; and for battles and leaders in these wars the articles mentioned under this head in the chapter in this GuideFor Army Officers.
The First Empire
On the Napoleonic period, the articles by J. Holland Rose, author ofNapoleonic Studies, etc., onNapoleon(Vol. 19, p. 190)—equivalent to 65 pages of this Guide, and on the principal figures of the Napoleonic period,—for example,Bonapartefamily,Fouché,Gardane,Junot; the articlesNapoleonic Campaigns,Peninsular WarandWaterlooand the articles listed under these two heads in the chapter in this GuideFor Army Officers.
The Kingdom Again
On the Bourbon restoration,Louis XVIII;Decazes; Duc deRichelieu(Vol. 23, p. 302); Duc deBerry;Villèle;Charles X(Vol. 5, p. 921);Martignac;Polignac;Marmont.
On the revolution of 1830 and the rule of Louis Philippe, the articlesLouis Philippe(Vol. 17, p. 51);Cavaignac;Thiers;Guizot;Constant;Casimir Périer;Lafitte;Barrot;Dupont de L’Eure;Berryer;Saint-Simon;Fourier;Lamennais;Louis Blanc;Molé.
The Second Empire
On the revolution of 1848 and the second Empire, besides most of the articles in the preceding paragraph,Napoleon III, by Albert Thomas, author ofThe Second Empire;Crémieux;Ledru-Rollin;Carnot;Garnier-Pagès;Montalembert;Ollivier;Rouher;Favre;Picard;Crimean War;Italian Wars;Franco-Prussian War;and articles listed under those heads in the chapter in this GuideFor Army Officers;Eugènie;Maximilianof Mexico (Vol. 17, p. 924).
Modern Times
On the Third Republic, 1870 and the following years, the story in Vol. 10, pp. 873–904 (equivalent to 100 pages of this Guide) is to be supplemented by the articlesThiers;Rémusat;Simon;Barthélemy;Broglie;MacMahon;Dufaure;Grèvy;Ferry;Gambetta;Freycinet;Chambord;Clémenceau;Brisson;Boulanger;Carnot;Loubet;Lesseps;Casimir-Périer;Faure;Ribot;Méline;Waldeck-Rousseau;Dreyfus;Dupuy;Ribot;Galliffet;Jaurès;Millerand;Combes;Delcassé;Rouvier;Pelletan;Briand;Lemire;Fallières;Poincaré.
Asiatic Characteristics
An account, in this chapter, of the principal articles dealing with the history of India, China and Japan, will sufficiently indicate to the student the plan adopted in the Britannica’s treatment of all the countries in the far East. But before turning to these three groups of articles, he should readAsia(Vol. 2, p. 734), which defines the social and economic position of the Orient in general, and gives a survey of the field covered by articles on Eastern countries other than the three dealt with in this chapter. This article, equivalent in length to 65 pages of this Guide, is by Sir Richard Strachey, the famous Indian administrator; Sir Charles Eliot, of the British diplomatic service Sir T. H. Holdich, of the Indian Frontier Survey; and Philip Lake, the Oriental geologist. The general survey of Asiatic characteristics, as revealed by history, with which the historical section (p. 749) of the article begins, is noteworthy in connection with current political questions:
The words “Asiatic” and “oriental” are often used as if they denoted a definite and homogeneous type, but Russians resemble Asiatics in many ways, and Turks, Hindus, Chinese, etc., differ in so many important points that the common substratum is small. It amounts to this, that Asiatics have not the same sentiment of independence and freedom as Europeans. Individuals are thought of as members of a family, state or religion, rather than as entities with a destiny and rights of their own. This leads to autocracy in politics, fatalism in religion, and conservatism in both.
All three of these are certainly conspicuous in the history of the first Eastern country dealt with in this chapter.
In the articleIndia(Vol. 14, p. 375), (equivalent to 140 pages of this Guide) there is much of value to the historical student besides the chapter onHistory(p. 395), which is written by Sir William Wilson Hunter, administrative head of the statistical survey of India and one of the editors ofThe Imperial Gazetteer of India, and by James Sutherland Cotton, editor of this same Gazetteer. Particularly important are the sections,The People(p. 382),Administration(p. 385), andIndian Costume(p. 417), illustrated from pen-and-ink drawings by J. Lockwood Kipling, known to many as the illustrator of his son’s bookKim. And the student of Oriental history will find it possible to gain a little comprehension—atleast—of Oriental ways of thought, Eastern setting and colour, by reading in the Britannica such articles asCaste(Vol. 5, p. 464),Hinduism(Vol. 13, p. 501),Brahmanism,BrahmanandBrahmana(Vol. 4, p. 378), all by Prof. Julius Eggeling, Edinburgh;BuddhaandBuddhism(Vol. 4, p. 737), both by Prof. T. W. Rhys Davids of Manchester, author ofSacred Books of the Buddhas, etc.;Mahomet(Vol. 17, p. 399), by Prof. D. G. Margoliouth, Oxford;Mahommedan InstitutionsandMahommedan Law(Vol. 17, p. 411), by Prof. D. S. Macdonald, Hartford Theological Seminary, andMahommedan Religion(Vol. 17, p. 417), by Rev. G. W. Thatcher, Camden College, Sydney, N. S. W.;Indian Law(Vol. 14, p. 434), by Sir William Markby, author ofLectures on English Law, etc.; andZoroaster(Vol. 28, p. 1039), by Prof. Karl Geldner, Marburg, andParsees(Vol. 20, p. 866). This list of articles subsidiary to the history of India could be prolonged almost indefinitely, but enough has been given to put the student on the track of valuable articles which might otherwise escape his notice.
Before we come to the authentic history of India there is a legendary period, the only historic test for which is the rock inscriptions,—see the articleInscriptions,Indian(Vol. 14, p. 621), by J. F. Fleet, author ofInscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings. On the earliest literary description of the Aryans in India and their contests with the Dravidians see the articleSanskrit,Vedic Period(especially p. 161 of Vol. 24, on theRig Veda)—and in general the articlesAryanandDravidian. An interesting reconstruction of the civilization of the primitive Aryans on the basis of languages will be found in the articleIndo-European Languages(Vol. 14, especially pp. 498–500), by Dr. Peter Giles, Cambridge, author ofManual of Comparative Philology; and this picture of Aryan life before the conquest of India will hold in the main for the earlier period of the Aryans in India.
Early Buddhism
With the 6th century we come to the beginning of the Buddhist period. See the articleJains, the articles on Buddhism already mentioned, and the articles:Asoka, the great Buddhist emperor and organizer of the faith, whose rock inscriptions throughout India are so valuable as historical records;Kanishka, the Buddhist king of Kabul and Kashmir;Fa-HienandHsüan Tsang, the Chinese pilgrims of India, who left important records of early Buddhism and of Brahmanism, which was steadily growing in power and strength.
The Hindu period, overlapping the Buddhist, is marked by the beginning of Western influences on India. For the Persians in India see the articlesPersia(Vol. 21, especially pp. 209–210),Darius(Vol. 7, p. 832), andScylax, the Greek who under Darius’s orders explored the course of the Indus. Far more important was the conquest by Alexander the Great and the establishment of the Hellenistic empire of the Seleucids in Syria, Bactria and India: seeAlexander the Great(Vol. 1, especially p. 548),Nearchus, Alexander’s admiral and navigator, andSeleucid Dynasty. The first paramount ruler of India wasChandragupta(Vol. 5, p. 839), whom the Greeks called Sandracottus and who crushed the Seleucid power and founded the Maurya dynasty. Of his grandson Asoka we have already spoken in outlining the growth and decline of Buddhism. In this period Greek thought and art influenced India greatly, and in the period immediately following—2nd century B.C.—northwestern India was invaded again by western troops: seeDemetrius,Eucratides,Menander. The records of the next four centuries are confused and vague; on the invasions from the North, seeSakaandYue-Chi, by Sir Charles Norton Edgcumbe Eliot.
The Yue-Chi founded the Kushan dynasty, in which the greatest king wasKanishka(Vol. 15, p. 653), already mentioned as a Buddhist ruler whose policy marked the beginning of the end of Buddhism in India. On the succeeding dynasty see the articleGupta; and refer again to the articleFa-Hienfor the Chinese account of the rule of the second Gupta king, Chandragupta,—on whom in legend seeVikramaditya. On the White Huns and their invasion consult the articlesEphthalitesandHuns. On the only other great king of this period, who was paramount monarch of northern India in the first half of the 7th century and whose administration was described by Hsüan-Tsang, seeHarsha. On the principal Deccan dynasties of the Hindu period, seeChalukyaandRashtrakuta, and the articleDeccan.
Mahommedans and Moslems
For a general notion of the Mahommedan period in India the student should read the articles on Mahommedanism already mentioned, and for more definite information about India, the articles on the 11th century invaderMahmud of Ghazni(Vol. 17, p. 397), and onSomnath, the temple city which he captured and sacked in 1025. SeeDeccanandGujaratfor the Moslem conquest of these states by Ala-ud-din. For the destruction of the Tughlak dynasty, which followed Ala-ud-din’s successors, seeAfghanistan(Vol. 1, especially p. 315) andTimur(Vol. 26, p. 994), by Major-General Sir Frederick John Goldsmid. The “last stand made by the national faith in India against conquering Islam” was inVijayanagar(Vol. 28, p. 62). With the 16th century and the Mogul dynasty, India is quite definitely Moslem: seeBaber,Humayun,Akbar,Abul Fazlthe historian of Akbar’s reign,Jahangir,Shah Jahan, andAgraandIndian Architecture(especially Fig. 17, opposite p. 433, Vol. 14) for the Taj Mahal, the Mausoleum built by Shah Jahan for his wife Mumtäz Mal, and—for the culmination of the Mogul power, the beginning of its decay, and the first sign of Moslem bigotry and intolerance on the part of the Mogul emperors,—Aurangzeb. His attempt to conquer the Mahommedan kings of the Deccan gave the natives an opportunity to regain power: see the articleMahrattas, and for the earlier risings of the Mahrattas,Sivaji. And for the rise of Afghan power under the Durani dynasty and the battle of Panipat in 1761, a crushing defeat for the Mahrattas, seeAfghanistan,History(Vol. 1, especially p. 316), andAhmad Shah.
On earlier European settlements in India see the articleIndia,History(Vol. 14, p. 404), and more particularly for Portuguese explorations and settlements the articlesVasco da Gama(Vol. 11, p. 433),Albuquerque(Vol. 1, p. 516), andGoathe capitol of Portuguese India, the last article being by K. G. Jayne, author ofVasco da Gama and His Successors: for Dutch rule the articleDutch East India Company(Vol. 8, p. 716); and for the beginning of British influence in India the articlesEast India Company;Surat;Madras, where the first English fort was built in 1640 and the first grant, except for factory use, was made by the English;Bombay, acquired from Portugal in 1661–65;Sir JohnandSir Josiah Child;Job Charnock, founder of Calcutta, and the article onCalcutta.
The British Conquest
On British political history in India in the 18th century, see the articles onPondicherry,Dupleix, French Governor-General in Pondicherry, his rivalClivethe founder of the British Empire and of the power of the East India Company in India,Eyre Cootewho took Pondicherry from the French in 1761,Suraj-ud-DowlahandCalcuttafor the siege of the city and story of the Black Hole,Plassey,Shah Alamfor the massacre ofPatna; and for the period afterClivethe articlesWarren Hastings,Mahrattasfor the first Mahratta war,Hyder AliandMysorefor thefirst Mysore war;Tippoo SahibandCornwallisfor the second Mysore war;TeignmouthandBengal, for the permanent settlement of Bengal under Cornwallis;WellesleyandTippoo SahibandSeringapatam,WellingtonandLake(Vol. 16, p. 85) for the campaigns against the French and natives during Wellesley’s governor-generalship;Lord Mintofor the years from 1807 to 1813;Marquess of Hastings,OchterlonyandNepalfor the war in Nepal; for the wars of 1817 the articlesPindaris,Mahrattas,Elphinstone,Sir John Malcolm; for the administration (1823–28) of Lord Amherst, the articlesAmherst,Burmese Wars,BharatpurandCombermere; for Bentinck’s rule, the articlesBentinck,Suttee,Thugsby Reinhold Rost, late secretary of the Royal Asiatic Society, andMysore;Metcalfe, for a view of his short tenure of office; for the stormy period of the ’40’s,Auckland,Ellenborough,Afghanistan,Sir W. H. Macnaghten,Sir R. H. SaleandSind; and for the Sikh wars,Hardinge,Punjab,Sikh Wars,Ranjit Singh,Sir Hugh Gough,Dalhousie,Sir Henry Lawrence,Edwardes,Burmese Warsfor the second war of 1852, andOudhfor its annexation; and for the close of the Company’s rule, the articlesLord Canning,Indian Mutiny,Delhi,Lord Lawrence,Richard Baird Smith,John Nicholson,Sir Neville Chamberlain,Cawnpore,Nana Sahib,Lucknow,Sir Henry Lawrence,Sir J. E. W. Inglis,Havelock,J. G. S. Neill,Outram, Sir Colin Campbell.
On India under the Crown, since 1858, see particularly the articles on the viceroys,Canning,Elgin,Lawrence,Mayo,Northbrook,Lytton(see alsoShere AliandYakub Khan),—Ripon(see alsoAyub Khan,Earl Roberts, andAbdur Rahman Khan),Dufferin(see alsoPanjdehfor the Russian scare of 1885 andBurmaandBurmese Warsfor the dispute with Thebaw),CurzonandKitchener, andMinto.
As with India, so with China, the whole of the article in the Britannica is of value to the historical student. The articleChina(Vol. 6, pp. 166–231) is equivalent to 200 pages of this Guide. The most important part for the student of history is section V. (pp. 188–212) onHistory: but such parts of the article asGeography, with a coloured map, thePeople(pp. 171–174),Religion(174–177),Economics(177–181),Government and Administration(181–188),Art(213–216) with illustrations, andLanguage and Literature(216–231) are all of importance to help get the background that is so baffling to an occidental studying the Far East. As was the case with India, the study of religions is particularly important and besides the sectionReligionin the articleChina, the student should turn to the articlesLao-Tsze, the founder of a philosophy debased into Taoism,Mencius, andConfucius, all by the Rev. James Legge, author ofThe Religions of China, and the editor ofThe Chinese Classics, andBuddhismandLamaism, the latter the form of Buddhism in vogue in China,—and he should remember that there are some Mahommedans in China. In connection with the latest developments in Chinese history he should read with great care in the articleChina, Section IV,Government and Administration, especially p. 184 on the Civil Service, an elaborate merit system.
Section V. of the articleChinaopens with a treatment by Sir Henry Yule, the famous Orientalist, of the European knowledge of China before 1615, particularly “Cathay” and the early explorers of Mongolia,Carpini(see Vol. 5, p. 397) andRubruquis(see Vol. 23, pp. 810–812), and of Cathay itselfMarco Polo(see Vol. 22, pp. 7–10). The internal history of China begins (Vol. 6, p. 191) with a discussion of Chinese origins: “anthropological arguments seem to contradict the idea of any connection with Babylonians, Egyptians, Assyrians, orIndians. The earliest hieroglyphics of the Chinese, ascribed by them to the Shang dynasty (second millenium B.C.) betray the Mongol character of the nation that invented them by the decided obliquity of the human eye whenever it appears in an ideograph.... Our standpoint as regards the origin of the Chinese race is, therefore, that of the agnostic.... Their civilization was already old at a time when Britain and Germany were peopled by half-naked barbarians, and the philosophical and ethical principles on which it is based remain, to all appearances, as firmly rooted as ever.” Chinese legendary history goes back to Fu-hi as the “first historical emperor; and they place his lifetime in the years 2852–2738 B.C.”|The First Definite Date|There is much that is purely legendary and mythical in these early records, but with the year 776 B.C. we find a veritable record: in an ode referring to a wicked emperor there is mention of “certain signs showing that Heaven itself is indignant at Yu-wang’s crimes. One of these signs was an eclipse of the sun ... the date and month being clearly stated. This date corresponds exactly with August 29, 776 B.C.; and astronomers have calculated that on that precise date an eclipse of the sun was visible in North China.” It is an interesting coincidence that this earliest sure date in Chinese history is the date of the first Greek Olympiad, from which time was reckoned in the Greek calendar—though there are no certain dates in Greek history until much later. The first outstanding event in the history of China was nearly 20 centuries later—the Mongol invasion; see the articlesMongols(Vol. 18, pp. 712–719) andJenghiz Khan(Vol. 15, p. 316), both by Sir Robert K. Douglas, author ofThe Life of Jenghiz Khan. On the period immediately following seeKublai Khan, for the foundation of the Mongol dynasty, and the sectionMedieval Cathay(Vol. 6, p. 189) of the articleChinafor early exploration and missionary effort. Mongol rule was broken in the 14th century by the founder of the Ming dynasty.|Foreign Relations|The Portuguese arrival at Canton in 1517 marked the beginning of modern intercourse with Europe; and see the articleMatteo Ricciby Sir Henry Yule, for the first important work of a Christian missionary in China early in the 17th century. Immediately thereafter came the Manchu invasion, on which see the articleManchuria, by Sir R. K. Douglas. Trade with Europe on a large scale began in the second half of the 18th century; see the articleCanton. British diplomatic missions for the improvement of the condition of traders in Canton were unsuccessful, but in 1840 the opium war made China feel the weight of Great Britain’s power when Hong Kong was ceded to the English and other ports were opened to trade: seeLord Napier,Sir Hugh Gough, andHong-Kong. On the T’ai-p’ing rebellion, the “Arrow” affair, and the second interference of Great Britain with China, seeSir H. S. Parkes,Charles George Gordon(“Chinese Gordon”),Earl of Elgin(Vol. 9, p. 268),Tseng Kuo-fan,Li Hung Chang. On the Russian boundary disputes of 1858 and 1860 seeAmurandVladivostok.
The history of China since 1875 is told pretty completely in the articleChina, in two sections, the first on 1875–1901 being by Sir Valentine Chirol, author ofThe Far Eastern Question. But in connection with the general treatment the student should read the articles onKorea,AnnamandTongkingfor the earlier efforts to detach from the Chinese empire these quasi-vassals;Chino-Japanese Warfor the military details of the struggle by which Japan got command of the Korean coast-line;Mekongfor the dispute of 1895 with Great Britain;Kiaochow Bay,Port ArthurandWei-Hai-Weifor the seizures of 1897 and1898 by Germany, Russia and Great Britain respectively;John Hayfor America’s part in the Open Door policy;PekingandTientsinfor details added to the general account in the articleChina, of the “Boxer” rising;Manchuriafor Russian encroachments before, andJapanfor Manchuria after the Russo-Japanese War.