Design and Mural Painting
The articleDesign(Vol. 8, p. 95), by W. R. Lethaby, principal of the Central School of Arts and Crafts, London, contains a passage which the decorator may well bear in mind when he has to contend against the typical client’s unreasoning demand for the sensationalism which, for the moment, is accepted as an evidence of originality, but is always the cause of subsequent dissatisfaction and complaint. “Modern use has tended to associate design with the word ‘original’ in the sense of new or abnormal. The end of design, however, is properly utility, fitness and delight.If a discovery, it should be a discovery of what seems inevitable, an inspiration arising out of the conditions, and parallel to invention in the sciences.” These fifty words are but a millionth part of the contents of the Britannica; but alone they show that the work can practically serve the designer.Mural Decoration(Vol. 19, p. 16), with its delightful reproduction in colour of a wall painting preserved in the National Museum at Rome, and its other illustrations, is by William Morris and Walter Crane, with a section on classical wall paintings by Prof. J. H. Middleton, Slade professor of fine art at Cambridge University. The “furnishing” point of view is considered under other headings (see below). Here the distinguished contributors give an interesting account of marble and stone reliefs, the oldest method of wall decoration; marble veneer, especially appropriate to 14th and 15th century Italian style; wall-linings of glazed brick or tiles; coverings of hard stucco; the recently revived sgraffito method; stamped leather, much used in rooms of the 16th–18th century period; painted cloth; printed hangings and wall-papers, of great antiquity among the Hindus and Chinese but not common in Europe until the 18th century; wall-painting, with description of the characteristic schemes of mural art in ancient and modern times, and methods of execution.
In further connection with this subject the reader should turn toEgypt,Art and Archaeology(Vol. 9, p. 65), by the noted Egyptologist, W. M. Flinders Petrie;Greek Art(Vol. 12, p. 470), by Percy Gardner;Roman Art(Vol. 23, p. 474), by H. Stuart Jones;Painting(Vol. 20, p. 459), by Prof. G. B. Brown, of Edinburgh University, and other authorities;Sculpture(Vol. 24, p. 488), by Professor Middleton and other authorities;Mosaic(Vol. 18, p. 883), by Professor Middleton and H. Stuart Jones, with a practical section onModern Mosaic(p. 888), by Sir William Blake Richmond, noted for his accomplishments in decorative art. All of these articles are richly illustrated. See further, the chapters onFine Arts,PaintingandSculpture.
The Wall and the Floor
Wall-Coverings(Vol. 28, p. 279), by James Bartlett, of Kings College, London, deals with the subject in its practical relation to house furnishing, with reference to the conditions of the room, the use to which it is to be put, its lighting aspect, and its outlook. There is much information about the employment of marble, mosaic, tiles, metal sheeting, tapestry, and wall-papers; andseparate articles will be found on the following materials:Marble(Vol. 17, p. 676), by J. S. Flett;Tile,Wall and Floor(Vol. 26, p. 971), illustrated, by William Burton;Leather(Vol. 16, p. 330), illustrated, by Dr. J. G. Parker;Tapestry(Vol. 26, p. 403), by A. S. Cole, an admirable historical account, fully illustrated, and giving information on varieties of design, indications of date, the marks of makers, modern tapestry weaving, etc.Bayeux Tapestry(Vol. 3, p. 555) is an interesting historical account by the antiquarian, J. H. Round, of this venerable relic executed by order of the half-brother of William the Conqueror; it is illustrated with two plates containing 11 views of the tapestry.
In the matter of Floor-coverings there are the articlesFloor-Cloth(Vol. 10, p. 527),Parquetry(Vol. 20, p. 861), andCarpet(Vol. 5, p. 392), illustrated, by A. S. Cole, devoted to descriptions of carpets and rugs as designed and manufactured in Europe and Oriental countries.
Furniture
The next group of topics begins with the articleFurniture(Vol. 11, p. 363) with 36 illustrations by J. G. Penderel-Brodhurst. The classified Table of Articles in the Britannica (Vol. 29, p. 888) indicates over 75 articles on separate pieces of furniture, but in this general treatise we have a concise history, describing periods and styles, with many interesting facts about the origin and use of different pieces of furniture from the earliest time to the “art nouveau” of very recent date. Some of the noteworthy separate articles, which have been written by Mr. Penderel-Brodhurst, areChair(Vol. 5, p. 801);Desk(Vol. 8, p. 95);Table(Vol. 26, p. 325), andBed(Vol. 3, p. 612). See alsoMarquetry(Vol. 17, p. 751). For those who wish to preserve unity of style in furnishing a room, these articles will prove of the highest value. A full list is appended to this chapter; and the reader should consult the chapter in this GuideFor the Manufacturer of Furniture.
Textile Fabrics
The decorator and designer must be familiar with all manner of fabrics, and the Britannica contains an immense fund of information in regard to the nature, manufacture and use of textiles. For purposes of study a beginning would perhaps here be made with the article Weaving, which is in two parts. The first,Industrial Technicology and Machinery(Vol. 28, p. 440) with 28 illustrations, is by T. W. Fox, professor of textiles in the University of Manchester. Very useful will be found the classification of weaving schemes into groups, from which we learn the distinctive weaves of plain cloth, twills, satins, damasks, compound cloths, repps, piled fabrics, chenille, velvets and plushes, gauze, etc. All weaving machinery is described. The second part,Archaeology and Art, is written by A. S. Cole. It is a most interesting and valuable account of the origin of various textiles, and the periods to which they are appropriate. There are many illustrations of typical designs of silk, brocade and flax weavings.
The investigation of woven fabrics reveals the fact that the almost endless variety of effects obtained is due in part only to the method of weaving. Consequently, it is necessary for the student, in order to acquire an expert knowledge of the character and effect on any textile product which he wishes to employ, to have access to the information in the articlesBleaching(Vol. 4, p. 49) illustrated;Mercerizing(Vol. 18, p. 150);Dyeing(Vol. 8, p. 744) illustrated, and with an elaborate classification of colouring matters—acid, direct, and developed colours;Finishing(Vol. 10, p. 378) illustrated, andTextile Printing(Vol. 26, p. 694), illustrated. The fact that this fine series of articles has been preparedby Dr. Edmund Knecht, professor of technological chemistry, University of Manchester, assisted by noted authorities like the late J. J. Hummel, professor of dyeing, University of Leeds, and A. S. Cole, is a guarantee of their great interest and value.
In the matter of the fabrics themselves, underCotton,Cotton Goods and Yarn(Vol. 7, p. 275) will be found descriptions of many cotton fabrics, and see alsoSilk(Vol. 25, p. 96) illustrated, by Arthur Mellor and other authorities;Wool, Worsted, and Woolen Manufactures(Vol. 28, p. 805) illustrated, by Prof. A. F. Barker of Bradford Technical College;Linen and Linen Manufactures(Vol. 16, p. 724) by Thomas Woodhouse, head of the weaving and textile designing department, Technical College, Dundee. Those who desire a closer scientific knowledge of fibres may obtain it fromFibres(Vol. 10, p. 309), illustrated, by the well-known English analytical chemist, C. F. Cross. There are separate articles onBrocade(Vol. 4, p. 620);Muslin(Vol. 19, p. 93);Canvas(Vol. 5, p. 223);Chintz(Vol. 6, p. 235);Cretonne(Vol. 7, p. 431);Gauze(Vol. 11, p. 357) and other textiles. A full list of these materials is appended.
The articleLace(Vol. 16, p. 37) is one of the most notable contributions to the Britannica. It is written by A. S. Cole, author ofEmbroidery and Lace,Ancient Needle Point and Pillow Lace, etc., and has over 60 illustrations. A full history of lacemaking is given, and the article is of the highest interest throughout. There exists no better manual on the subject than this, and the pictures alone will enable the student to distinguish the different varieties.Embroidery(Vol. 9, p. 309) by A. F. Kendrick, keeper of the Victoria and Albert Museum, and A. S. Cole, has 18 illustrations and describes the characteristics of the art as practised by different nationalities.Gold and Silver Thread(Vol. 12, p. 200), also by A. S. Cole, is a general and historical account of the gold and silver strips, threads and gimp used in connection with varieties of weaving, embroidery and twisting and with plaiting or lace-work.
Arts and Crafts
Before taking up the specific objects of art used in interior decoration and furnishing, attention must be called to the many articles of great value to those engaged in all arts and crafts-work whose success depends upon a sound knowledge of methods and the principle of design. InArts and Crafts(Vol. 2, p. 700) Mr. Walter Crane gives an account of the recent movement in the arts of decorative design and handicraft that has for its object the adornment of the house. Handicraft workers will find valuable material, discussing designs, methods and tools, inNeedlework(Vol. 19, p. 339);Wood-carving(Vol. 28, p. 791) fully illustrated, by F. A. Crallan, author ofGothic Wood-carving;Carving and Gilding(Vol. 5, p. 438);Metal-Work(Vol. 18, p. 205) illustrated, by Professor Middleton of Cambridge University, with sections onModern Art Metal-workby John S. Gardner, and onIndustrial Metal Workby J. G. Horner, author ofPractical Metal Turning;Medal(Vol. 18, p. 1) illustrated, by M. H. Spielmann, formerly editor ofThe Magazine of Art;Glass, Stained(Vol. 12, p. 105) illustrated, by Lewis Foreman Day, late vice-president of the Society of Arts;Spinning(Vol. 25, p. 685) by Professor Fox;Basket(Vol. 3, p. 481) with an account of the basket-making industry and methods employed, by Thomas Okey, examiner in basket-work for the City of London Guilds and Institute;Embossing(Vol. 9, p. 308);Chasing(Vol. 5, p. 956);Repoussé(Vol. 23, p. 108);Enamel(Vol. 9, p. 362) a very complete historical and technical article, fully illustrated, by Alexander Fisher, author ofThe Art of Enamelling on Metals;Japan,CloisonnéEnamel(Vol. 15, p. 189);Inlaying(Vol. 14, p. 574). Much knowledge about primitive shapes and designs may be obtained fromArchaeology(Vol. 2, p. 344) by Dr. Charles H. Read of the British Museum,Aegean Civilization(Vol. 1, p. 245) by D. G. Hogarth, the explorer,Scandinavian Civilization(Vol. 24, p. 287), andAmerica,Archaeology(Vol. 1, p. 810) by the late O. T. Mason, of the National Museum, Washington. These articles are beautifully illustrated.
Portable Ornaments
Some of the articles on art objects have already been mentioned; in addition to them there isCeramics(Vol. 5, p. 703), equivalent to 133 pages of this Guide, with over 100 illustrations including 10 full-page plates, six of which are colour. This magnificent article is the joint contribution of six special authorities and describes the art of pottery and porcelain manufacture, potter’s marks, etc., in all countries and at all periods, with the exception of Japanese ceramics, for which seeJapan,Art,Ceramics(Vol. 15, p. 183).Glass(Vol. 12, p. 86) has a section on theHistory of Glass Manufacture(p. 97) in which glassware from the primitive vessels of ancient Egypt to modern wares is discussed and illustrated. The authors of this valuable account are Alexander Nesbitt, who wrote the descriptive catalogue of glass vessels for the South Kensington Museum, and H. J. Powell, of the Whitefriars Glass Works, London.Plate(Vol. 21, p. 789) illustrated, is the joint product of H. Stuart Jones, formerly director of the British School at Rome; H. R. H. Hall, of the British Museum, and E. Alfred Jones, author ofOld English Gold Plate. It contains unusually full information about hall-marks. There are also separate articles onPewter(Vol. 21, p. 338) andSheffield Plate(Vol. 24, p. 824) by Malcolm Bell, author ofPewter Plate, etc.
Clockhas a sectionDecorative Aspects(Vol. 6, p. 552), by J. G. Penderel-Brodhurst.Fan(Vol. 10, p. 168) by the late J. H. Pollen, author ofAncient and Modern Furniture and Woodwork, devotes special attention to styles of fan painting.Ivoryhas a well-illustrated section onIvory Sculpture and the Decorative Arts(Vol. 15, p. 95) by A. O. Maskell, author ofIvories, etc.Mirror(Vol. 18, p. 575);Frame(Vol. 10, p. 773), andScreen(Vol. 24, p. 477) are likewise useful articles for the decorator and furnisher.Terracotta(Vol. 26, p. 653) illustrated, by H. B. Walters of the British Museum, and William Burton, deals with the use of this material in architecture and sculpture, describes its manufacture, and contains an historical and critical discussion of subjects and types.Byzantine Artby W. R. Lethaby contains a section,Metal Work, Ivories, and Textiles(Vol. 4, p. 910).
The subject ofLacquer(Vol. 16, p. 53) is further treated underJapan,Lacquer(Vol. 15, p. 188), a part of a very elaborate discussion of all forms of Japanese art, including especiallyPainting and Engraving(Vol. 15, p. 172), which, as well asChina,Art(Vol. 6, p. 213), will be referred to constantly by all who are interested in Oriental handiwork and design.
Biographies
A great number of the biographies in the Britannica will possess much interest for the decorator and designer. Some of the noteworthy names of modern times areMorris, William(Vol. 18, p. 871);Crane, Walter(Vol. 7, p. 366);Tiffany, Louis C.(Vol. 26, p. 966);La Farge, John(Vol. 16, p. 64);Richmond, Sir William Blake(Vol. 23, p. 307);Chippendale, Thomas(Vol. 6, p. 237);Hepplewhite, George(Vol. 13, p. 305);Sheraton, Thomas(Vol. 24, p. 841);Gibbons, Grinling(Vol. 11, p. 936).
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO THOSE ENGAGED IN DECORATING, DESIGNING, INTERIOR FURNISHING AND ALL FORMS OF ART HANDICRAFT
CHAPTER XVIIIFOR RAILROAD MEN
There are no less than six distinct classes of articles in the new Encyclopædia Britannica which contain information of peculiar interest to railroad men:—
1. Articles on continents contain authoritative and original accounts of trans-continental routes and traffic. For example the articleEuropehas a table in which the 19 chief avenues of trade are analyzed, showing the direct distance, the distance by sea and the distance by rail from point to point; another table comparing railroad developments in the various parts of Europe, and also an account of the contour of Europe from the railroad man’s point of view, discussing the mountain ranges pierced by tunnels and the passes over which lines have been carried wholly or largely in the open.
Six Classes of Articles
2. The articles on separate countries, on the individual states of the Union, and on colonies contain detailed accounts of the railway systems. For example, the articleFrancedescribes the six great French railroads, traces their lines and explains the financial system by which they were constructed, the concessions granted to them by the French government, and the extent to which direct state ownership and management has been adopted.
3. The articles on cities show the relation of each centre to the general railroad system of the country and describe the terminals and the methods of urban communication. For example, in the articleBerlinthere is an account of the Stadtbahn, carried through the heart of the city, 20 feet above the street, providing for through traffic as well as for suburban service.
4. The maps as well as the many plans of cities, all of which were specially prepared for the Britannica, show much more clearly than does an ordinary atlas, the present development of railroads in all parts of the world.
5. The articles on various branches of engineering and mechanics, described in other chapters of this Guide, are complete treatises on the technical subjects connected with railroad construction and management.
6. The articles devoted exclusively to the subject, of which a brief account is given in the present chapter, are those to which railroad men will naturally first turn.
The key article isRailways(Vol. 22, p. 819), equivalent in length to more than 120 pages of this Guide. It is written by the foremost authorities on the subject both in the Old World and in the New, including:
Technical Authorities
Arthur Twining Hadley, president of Yale University, and author ofRailroad Transportation.
Hugh Munro Ross, author ofBritish Railwaysand editor of theEngineering Supplementof the London Times.
Ray Morris, formerly managing editor of theRailway Age Gazetteof New York and author ofRailroad Administration.
Lt. Col. H. A. Yorke, C.B., chief inspecting officer of railways of the English Board of Trade.
Prof. Frank Haigh Dixon, ofDartmouth College, author ofState Railroad Control.
Braman Blanchard Adams, associate editor of New YorkRailway Age Gazette.
William Ernest Dalby, professor of engineering in the South Kensington Central Technical College, and author ofThe Balancing of Engines, etc.
William Barclay Parsons, formerly chief engineer to the New York City Rapid Transit Commission and advisory engineer of the Royal Commission on London Traffic.
Maj. Gen. C. E. Webber, founder of the Institute of Electrical Engineers.
Emile Garcke, managing director of the British Electric Traction Co., Ltd., author ofManual of Electrical Undertakings.
The Key Article
The article opens with an introductory historical summary which describes the use of railways or tramways before the invention of the steam locomotive in mining districts in England (just as in the articleMauch Chunk, Vol. 17, p. 903, early mine transportation in America is described) and the way in which their use induced the development of high speed locomotives and how the first American trans-continental railroads were built. The student will find next a section of general statistics of railway mileage for the world, with a summary of American railway building, especially in the Far West since 1896. The following section is on economics and legislation in general, followed by separate treatment of British railway legislation and of American railway legislation. The great problem of government control and operation of railways as practised in various European countries is also discussed and is of interest in connection with contemporary American tendencies. The safety of railway transportation is treated in a section containing in compact form the most valuable classified statistics. A section onFinancial Organizationcompares American and British conditions in a most illuminating way.
Of even greater importance to the technical student are the remaining sections of this great article, namely:
(1)Construction, with subsections onLocation,Cuttings and Embankments,Gradients,Curves,Gauge,Permanent Way(including ballast, ties, fish-plates and other rail joints, and rails),Bridges,Rack(or cog)Railways,Cable Railways,Mono-Rail Systems,Switches and Cross-overs,Railway Stations(for passengers and for freight),Round Houses for Locomotives, andSwitching Yards. This treatise on construction is equivalent to 22 pages of the type and size of this Guide, and is in itself an adequate brief manual for the use of the construction engineer, with valuable illustrations in the text.
(2)Locomotive Power, including subsections onFundamental Relations,Methods of Applying Locomotive Power,General Locomotive Efficiency,Analysis of Train Resistance,Vehicle Resistance,Engine Resistance,Maximum Boiler Power,Draught,The Steam Engine,Tractive Force,Engine Efficiency,Piston Speed,Compound Locomotives,Balancing of Locomotives,Classes of Locomotives,Current Developments. This section of the article is a little longer than the preceding,—it would fill 25 pages of this Guide,—and has illustrations, tables, and formulae. It is written by Prof. Dalby, the principal British authority on locomotives.
(3)Rolling Stock, dealing with dining, sleeping, passenger and vestibule cars, wood and metal, their heating and lighting and their weight and speed; with freight cars, their weight and speed; and with car-couplers and brakes.
(4)Intra-Urban, or city street railways, elevated and underground, by W. B. Parsons, formerly chief engineer of the New York Rapid Transit Commission.
(5)Light Railwaysfor rural and interurbanservice and portable railways.
Other Major Articles
The next article to be read isTramway(Vol. 27, p. 159), dealing with the earliest railways used in coal mines, American and English, without locomotive power; and with modern street railways,—surface lines, steam, cable and electric, the last being subdivided into three classes, overhead or trolley, open conduit and closed conduit. The different types of street cars are discussed, and there are summaries of legislation and of commercial results, with general statistics.
The articleTraction(Vol. 27, p. 118, equivalent to more than 20 pages of this Guide) is by Louis Duncan, formerly head of the department of electrical engineering in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. It deals principally with electric traction and thus supplements the articleTramway.Steamtraction, as treated in the section onLocomotive Powerin the articleRailways, by Prof. Dalby, may be studied further in the articleSteam-Engine(Vol. 25, p. 818), and especially that part of the article which deals with locomotives (§ 104, p. 841).
The civil engineer engaged in railway work will profit by reading, besides the articles already mentioned: Professor W. C. Unwin’s article (Vol. 4, p. 533) onBridges, especially pp. 545 and 547 seq., dealing with railway bridges; and the articleTunnel(Vol. 27, p. 399), by H. A. Carson, engineer-in-charge of the Boston Subway and of the East Boston Tunnel, which would make about 30 pages if printed in the form of this Guide. This article classifies tunnels into river, mountain and town (subway) tunnels, and gives special information about rail corrosion and ventilation in tunnels.
The equipment engineer will add to the topics already listed (cars, engines, etc.) the articleSignal, §Railway Signalling(Vol. 25, p. 73; as long as 15 pages of this Guide), by B. B. Adams, of theRailway Age Gazette, and H. M. Ross, of the LondonTimesEngineering Supplement; andBrake(Vol. 4, p. 414).
Legislation
On the history of railroading and on statistics there is much information in the Britannica in local articles. It has already been remarked that each article dealing with a state of the United States, or any of the commercial countries of the world, has a section onCommunications, giving railway mileage and describing the principal railway lines in the area; and that articles on cities and towns give accurate and minute information about railway service. In pursuing the study of legislation bearing on railways, and especially on rate legislation, the student should read the articleInterstate Commerce(Vol. 14, p. 711), by Prof. Frank A. Fetter of Princeton University, a part at least of the articleTrusts(Vol. 27, p. 334), by Prof. J. W. Jenks, of New York University (formerly of Cornell), parts of the article on the history of the United States, in the same volume, especially pp. 315, 316, 353, 367, 394, 395, 396, 406, 407, and, in separate state articles, the sections on laws and history, notablyNorth Carolinafor the rate cases of 1907 (Vol. 19, p. 778),Nebraskafor the maximum freight rate of 1893 (Vol. 19, p. 329),Wisconsinon radical rate legislation and on physical valuation forad valoremtax of railways (Vol. 28, p. 744).
Biographies
The biographical articles in the new Britannica also have much important information for the student of railways.
Among the names of inventors whose lives are outlined are:Thomas Newcomen(Vol. 19, p. 475),James Watt(Vol. 28, p. 414),Matthew Boulton(Vol. 4, p. 324),GeorgeandRobert Stephenson(Vol. 25, pp. 888 and 889),Richard Trevithick(Vol. 27, p. 256),Oliver Evans(Vol. 10, p. 2),John Ericsson(Vol. 9, p. 740),Peter Cooper(Vol. 7, p. 80), andSir Marc I.Brunel(Vol. 4, p. 682); among the names of engineers and railway and bridge buildersGeorge Parker Bidder(Vol. 3, p. 918),Thomas Brassey(Vol. 4, p. 435),John Cockerill(Vol. 6, p. 625),Erastus Corning(Vol. 7, p. 174),James Buchanan Eads(Vol. 8, p. 789),Sir William Fairbairn(Vol. 19, p. 129),Sir John Fowler(Vol. 10, p. 761),James Henry Greathead(Vol. 12, p. 398),Sir John Hawkshaw(Vol. 13, p. 99),William Kingsford(Vol. 15, p. 817),Sir Robert Gillespie Reid(Vol. 23, p. 50),John Rennie(Vol. 23, p. 101), andJ. A. Roebling(Vol. 23, p. 450); and among railway financiers,—to take only a few American names,—theVanderbilts(Vol. 27, p. 885),Jay Gould(Vol. 12, p. 284),Asa Packer(Vol. 20, p. 441) andE. H. Harriman(Vol. 13, p. 18).
In such articles asStrikes and Lock Outs(Vol. 25, p. 1024) andTrade Unions(Vol. 27, p. 140), each with American sections by Carroll D. Wright, late U. S. Commissioner of Labor, the reader will find valuable assistance in studying railway economics as affected by the relations of labour and capital.
For marine transportation see the next chapter in this Guide.
The following is a brief list of articles, and of sections of articles, of interest to all railroad men: