Belgium and Holland
The art of Belgium and Holland in the 19th century is to be studied in Prof. Muther’s sections on these two countries (pp. 506–509) in the articlePainting, and in such separate articles asLeys,Alfred Stevens(to be distinguished from the English sculptor),Braekeleer,Willems,Clays,Portaels,Wauters,Constantin Meunier,Verlat, thede Vriendts,Khnopff, already mentioned as a critic and a contributor to the Britannica,—all these are Belgians; and, in Holland,Israëls,Maris,Mauve.
Germany
Going back to the close of the 18th century for German painters influenced by Winckelmann, the important articles areMengsandCarstens. SeeOverbeck, by J. Beavington Atkinson for the German “pre-Raphaelite” movement—and the articles,Peter von Cornelius, by W. Cave Thomas, author ofMural or Monumental Education; theSchadows, by J. B. Atkinson;Veit, andSchnorr. The other more important names before 1870 are:Bethel,Schwind,AchenbachandPreller. The glorification of the Empire and of Prussia is the theme of the new historical school: see particularlyMenzel. The study of the old masters is to be seen inKaulbachandLenbach. Among the members of a more modern school are:Liebermann,Kalckreuth,Keller,Uhde; of another reaction,Feuerbach,Thoma, andBöcklin, by Henri Frantz; and of a sculptural orderKlingerandStuck.
Austria-Hungary
As for Austria-Hungary, we may here mention only three articles:Makart,Pettekofen, andMunkacsy, by E. F. Strange.
Italy
In Italy since the great days of the 17th century, we may mentionTiepolo,CanaleandGuardibefore the 19th century, and in that eraSegantini,Giovanni Costa, andMuzzioli.
Spain
The art of Spain has not been touched heretofore in this summary. For the 16th century see the articlesCoello,Becerra,Vincente Joanes,Navarrete,El Greco; and for the 17th,theSpanish century,Herrera, his great pupilVelazquez, by J. Forbes White and P. G. Konody;Cano, andZurbaranandMurillo, both by W. M. Rossetti. In the 18th century the only great Spanish artist wasGoya y Lucientes, painter and etcher. On the 19th century see:Fortuny, by Alfred Lys Baldry, art critic of the LondonGlobe;Pradilla;Benlliure y Gil;Sorolla y Bastida;Madrazo y Kunt;Zuloaga.
Other European Countries
To the other countries of Europe, fully as their painting is treated in the Britannica, we can devote little space here. It may suffice to mention the NorwegianHans Dahland the RussiansRepinandVereschagin.
The United States
On painting in the United States, see the section in the articlePainting, byProf. J. C. Van Dyke of Rutgers College (Vol. 20, pp. 518–519); and the articlesJ. S. Copley,Benjamin West,John Trumbull,Gilbert Stuart,John Vanderlyn,Washington Allston,Rembrandt Peale,J. W. Jarvis,Thomas Sully,Thomas Cole,Asher B. Durand,J. F. Kensett,F. E. Church,Chester Harding,Henry Inman,William Page,G. P. A. Healy,Daniel Huntington,W. S. Mount,W. M. Hunt,John La Farge,George Fuller,Eastman Johnson,Elihu Vedder,Leonard Ochtman,Winslow Homer,A. H. Wyant,George Inness,Homer D. Martin,Swain Gifford, theMorans,Jervis McEntee,D. W. Tryon,Albert Bierstadt,W. H. Beard,Blashfield,J. W. Alexander,W. M. Chase,Duveneck,Cecilia Beaux,W. H. Low,H. S. Mowbray,H. O. Tanner,E. C. Tarbell,R. W. Vonnoh,—and the Americans who have made their home and their fame in Europe, likeWhistler,Sargent,E. A. AbbeyandJ. J. Shannon, and those whose work is Continental, or even purely Parisian in tone, likeW. T. Dannat,George Hitchcock,Gari Melchers,C. S. Pearce,E. L. WeeksandWalter Gay. On illustrators, see the articles:Howard Pyle,Frederick Remington,C. S. Reinhart,W. T. Smedley,Robert Blum,Charles Dana Gibson,W. Hamilton Gibson, the wood-engraverTimothy Cole, the etcherJoseph Pennell; and for caricature the articleThomas Nastand the section on the United States in M. H. Spielmann’s articleCaricature(Vol. 5, pp. 334–335).
For a fuller list of articles on painting, drawing, engraving, etc., with articles on sculpture, see the end of the next chapterSculpture.
The Main Article
The Britannica articleSculpture(Vol. 24, p. 488; equivalent to 90 pages of this Guide) is a complete treatise on the technique and history of this branch of art by J. H. Middleton, late professor of Fine Art, Cambridge, M. H. Spielmann, former editor of theMagazine of Art, P. G. Konody, art critic of theObserverandDaily Mail, and, for French sculpture, Léonce Bénédite, keeper of the Luxembourg Museum and author ofHistoire des Beaux Arts. It is illustrated with 10 full page plates as follows: I and II.Medieval, etc., with examples of the work of Jacopo della Quercia, Donatello (2), Andrea Pisano, Michelangelo, Verrocchio and Leopardo, Luca della Robbia, Benvenuto Cellini, Peter Vischer, Bernini, Goujon, Canova, Houdon, Coysevox; III. IV. V.Modern British—Alfred Stevens, Sir George Frampton, Lord Leighton, Harry Bates, H. H. Armstead, G. F. Watts (2), A. Gilbert, F. W. Pomeroy, E. Onslow Ford, W. Hamo Thornycroft (2), Alfred Drury, F. Derwent Wood, Bertram Mackennal, Albert Toft, Havard Thomas, W. Goscombe John, W. R. Colton (2), Sir Charles Lawes-Wittewronge, Sir J. Edgar Boehm, Thomas Brock; VI.American—J. Q. A. Ward, D. C. French and E.C. Potter, Augustus St. Gaudens, Frederick MacMonnies; VII. VIII. and IX.Modern French—Falguière, Barrias, Delaplanche, Idrac, Becquer, L. Gérôme, Marqueste, Longepied, Frémiet, Guillaume, Puech, Saint-Marceaux, Mercié, Rodin, Michel, Dalou, Aubé, Chapu, Bloche, Gardet, Bartholomé; and X.Other Foreign Countries—Sinding, Begas, Ximenes, Querol, Antokolski, Lambeaux, Meunier.
Other General Articles
This article opens with an account of technical methods of sculpture which should be supplemented by other articles, which deal also with history and criticism:Wood-Carving(Vols. 28, p. 791), by Franklyn Arden Crallan, author ofGothic Wood-carving, with four plates and with descriptions not merely of Gothic and Renaissance work in Europe, but of Coptic, Mahommedan, Persian, Indian and Burmese, Chinese and Japanese, and the carving done by savage races;Ivory(Vol. 15, especially pp. 95–98, with 5 illustrations), by A. Maskell, author ofIvories;Chryselephantine;Metal-Work(Vol. 18, p. 205), (with 9 text cuts and 2 full page plates), by Prof. J. H. Middleton, Cambridge, and John Starkie Gardner, author ofArmour in EnglandandIron Work;Gem(Vol. 11, p. 560; with 2 full page plates containing 76 illustrations, mostly of antique gems, besides 10 cuts in the text) by Alexander Stuart Murray, author ofHistory of Greek Sculpture,Terra Cotta Sarcophagi, etc., and Arthur Hamilton Smith, keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum;Cameo;Intaglio;Seals(Vol. 24, p. 539; with 9 illustrations), by Sir E. Maunde Thompson, late director British Museum;Numismatics(Vol. 19, p. 869; equivalent to 120 pages of this Guide; with 6 plates—20 Greek coins, 27 Greek and Roman coins, 23 Roman and Medieval coins, 22 Oriental coins, 8 modern coins and medals, and 4 Italian medals—and 11 cuts illustrating modern coins) by Reginald Stuart Poole, formerly keeper department coins and medals, British Museum, Herbert Appold Grueber, keeper of the same department in 1906–1912, and George Francis Hill, assistant keeper of this department;Medal(Vol. 18, especially pp. 1 and 2, with 2 plates, showing 32 medals), by M. H. Spielmann;Terra Cotta(Vol. 26, p. 652, with 2 plates, 12 illustrations), by William Burton, author ofEnglish Stoneware and Earthenwareand H. Beauchamp Walters, assistant keeper Greek and Roman antiquities, British Museum;Plate(Vol. 21, p. 789; with 31 illustrations), by H. R. H. Hall, author ofThe Oldest Civilization of Greece, H. Stuart Jones, author ofThe Roman Empire, and E. Alfred Jones, author ofOld English Gold Plate, etc.;Alto-relievo;Basso-Relievo;ReliefandRepoussé, by M. H. Spielmann;Wax Figures;Effigies, Monumental, by the late Charles Boutell, author ofA Manual of British Archaeology, and M. H. Spielmann.
History of Sculpture
Early sculpture is separately treated. For “Classical” sculpture see the articlesGreek Artby Percy Gardner andRoman Artby H. Stuart Jones, both elaborately illustrated and devoting particular attention to statuary, plate; etc. See also the illustrations in the articles mentioned in the last paragraph,—especiallyGem,Numismatics,Terra Cotta; and those in the articleArchitectureand subsidiary articles mentioned in the chapter of this GuideFor the Architect. And on Greek art see the articlePergamumand the sketches of the great sculptors of Greece:
See also the articleByzantine Art; and for sculpture elsewhere the sectionsArtin the articlesEgypt,China,Japan.
Medieval
For medieval sculpture, almost entirely an adjunct to architecture and particularly ecclesiastical architecture, see, besides the treatment in the historical part of the articleSculpture(pp. 490–496), the articlesArchitectureandEffigies, Monumental, comparing with the latter the articleBrasses, Monumental(with 13 illustrations).
Renaissance
The close of the medieval period and the beginning of the more individualistic Renaissance are marked by the occurrence of the names of great individual artists, whose biographies are the best summary of the sculpture of the period.
See on Italy: the articlesNiccola Pisano(Vol. 20, p. 648);Vittore Pisano(Vol. 20, p. 649);Andrea Pisano(Vol. 20, p. 647) and the article immediately following on his son,Giovanni Pisano; each of these four with an illustration;Vittore Pisanoor Pisanello;AgostinoandAgnolo da Siena(Vol. 1, p. 381);Orcagna, “the last great master of the Gothic period,” by J. H. Middleton;Della Quercia, who “heralds ... the boldest and most original achievements of two generations hence,” by E. T. Strange, assistant keeper, South Kensington;Ghiberti, “the first of the great sculptors of the Renaissance”;Donatello, by P. G Konody;Michelozzo;Della Robbiafamily (with 3 illustrations), by J. H. Middleton and William Burton, author ofEnglish Stoneware and Earthenware;Leonardo, by Sir Sidney Colvin;Verrocchio, by J. H. Middleton;Leopardo;Pollaiuolo;Michelangelo, by Sir Sidney Colvin;Bandinelli;Ammanati; and in the 16th century period of declineGiovanni da Bologna,Lombardofamily,Cellini, by W. M. Rossetti and E. Alfred Jones, author ofOld English Gold Plate, etc.
On the Renaissance in France:Jean Goujon,Sarrazin.
—In Germany:Veit Stoss,Adam Krafft, theVischers.
—In England: the ItalianTorrigiano.
—In Spain:Alonzo Cano,Montañes,Pedro de Mena,Zarcillo.
17th and 18th Century
Some of the names just mentioned are those of 17th century artists. But the rococo character of the period is best seen in Italy: see the articlesBernini,Algardi, and, for France,GirardonandPuget. With the 18th century came a classical revival for which the great names areCanovaandThorwaldsen: see the articles on these sculptors, that on Canova being by W. M. Rossetti. See also the articles on Thorwaldsen’s followers,Sergel,ByströmandFogelberg. The more important articles on French sculpture in this period arePigalleandHoudon, the latter known to Americans by his portraits of our Revolutionary worthies. For English sculpture in the 17th and 18th centuries see:Nicholas Stone,Roubiliac, by M. H. Spielmann,Scheemakers,Nollekens,John Bacon, and, possibly most important,John Flaxman, by Sir Sidney Colvin. For Germany:Andreas Schlüter.
19th Century and Modern Schools
On the 19th century in Germany see the articles:Schadow,Rauch,Rietschel,Dannecker,Schwanthaler, and marking a sharp reaction,Reinhold Begas, and the younger men, known also as painters,Franz StuckandMax Klinger.
On modern British sculpture see the articles:John Gibson,E. H. Baily,Thomas Banks,Sir Richard Westmacott, andAlfred Stevens; and, for the last thirty years,Jules Dalou,Lord Leighton, better known as a painter,E. Onslow FordandAlfred Gilbert, the most influential and important factors in the awakening, andThomas Woolner,Marochetti,Sir Edwin Landseer,Sir J. E. Boehm,J. H. Foley,H. H. Armstead,Thomas Brock,W. Hamo Thornycroft,John M. Swan,Harry Bates,G. F. Watts. Scores of others are criticized and their work summarized on pp. 501–508 in the articleSculpture.
France
The 19th century in France opened with a pseudo-Roman school, and among the names of this period arePradier,Rude,P. J. David,Etex, andCarpeauxandBarye, by Henri Frantz, who mark a transition. For the more modern period seeGuillaume,Dubois,Falguière,Mercié,Frémiet,Gustave Crauck,Dalou,Rodin.
Other European Countries
In addition to the discussion of modern Belgian sculptors in the section on Belgium of the articleSculpturethere are separate articles onPaul de Vigne,Van der Stappen,Jef Lambeaux,Julien Dillens, andConstantin Meunier. For Italian sculpture in the 19th century seeBartolini, and the summary in the articleSculpture(Vol. 24, p. 513). Separate articles on Spanish sculptors areJose AlvarezandManuel Alvarez.
American Sculpture
In the United States there was little sculpture of native origin, and virtually none of the slightest merit, before the 19th century. The following list of articles in rough chronological order will supplement the outline in the articleSculpture(Vol. 24, p. 516):Horatio Greenough,Hiram Powers,Thomas Crawford,Henry Kirke Brown,William Rimmer,E. D. Palmer,Thomas Ball,L. W. Volk,Harriet G. Hosmer,J. Q. A. Ward,Launt Thompson,Larkin G. Mead,G. E. Bissell,Olin L. Warner,W. R. O’Donovan,Jonathan S. Hartley,Augustus Saint-Gaudens,D. C. French,J. J. Boyle,C. H. Niehaus,Lorado Taft,W. O. Partridge,Cyrus E. Dallin,A. P. Proctor,Charles Grafly,F. W. MacMonnies,George Gray Barnard,P. W. Bartlett,Hermon A. MacNeil,Karl Bitter,Borglum.
Summary
This chapter, and the one before, outline courses on these arts in the Britannica, but there are many articles on these topics to which no reference has been made in these pages. It may, therefore, be interestingto the student of these forms of art to have before him a list, fairly complete, of articles in the Britannica dealing with painting and sculpture. The following is such a list in alphabetical arrangement. The student should remember that the absence from the list—or from any similar list in the Guide—of a topic on which he wishes information does not mean that there is no information on the subject in the Britannica, but merely that there may be no separate article on the subject. In such cases let him turn to the general index (Vol. 29).