Addison, Steele and Swift
Pope
Burns
The Novel
On the 18th century literature see the chapter in the articleEnglish Literature(Vol. 9, pp. 631–636), by Thomas Seccombe, author ofThe Age of Johnson, etc.; and the articles:John Locke(Vol. 16, p. 844), by Prof. Alexander Campbell Fraser, Edinburgh;Joseph Addison(Vol. 1, p. 184), by William Spalding and Austin Dobson;Sir Richard Steele(Vol. 25, p. 865), by William Minto and Austin Dobson;Jonathan Swift(Vol. 26, p. 224), by Richard Garnett and Thomas Seccombe;John Arbuthnot(Vol. 2, p. 339),Bernard de Mandeville(Vol. 17, p. 559), by J. M. Mitchell;Bolingbroke(Vol. 4, p. 161), by P. C. Yorke;Alexander Pope(Vol. 22, p. 82), by William Minto and Margaret Bryant;Matthew Prior(Vol. 22, p. 359), by Austin Dobson;John Gay(Vol. 11, p. 540),Thomas Parnell(Vol. 20, p. 859),Mark Akenside(Vol. 1, p. 454),James Thomson(Vol. 26, p. 871) andThomas Gray(Vol. 12, p. 392), both by D. C. Tovey, editor of Gray’s Letters;William Collins(Vol. 6, p. 692), by Edmund Gosse;Christopher Smart(Vol. 25, p. 249),William Cowper(Vol. 7, p. 349) andGeorge Crabbe(Vol. 7, p. 358), by Clement K. Shorter, editor ofThe Sphere,William Blake(Vol. 4, p. 36), by J. W. Comyns-Carr, author ofEssays on Art;William Shenstone(Vol. 24, p. 839),Thomas Chatterton(Vol. 6, p. 10),Thomas Percy(Vol. 21, p. 136),Thomas Warton(Vol. 28, p. 337),Robert Burns(Vol. 4, p. 856), by John Nichol, the biographer of Burns, Byron and Carlyle; among the prose writers, forerunners of the novel,Daniel Defoe(Vol. 7, p. 927),Samuel Richardson(Vol. 23, p. 300) andHenry Fielding(Vol.10, p. 324), both by Austin Dobson,Tobias Smollett(Vol. 25, p. 278), by Thomas Seccombe, andLaurence Sterne(Vol. 25, p. 901), by William Minto and Austin Dobson; the other great prose writers of the age,|Johnson|Samuel Johnson(Vol. 15, p. 463), by Lord Macaulay and Thomas Seccombe,|Goldsmith|Oliver Goldsmith(Vol. 12, p. 214), by Lord Macaulay and Austin Dobson,Lord Chesterfield(Vol. 6, p. 109), by Austin Dobson, andHoratio Walpole(Vol. 28, p. 288), by W. P. Courtney; in a lesser group,James Boswell(Vol. 4, p. 297), by Thomas Seccombe,Frances D’Arblay, “Fanny Burney” (Vol. 7, p. 826),Hester Lynch Piozzi(Vol. 21, p. 632),Gilbert White(Vol. 28, p. 599);|History|the historiansDavid Hume(Vol. 13, p. 876), by Robert Adamson and J. M. Mitchell,William Robertson(Vol. 23, p. 406) andEdward Gibbon(Vol. 11, p. 927), by Prof. J. B. Bury, editor ofThe Decline and Fall; and the philosophers,Joseph Butler(Vol. 4, p. 882), by Robert Adamson and A. J. Grieve, Yorkshire United Independent College,|Philosophy|William Paley(Vol. 20, p. 628),Berkeley(Vol. 3, p. 779), by Robert Adamson and J. M. Mitchell,Thomas Reid(Vol. 23, p. 51), by Prof. A. Seth Pringle-Pattison, Edinburgh,David Hartley(Vol. 13, p. 35),Abraham Tucker(Vol. 27, p. 361),Thomas Paine(Vol. 20, p. 456),Joseph Priestly(Vol. 22, p. 322),Richard Price(Vol. 22, p. 314), by J. M. Mitchell;William Godwin(Vol. 12, p. 177),|Politics|Sir James Mackintosh(Vol. 17, p. 259),Edmund Burke(Vol. 4, p. 824), by John Morley, and “Junius” (Vol. 15, p. 557),—see alsoSir Philip Francis(Vol. 10, p. 941).
Lake Poets
Byron
Criticism
History
For the 19th century see the last section of the articleEnglish Literature(Vol. 9, pp. 636–645), by Thomas Seccombe; and the articles:William Wordsworth(Vol. 28, p. 826), by William Minto and Hugh Chisholm;S. T. Coleridge(Vol. 6, p. 678), by J. Mackinnon Robertson, author ofModern Humanists, etc., Hugh Chisholm, and the Very Rev. George David Boyle;Charles Lamb(Vol. 16, p. 104), by E. V. Lucas, editor of Lamb;William Hazlitt(Vol. 13, p. 119),Leigh Hunt(Vol. 13, p. 934);De Quincey(Vol. 8, p. 61), by J. Ritchie Findlay, author ofPersonal Recollections of De Quincey;Keats(Vol. 15, p. 708), by A. C. Swinburne and Margaret Bryant;Thomas Lovell Beddoes(Vol. 3, p. 614),Thomas Hood(Vol. 13, p. 666),Landor(Vol. 16, p. 161), by A. C. Swinburne;Shelley(Vol. 24, p. 827), by W. M. Rossetti;Southey(Vol. 25, p. 511),Campbell(Vol. 5, p. 130),Thomas Moore(Vol. 18, p. 810),Lord Byron(Vol. 4, p. 897), by E. Hartley Coleridge, editor ofByron’s Poems;Francis Jeffrey(Vol. 15, p. 307),Sydney Smith(Vol. 25, p. 268),J. G. Lockhart(Vol. 16, p. 853),William Gifford(Vol. 12, p. 5),Bentham(Vol. 3, p. 747), by Dr. T. E. Holland, formerly professor of international law, Oxford,Malthus(Vol. 17, p. 515),Henry Hallam(Vol. 12, p. 851), by Lord Lochee of Gowrie;William Roscoe(Vol. 23, p. 726), by W. E. A. Axon, Manchester Libraries;Lingard(Vol. 16, p. 728),Henry Hart Milman(Vol. 18, p. 476),Macaulay(Vol. 17, p. 193), by Mark Pattison;Thirlwall(Vol. 26, p. 851),William Mitford(Vol. 18, p. 620),Grote(Vol. 12, p. 619), by J. M. Mitchell, edition of Grote’sGreece,James Mill(Vol. 18, p. 453),Sir William Napier(Vol. 19, p. 175),William Cobbett(Vol. 6, p. 606),Sir Walter Scott(Vol. 24, p. 469),by William Minto;|Fiction|Lever(Vol. 16, pp. 508–510),Marryat(Vol. 17, p. 759),Bulwer Lytton(Vol. 17, p. 185), by Arthur Waugh;Beaconsfield(Vol. 3, p. 563), by Frederick Greenwood;Jane Austen(Vol. 2, p. 936), by E. V. Lucas;Maria Edgeworth(Vol. 8, p. 934),Harriet Martineau(Vol. 17, p. 796),Mary Russell Mitford(Vol. 18, p. 619),Elizabeth Cleghorn Gaskell(Vol. 11, p. 501) and theBrontës(Vol. 4, p. 637), by C. K. Shorter;Thomas Love Peacock(Vol. 21, p. 21), by Richard Garnett;George Meredith(Vol. 18, p. 160), by Hugh Chisholm;|Tennyson, Browning and Carlyle|Tennyson(Vol. 26, p. 630), by E. Gosse;Elizabeth Barrett Browning(Vol. 4, p. 668), by Alice Meynell;Robert Browning(Vol. 4, p. 670) andCarlyle(Vol. 5, p. 349), both by Sir Leslie Stephen;Charles Read(Vol. 22, p. 938),Dickens(Vol. 8, p. 178), by Thomas Seccombe;|Victorian Novelists|Thackeray(Vol. 26, p. 716), by W. H. Pollock;George Eliot(Vol. 9, p. 275), by Mrs. Craigie (“John Oliver Hobbes”);Anthony Trollope(Vol. 27, p. 301),Wilkie Collins(Vol. 6, p. 693),CharlesandHenry Kingsley(Vol. 15, p. 817);Herbert Spencer(Vol. 25, p. 634), by F. C. S. Schiller, author ofStudies in Humanism, etc.;|Natural Science|John Stuart Mill(Vol. 18, p. 454), by William Minto and J. M. Mitchell;Charles Darwin(Vol. 7, p. 840), by Prof. E. B. Poulton, Oxford;Huxley(Vol. 14, p. 17), by Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer;J. R. Green(Vol. 12, p. 534),|History|William Stubbs(Vol. 25, p. 1048),E. A. Freeman(Vol. 11, p. 79) andJ. A. Froude(Vol. 11, p. 252), all by William Hunt, formerly president Royal Historical Society;Lecky(Vol. 16, p. 354),Buckle(Vol. 4, p. 732),Maine(Vol. 17, p. 432), by Sir Frederick Pollock;George Borrow(Vol. 4, p. 275), by Theodore Watts-Dunton;|Arnold|Edward Fitzgerald(Vol. 10, p. 443), by E. Gosse;Matthew Arnold(Vol. 2, p. 635), by Theodore Watts-Dunton and Sir Joshua Girling Fitch;|Ruskin|John Ruskin(Vol. 23, p. 858), by Frederic Harrison;Dante Gabriel Rossetti(Vol. 23, p. 747), by Theodore Watts-Dunton and F. G. Stephens, formerly art-critic of theAthenaeum;Swinburne(Vol. 26, p. 234), by E. Gosse;William Morris(Vol. 18, p. 871),John Addington Symonds(Vol. 26, p. 286) andWalter Pater(Vol. 20, p. 910) all by Arthur Waugh;|Oxford Movement|Newman(Vol. 19, p. 517), by Arthur Wollaston Hutton, biographer of Manning;John Keble(Vol. 15, p. 710),Edward Bouverie Pusey(Vol. 22, p. 667),Richard Jefferies(Vol. 15, p. 300), by Sir Walter Besant, biographer of Jeffries;Thomas Hardy(Vol. 12, p. 946), by Arthur Symons;Robert Stevenson(Vol. 25, p. 907), by E. Gosse; and among later names—the historiansLord Acton(Vol. 1, p. 159), by Hugh Chisholm,|History|Mandell Creighton(Vol. 7, p. 401),Morley(Vol. 18, p. 841),Bryce(Vol. 4, p. 699) andBury(Vol. 4, p. 867); the novelistsWilliam Black(Vol. 4, p. 19),Blackmore(Vol. 4, p. 24),M. E. Braddon(Vol. 4, p. 369),Mrs. Humphry Ward(Vol. 28, p. 320),Marie Corelli(Vol. 7, p. 143),Hall Caine(Vol. 4, p. 949),George Gissing(Vol. 12, p. 52),George Moore(Vol. 18, p. 808),H. G. Wells(Vol. 28, p. 514),William De Morgan(Vol. 8, p. 10),|Fiction|Rudyard Kipling(Vol. 15, p. 825), by W. Price James, author ofRomantic Professions, etc.; the critics and essayistsWalter Bagehot(Vol. 3, p. 198),by Richard Garnett,Stopford A. Brook(Vol. 4, p. 645),Mark Pattison(Vol. 20, p. 937),|Essays and Criticism|Leslie Stephen(Vol. 25, p. 885), by Thomas Seccombe,H. D. Traill(Vol. 27, p. 155),George Saintsbury(Vol. 24, p. 45),Sidney Colvin(Vol. 6, p. 748),Watts-Dunton(Vol. 28, p. 422),R. C. Jebb(Vol. 15, p. 299),F. W. H. Myers(Vol. 19, p. 111),Edward Dowden(Vol. 8, p. 456),William Archer(Vol. 2, p. 362),Richard Garnett(Vol. 11, p. 471),Edmund Gosse(Vol. 12, p. 268),Andrew Lang(Vol. 16, p. 171),G. K. Chesterton(Vol. 6, p. 111),Arthur Symons(Vol. 26, p. 287),—a list in which it is interesting to note how many are contributors to the Encyclopaedia Britannica; of poets,|Recent Poetry|Robert Bridges(Vol. 4, p. 532), so recently named poet-laureate, his predecessorAlfred Austin(Vol. 2, p. 938),William Watson(Vol. 28, p. 414), by W. Price James,W. B. Yeats(Vol. 28, p. 909),William Sharp, “Fiona Macleod” (Vol. 24, p. 811),Francis Thompson(Vol. 26, p. 869),John Davidson(Vol. 7, p. 863),Sir W. S. Gilbert(Vol. 12, p. 9), by Thomas Seccombe;Owen Seaman(Vol. 24, p. 543),Laurence Binyon(Vol. 3, p. 952),H. J. Newbolt(Vol. 19, p. 463),Stephen Phillips(Vol. 21, p. 407),Alice Meynell(Vol. 18, p. 350); and of the younger dramatists,|Modern Drama|Oscar Wilde(Vol. 28, p. 632), by Hugh Chisholm,Sir A. W. Pinero(Vol. 21, p. 625),A. H. Jones(Vol. 15, p. 498),J. M. Barrie(Vol. 3, p. 435), by W. Price James;G. Bernard Shaw(Vol. 24, p. 812),—and see also underDrama(Vol. 8, especially pp. 534–538).
The article in the Britannica on German Literature (Vol. 11, p. 783; equivalent to 55 pages of this Guide) is by Professor John George Robertson, University of London, author ofHistory of German Literature. This article is divided into six sections, and following this scheme the course of reading below is divided into six parts, in connection with each of which the reader should first peruse the correspondingly numbered section in the articleGerman Literature.
Old High German
I.The Old High German Period, 750–1050:—the articlesUlfilas(Vol. 27, p. 565), by Charles Anderson Scott, author ofUlfilas, Apostle of the Goths;Heliand(Vol. 13, p. 221), by Henry Bradley, author ofThe Story of the Goths;Einhard(Vol. 9, p. 134), by A. W. Holland;Notker(Vol. 19, p. 824) andHrosvitha(Vol. 13, p. 842), by A. W. Ward—and see Prof. Ward on the medieval drama in the articleDrama(Vol. 8, especially p. 497).
Middle Period
II.The Middle High German Period, 1050–1350:—the articlesRomance(Vol. 23, p. 500), by George Saintsbury;Waltharius(Vol. 28, p. 298),Nibelungenlied(Vol. 19, pp. 637–640),Gudrun(Vol. 12, p. 668),Dietrich of Bern(Vol. 8, p. 221),Ortnit(Vol. 20, p. 341),Wolfdietrich(Vol. 28, p. 772),HelDENBUCH(Vol. 13, p. 218),Lay of Hildebrand(Vol. 13, p. 460), by J. G. Robertson;Ruodlieb(Vol. 23, p. 854),Arthurian Legend(Vol. 2, p. 684),Perceval(Vol. 21, p. 132), andTristan(Vol. 27, pp. 292–294), by J. L. Weston, author ofLegends of the Wagner Drama;Hartmann Von Aue(Vol. 13, p. 37),Gottfried von Strassburg(Vol. 12, p. 277),Wolfram von Eschenbach(Vol. 28, p. 775), by J. L. Weston;Walther von der Vogelweide(Vol. 28, p. 299),Minnesingers(Vol. 18, p. 547),Freidank(Vol. 11, p. 94),Conrad of Würzburg(Vol. 6, p. 968).
14th and 15th Centuries
III.The Transition Period, 1350–1600:—the articlesFrauenlob(Vol. 11, p. 42),Reynard the Fox(Vol. 23, p. 226),Sebastian Brant(Vol. 4, p. 431),Maximilian I.(Vol. 17, p. 922), by A. W. Holland;Meistersinger(Vol. 18, p. 86) andEulenspiegel(Vol. 9, p. 887), by J. G. Robertson;Hans Sachs(Vol. 23, p. 972),Tauler(Vol. 26, p. 452),Geiler von Kaiserberg(Vol. 11, p. 553),Erasmus(Vol. 9, p. 727), by Mark Pattison and P. S. Allen, editor of the Oxford Erasmus;Reuchlin(Vol. 23, p. 204), by W. Robertson Smith;Ulrich von Hutten(Vol. 14, p. 14), by the Very Rev. G. W. Kitchin, Dean of Durham;Martin Luther(Vol. 17, p. 133), by Dr. T. M. Lindsay, author ofA History of the Reformation;Erasmus Alberus(Vol. 1, p. 504),Thomas Murner(Vol. 19, p. 37),Johann Fischart(Vol. 10, p. 425),Philipp Nikodemus Frischlin(Vol. 11, p. 232),Jörg Wickram(Vol. 28, p. 619),Ayrer(Vol. 3, p. 74),Faust(Vol. 10, p. 210).
Renaissance
IV.The Renaissance, 1600–1740:—the articlesPaul Gerhardt(Vol. 11, p. 768),Jakob Boehme(Vol. 4, p. 113),Georg Rudolf Weckherlin(Vol. 28, p. 464),Martin Opitz(Vol. 20, p. 129),Georg Philipp Harsdörffer(Vol. 13, p. 29),Simon Dach(Vol. 7, p. 726),Paul Fleming(Vol. 10, p. 494), vonLogau(Vol. 16, p. 877),Abraham a Sancta Clara(Vol. 1, p. 72),Johann von Rist(Vol. 23, p. 366),Andreas Gryphius(Vol. 12, p. 642),Moscherosch(Vol. 18, p. 890),Grimmelshausen(Vol. 12, p. 603),Pufendorf(Vol. 22, p. 634),Thomasius(Vol. 26, p. 868),Christian Wolff(Vol. 28, p. 774), by Andrew Seth Pringle-Pattison;Leibnitz(Vol. 16, p. 385), by Prof. W. R. Sorley, Cambridge;Spener(Vol. 25, p. 638), vonCanitz(Vol. 5, p. 183),Johann Christian Günther(Vol. 12, p. 730),B. H. Brockes(Vol. 4, p. 624), and, the dictator of the pseudo-classic age,Gottsched(Vol. 12, p. 279).
Classical Period
V.The Classical Period of Modern German Literature, 1740–1832:—the articlesJ. J. Bodmer(Vol. 4, p. 111),Gellert(Vol. 11, p. 558),Rabener(Vol. 22, p. 773),J. Elias Schlegel(Vol. 24, p. 329),Klopstock(Vol. 15, p. 848),Lavater(Vol. 16, p. 291),Gerstenberg(Vol. 11, p. 907),Gleim(Vol. 12, p. 118),Götz(Vol. 12, p. 289),Uz(Vol. 27, p. 828),Ramler(Vol. 22, p. 876),Hagedorn(Vol. 12, p. 813),Albrecht von Haller(Vol. 12, p. 855),E. C. von Kleist(Vol. 15, p. 846),Lessing(Vol. 16, pp. 496–499), by James Sime, author ofA History of Germany, and J. G. Robertson, and Lessing’s associates—Winckelmann(Vol. 28, p. 707), by James Sime and J. M. Mitchell,Moses Mendelssohn(Vol. 18, p. 120), by Israel Abrahams, author ofA Short History of Jewish Literature, andC. F. Nicolai(Vol. 19, p. 662)—;Wieland(Vol. 28, p. 621), by J. G. Robertson;M. A. von Thümmel(Vol. 26, p. 898),A. von Knigge(Vol. 15, p. 850),Musäus(Vol. 19, p. 43),Basedow(Vol. 3, p. 461),Pestalozzi(Vol. 21, p. 284),Hamann(Vol. 12, p. 869).
Sturm und Drang
On theSturm und Drangperiod, the articlesHerder(Vol. 13, p. 347), theStolbergs(Vol. 25, p. 953),J. H. Voss(Vol. 28, p. 215),Hölty(Vol. 13, p. 620),Bürger(Vol. 4, p. 812),M. Claudius(Vol. 6, p. 466),—all of the Göttingen school;Goethe(Vol. 12, p. 182), by J. G. Robertson; his imitators and followers,J. M. R. Lenz(Vol. 16, p. 431),Klinger(Vol. 15, p. 846),Friedrich(“Maler”)Müller(Vol. 18, p. 961),Heinse(Vol. 13, p. 216),K. P. Moritz(Vol. 18, p. 838); the great dramatist of the lateSturm und Drang,Schiller(Vol. 24, p. 324), by J. G. Robertson;A. W. Iffland(Vol. 14, p. 291),F. Jacobi(Vol. 15, p. 115).
On the classical period proper, the latter part of the article on Goethe and Schiller,Immanuel Kant(Vol. 15, p. 662), andJ. G. Fichte(Vol. 10, p. 313), both by Robert Adamson; the historiansSchlosser(Vol. 24, p. 342),Möser(Vol. 18, p. 895), andJohannes von Müller(Vol. 18, p. 962), by W. A. B. Coolidge; the scientistsJ. G. A. Forster(Vol. 10, p. 674),Alexander von Humboldt(Vol. 13, p. 873), by Agnes Mary Clerke, andKarl Wilhelm von Humboldt(Vol. 13, p. 875), by Archibald Henry Sayce; the dramatistKotzebue(Vol. 15, p. 919); the novelistRichter, “Jean Paul” (Vol. 23, p. 313); and the poetMatthisson(Vol. 17, p. 901).
Romanticism
On the romantic school: the articles on the founders,August Wilhelm SchlegelandFriedrich Schlegel(Vol. 24, p. 328 and 329),Tieck(Vol. 26, p. 962),Hölderlin(Vol. 13, p. 583), andNovalis(Vol. 19, p. 829); in the second Romantic school, the more realistic HeidelbergersKlemens Brentano(Vol. 4, p. 496),L. A. von Arnim(Vol. 2, p. 630),J. J. von Görres(Vol. 12, p. 260), and, owing much to the interest in folk-literature of the Heidelbergers, the brothersGrimm(Vol. 12, pp. 600–602), by Dr. Henry Sweet of the University of Oxford,Chamisso(Vol. 5, p. 825); the patriot poetsKörner(Vol. 15, p. 913) andArndt(Vol. 2, p. 627); the North GermansKleist(Vol. 15, p. 846),Zacharias Werner(Vol. 28, p. 523),Fouqué(Vol. 10, p. 749),E. T. W. Hoffman(Vol. 13, p. 561),Eichendorff(Vol. 9, p. 131), andRückert(Vol. 23, p. 813) andWilhelm Müller(Vol. 18, p. 963), who, like Byron, found romance, one in the Orient and the other in Greek struggles for liberty; and, of the Swabian school,Uhland(Vol. 27, p. 563),Kerner(Vol. 15, p. 757),Hauff(Vol. 13, p. 65), andMörike(Vol. 18, p. 837); and the philosopherSchelling(Vol. 24, p. 316).
1832–1870
VI.Literature since Goethe, 1832 onwards:—ReadG. W. F. Hegel(Vol. 13, p. 200, by the late Prof. William Wallace of Oxford and Prof. J. H. Muirhead, University of Birmingham), Schelling’s successor as a philosophic force in Germany; the articles on the “Young Germans”Heine(Vol. 13, p. 213), by J. Walter Ferrier and J. G. Robertson;Börne(Vol. 4, p. 255),Gutzkow(Vol. 12, p. 744) andLaube(Vol. 16, p. 276); and the historians and philosophersD. F. Strauss(Vol. 25, p. 1002),Gervinus(Vol. 11, p. 908),W. Menzel(Vol. 18, p. 147) andFeuerbach(Vol. 10, p. 303); the dramatists—some more closely connected with the preceding period,—Grabbe(Vol. 12, p. 306) andGrillparzer(Vol. 12, p. 596),Immermann(Vol. 14, p. 335) andPlaten-Hallermund(Vol. 21, p. 804),Holtei(Vol. 13, p. 619),Raupach(Vol. 22, p. 921) andMüllner(Vol. 18, p. 965), and, in Austria, besides Grillparzer,Collin(Vol. 6, p. 690),Münch-Bellinghausen, “Friedrich Halm” (Vol. 19, p. 2),Bauernfeld(Vol. 3, p. 538) andRaimund(Vol. 22, p. 861); the novelistsWillibald Alexis(Vol. 1, p. 576),Hauff(Vol. 13, p. 65) andZschokke(Vol. 28, p. 1046); and such poets of the ’30 and the ’48 asHerwegh(Vol. 13, p. 405),Freiligrath(Vol. 11, p. 94),Dingelstedt(Vol. 8, p. 275),Hoffmann von Fallersleben(Vol.13, p. 561), and, in Austria, a little earlier,Auersperg, “Anastasius Grün” (Vol. 2, p. 900); and the possibly greater poets who were less interested in politics,Geibel(Vol. 11, p. 550),Lenau(Vol. 16, p. 417),Strachwitz(Vol. 25, p. 976), andDroste-Hülshoff(Vol. 8, p. 591).
On the mid-century period:—the articles onSchopenhauer(Vol. 24, p. 372, by Prof. Wallace),—the philosopher of the new age; the natural scientistsVogt(Vol. 28, p. 172), andBüchner(Vol. 4, p. 719); the fiction writersSpielhagen(Vol. 25, p. 667),Gustav Freytag(Vol. 11, p. 212),Ebers(Vol. 8, p. 841),Dahn(Vol. 7, p. 734), “Charles Sealsfield” (Vol. 24, p. 543),Gerstäcker(Vol. 11, p. 906),Storm(Vol. 25, p. 968),Gottfried Keller(Vol. 15, p. 718); and, among those who portrayed peasant and provincial life,Bitzius, “Jeremias Gotthelf” (Vol. 4, p. 15),Auerbach(Vol. 2, p. 899),Stifter(Vol. 25, p. 915),Fritz Reuter(Vol. 23, p. 210); the dramatistsHebbel(Vol. 13, p. 165) andOtto Ludwig(Vol. 17, p. 114); in the Munich School,Bodenstedt(Vol. 4, p. 109),Scheffel(Vol. 24, p. 315),Baumbach(Vol. 3, p. 539),Hamerling(Vol. 12, p. 876),Heyse(Vol. 13, p. 438); and the Platt-Deutsch poetKlaus Groth(Vol. 12, p. 621).
Since 1870
On the period since 1870, see the articlesLassalle(Vol. 16, p. 235, by Thomas Kirkup, author ofAn Inquiry into Socialism) andMarx(Vol. 17, p. 807, by Eduard Bernstein, Socialist deputy on the Reichstag) for new economic views; andLotze(Vol. 17, p. 23), by J. T. Merz, author ofEuropean Thought in the XIXth Century, and Henry Sturt, author ofPersonal Idealism, andEduard von Hartmann(Vol. 13, p. 36) for philosophical compromises between science and metaphysics and between pessimism and idealism; the dramatistsAnzengruber(Vol. 2, p. 158),Paul Lindau(Vol. 16, p. 717), and, composer and dramatist,Richard Wagner(Vol. 28, p. 236), by W. S. Rockstro, author ofA Great History of Music, and D. F. Tovey, author ofEssays in Musical Analysis; the historiansSybel(Vol. 26, p. 275),Treitschke(Vol. 27, p. 238),Ranke(Vol. 22, p. 893),Mommsen(Vol. 18, p. 683) andBurckhardt(Vol. 4, p. 809); and Burckhardt’s friend, the early friend of Wagner and the type of a new spirit in German letters,Nietzsche(Vol. 19, p. 672), by F. C. S. Schiller, Oxford, author ofStudies in Humanism.
The most important names of the last few years areSudermann(Vol. 26, p. 20) andHauptmann(Vol. 13, p. 68). See, besides, the articles onWilhelm Jensen(Vol. 15, p. 321),Wilhelm Raabe(Vol. 22, p. 765),W. Busch(Vol. 4, p. 869),Peter Rosegger(Vol. 23, p. 734),Fontane(Vol. 10, p. 608),Ebner-Eschenbach(Vol. 8, p. 843),Franzos(Vol. 11, p. 38),K. F. Meyer(Vol. 18, p. 349),Richard Voss(Vol. 28, p. 215),Ernst von Wildenbruch(Vol. 28, p. 633), and for modern German drama, in the articleDrama(Vol. 8, especially pp. 535–536).
CHAPTER XLGREEK LITERATURE
In the articleLiteraturein the Britannica, by Professor James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, himself a specialist in Spanish literature, are these sentences:
The evolution of literature is completed in Greece, and there its subdivisions may best be studied. Epic poetry is represented by the Homeric cycle, lyric poetry by Tyrtaeus, dramatic poetry by Aeschylus, history by Herodotus, oratory by Pericles, philosophy by Plato, and criticism by Zoilus, the earliest of slashing reviewers; and in each department there is a long succession of illustrative names. Roughly speaking, all subsequent literature is imitative.
The Main Article
This testimony to the importance of Greek literature is all the more weighty as coming from one whose own field of criticism is in Romantic literature. The authority with which such an important subject as Greek literature is treated in the Britannica will be apparent to any classical student who notes the names of the contributors of the articles mentioned in the following course of reading. The key articleGreek Literature(Vol. 12, p. 507; equivalent to 65 pages of this Guide) is divided into three sections: Ancient (p. 507), Byzantine (p. 516) and Modern (p. 524). The second section, by Prof. Karl Krumbacher of Munich, author ofGeschichte der byzantinischen Literatur, and the third, by J. D. Bourchier, correspondent ofThe Times(London) in South-Eastern Europe, need not be dwelt upon here. To the ordinary student, in spite of the increasing interest shown in Byzantine and modern Hellenic literature, “Greek literature” must mean the literature of ancient Greece, and for him thefirstpart of the article will be the foundation of his study of the subject. This section of the article is by the late Sir Richard C. Jebb, professor of Greek at Glasgow and then at Cambridge, known as the biographer of Bentley, as the author of an excellent brief history of Greek literature, and as an authority on subdivisions of that subject so diverse as rhetoric and oratory on the one side and lyric and dramatic poetry on the other.
Jebb’s article divides ancient Greek literature into three periods:Early, including epic, elegiac, iambic and lyric poetry and coming down to 475 B.C.;Attic, 475–300 B.C., including tragic and comic drama and historical, oratorical and philosophical prose; andDecadence—Alexandrian, 300–146 B.C., and Greco-Roman, 146 B.C.–529 A.D.
Epic
In the first of these periods the student should supplement Professor Jebb’s treatment in the articleGreek Literatureby the following articles:Epic Poetry(Vol. 9, p. 681), a general sketch of the form by Edmund Gosse;Homer(Vol. 13, p. 626; equivalent to 40 pages of this Guide), by the late Prof. David Binning Monro of Oriel College, Oxford, editor of Homer and author ofGrammar of the Homeric Dialect,—and on the “Homeric question” see also the articlesAristarchusandF. A. Wolf;Hesiod(Vol. 13, p. 407), by James Davies, formerly head master Ludlow Grammar School, and John Henry Freese, formerly fellow St. John’s, Cambridge;Cycle(Vol. 7, p. 682; last part of the article); and the cyclic poets,Stasinus,Arctinus,Lesches, andCreophylus.
Elegy
For the elegy see Edmund Gosse’s articleElegy; and on the Greek elegists, the articlesCallinusandTyrtæusfor martial poetry,Mimnermusfor melancholyverse,Solonfor political and ethical poetry,TheognisandPhocylidesfor the gnomic elegy, andXenophanesfor the use of the measure in didactic philosophical verse. On iambic verse and its Greek writers before the time of the drama see:Iambic,Archilochus,Simonides of Amorgos, andHipponax.
Lyric Poetry
The third poetic form of the period, one which unfortunately has come down to us only in tantalizingly brief fragments—comparable to the quotations illustrating word-usage in our dictionaries—is the lyric. On this see the general articleLyrical Poetry, by Edmund Gosse, on this form in different literatures, and the sketches of the Greek lyrists the AeoliansAlcaeus(see also the articleAlcaics) andSappho, by Prof. John Arthur Platt, University College, London;PraxillaandErinna, Sappho’s rivals as lyric poetesses; the IonianAnacreon(see also the articleAnacreontics, by Edmund Gosse); the DorianAlcman;Stesichorus,ArionandIbycus;Simonides, who may be called Panhellenic;Pindar(Vol. 21, p. 617; equivalent to 10 pages of this Guide, by Sir R. C. Jebb), the only Greek lyrist whose work has come down to us in any considerable quantity, and whose poems are such remarkable examples of metrical structure;Bacchylides(Vol. 3, p. 121; equivalent to 9 pages of this Guide; also by Sir R. C. Jebb, who was one of the first editors), Pindar’s rival, whose poems until a few years ago were known to us only by brief quotations by grammarians, but who had the good luck to survive in papyrus lately found in Egypt; andTimotheusof Miletus, of whose “Persians” a valuable fragment was found in 1903 in what seems to be the oldest papyrus in existence.
Attic Literature
Comedy
The Attic period has two important developments—the drama, tragic and comic, and the beginnings of a Greek prose. For the drama read the part of Prof. A. W. Ward’s articleDramadealing with the Greek period (Vol. 8, pp. 488–493), and the articleComedy; and the articles on the great dramatists:—the tragediansThespis,Choerilus,PhrynichusandPratinasin the earlier period;Aeschylus(Vol. 1, p. 272; equivalent to 12 pages of this Guide), by Arthur Sidgwick, fellow of Corpus Christi, Oxford, and editor of the Oxford text of Aeschylus;Sophocles(Vol. 25, p. 424; equivalent to 12 pages of this Guide), by Lewis Campbell, editor and translator of this poet; andEuripides(Vol. 9, p. 901; equivalent to 15 pages of this Guide), in the main by Sir R. C. Jebb; and the comic poets,—the SicilianEpicharmus; the representatives of the Attic Old Comedy,Cratinus,Crates,Pherecrates,Eupolis,Phrynichus(not to be confused with the tragic poet of that name),Magnes,Plato(to be distinguished from the philosopher),—all these known to us only by allusions and chance quotations—andAristophanes(Vol. 2, p. 499; equivalent to 7 pages of this Guide, by Sir R. C. Jebb), the only Greek poet of whom we have complete plays and probably the greatest of the writers of Greek comedy; the names—they are little more—ofEubulus,Antiphanes,Alexisin the Middle Comedy; and in the New Comedy or third period,Philemon,Menander(by J. H. Freese), who was so highly esteemed and so constantly pilfered from by the Roman comic writers, and of whose plays large fragments have been found in the last few years;Diphilus,Apollodorusof Carystus,Posidippus,RhinthonandSotades.
History
The prose of the Attic period we may divide roughly into history, oratory and philosophy. On the historians readLogographi,Greece,Ancient History, “Authorities” (Vol. 12, p. 454), withcriticism of the historical accuracy of Herodotus, Thucydides, Diodorus, Plutarch, Xenophon, etc.,Hecataeusof Miletus,Herodotus(Vol. 13, p. 381; equivalent to 10 pages of this Guide), by the historian George Rawlinson and E. M. Walker, librarian of Queen’s College, Oxford;Thucydides(Vol. 26, p. 893; equivalent to 10 pages of the Guide), by Sir R. C. Jebb, and Malcolm Mitchell, editor of Grote’sGreece;Xenophon(Vol. 28, p. 885; equivalent to 7 pages in this Guide), by E. M. Walker and J. H. Freese;Ctesias,Philistus,Theopompus, andTimaeus.
Oratory
On Attic orators readAndocides,Lysias,Isocrates,Isaeus,Antiphon,Demosthenes,Aeschines,Hypereides,—most of these articles being by Sir R. C. Jebb, who was particularly versed in this branch of Greek literature. The special student of the orators should read also the articlesGreek Law(Vol. 12, p. 501; equivalent to 15 pages in this Guide), by Prof. J. E. Sandys of Cambridge, author ofA History of Classical Scholarship, etc.;Sophists(Vol. 25, p. 418, equivalent to 20 pages of this Guide), by Prof. Henry Jackson of Cambridge, a well-known writer on Greek philosophy, andRhetoric(Vol. 23, p. 233), by Sir R. C. Jebb.
On Greek philosophical writing see the articlesPherecydesof Syros,Anaximenesof Miletus,Anaximander, and the names great not only in Greek thought and literature but in the world’s—Plato(Vol. 21, p. 808; equivalent to about 50 pages of this Guide), by Lewis Campbell, editor and critic of many of the Platonic dialogues, andAristotle(Vol. 2, p. 501; equivalent to 70 pages of this Guide), by Prof. Thomas Case, Oxford, author ofPhysical Realism, etc. For a fuller guide to Greek philosophy see the chapter in this Guide onPhilosophy.
Decadence
The third period of classical Greek literature was one of Greek thought in unGreek surroundings—see the articleHellenism, by E. R. Bevan, author ofThe House of Seleucus, etc.,—and this came to its first and finest flower in Alexandria, in Egypt, under the Ptolemies—see the articleAlexandrian School, especially that part of it dealing withLiterature(Vol. 1, p. 573). On the writers of the Alexandrian period see: for poetry,Philetas,Hermesianax,Asclepiadesof Samos, and the comic poetsSotadesandRhinthon, already mentioned;Herodas, by W. G. Headlam, editor of Herodas; the idyllistTheocritus(Vol. 26, p. 760), by A. C. Clark, fellow of Queen’s, Oxford; Theocritus’s followersBionandMoschus; the mythologistCallimachus, who influenced Catullus as much as Theocritus did the young Virgil; the didactic poetAratus, whom Cicero translated into Latin and whom Virgil imitated in hisGeorgics; the epicApolloniusof Rhodes, and the late tragedianLycophron; and for prose the criticAristarchus.
In the Greco-Roman period, following the Alexandrian the principal articles for the student are: the historiansPolybiusandDiodorus Siculus, the satiristLucian, the later historiansDionysius Halicarnassensis,Dio Cassius,Arrian,Appian,Herodian,Eusebius,Zosimus, the biographersPlutarch,Diogenes Laertius,Philostratus, the rhetoriciansLonginusandDio Chrysostom, and the emperor philosopherMarcus Aureliusand his forerunner the “slave philosopher”Epictetus.
Possibly the most typical output of the later Greek age is the matchless collection of short poems known to us as “the Greek Anthology”; on this see the articlesEpigramandAnthology.
CHAPTER XLIBIBLE STUDY
It is impossible for the student to consider the subject of Bible Study without being impressed by the immense labour and the profound scholarship which have been devoted to the interpretation and discussion of Scripture. Continued investigation has solved many difficulties, but has also vastly increased the mass of evidences and conjectures which must be weighed in connection with any doubtful passages. The Britannica tells us, for example, (Vol. 3, pp. 903, 904) that the translators of the King James’s version spent only two years and nine months over their task, while the work on the Revised Version took eleven years for the New Testament and fourteen for the Old Testament.