Part IICourses of Educational Reading to Supplement Or Take the Place of School or University Studies
CHAPTER XXXIMUSIC
The general articles on music in the Encyclopaedia Britannica provide an illuminative discussion of broad artistic principles which cannot fail to stimulate the musical sense and perception of the professional or the amateur. The technical and critical treatment of the subject was directed by Donald F. Tovey, composer, pianist, and author ofEssays in Musical Analysis; and no one could be better fitted for the work of organizing this department of the Britannica. He was assisted by W. H. Hadow, the well-known musical writer and composer, J. A. Fuller Maitland, musical critic ofThe Times(London), E. J. Dent, author ofAlessandro Scarlatti and His Works, R. H. Legge, principal musical critic on theDaily Telegraph(London), and others; and the section treating of musical instruments was organized and contributed by Miss Kathleen Schlesinger, the greatest living authority on the subject.
In mapping out courses of reading the subject is divided into sections as follows: (1) Evolution, (2) Theory, (3) Musical Forms, (4) Musical Instruments.
The articleMusic(Vol. 19, p. 72), by Donald Tovey, which contains a masterly account of the development of the art from the earliest time down to the present day, provides the reader with just that general survey which enables him to see the whole picture in perspective. This he will naturally turn to first, but to fill out the picture there are a number of other articles which he will wish to read. In the following scheme the evolution of the art has been sketched in skeleton, so that the student may have before him a guide to the study of any period in which he is specially interested. This outline serves to show how very thoroughly the ground is covered in the new Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Biographies of musicians of the primitive, non-harmonic, period in the Britannica are:Terpander, 7th century B.C.;Pythagoras, 6th century B.C.;Aristoxenus, 4th century;Alypius, 3rd century B.C.;Aristides,Quintilianus, 3rd century.
The Greeks found that by doubling the melody at the octave a greater sonority resulted. It was a great step from this to the discovery that two separate tunes could be combined which should be satisfying to the ear. With this discovery modern harmony may be said to have begun.
The First Great Climax
Composers were not long content with the simple combination of two tunes. They soon found that three tunes so treated afforded a yet richer texture, and the extension to the elaborate polyphony of 16th century choral music was an inevitable step. An elaborate system of prohibitions, based on the limitations of the human voice, and the difficulty of attacking certain intervals, shackled the composer at every turn and formed the basis of theories of counterpoint which endured almost to our time. Despite the restrictions imposed by their rules, the structure raised by the great composers of the first half of the 16th century was of amazing richness and complexity.
Composer of the Golden Age
Composers of the “Golden Age,” following the polyphonic tradition of the early 16th century, biographies of whom appear in the Britannica, are:Netherlandish:Arcadelt, Jacob, 1514–1556;Lasso, Orlando, c. 1530–1594;German:Finck, Hermann, 1527–1558;Eccard, Johann, 1553–1611;Aichinger, Gregor, leader of Reformation church music, c. 1565–1628;French:Goudimel, C., c. 1510–1572;English:Wilbye, John, 16th century, famous for his madrigals;Merbeck, John, d. 1585;Bennett, John, d.c. 1614;Bateson, T., d. 1630, a composer of madrigals;Tallis, T., c. 1515–1585, “father of English cathedral music”;Farrant, R., c. 1530–1581;Byrd, Wm., 1543–1623;Morley, T., 1557–1603;Gibbons, Orlando, 1583–1625;Italian:Animuccia, Giovanni, c. 1490–1571;Zarlino, Gioseffo, 1517–1590, fixed the diatonic scale as now accepted;Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da, 1526–1594;Banchiere, Adriano, c. 1557–1634, fought against monodist revolt—see below;Anerio(brothers), c. 1560–1620;Artusi, G. M., 16th century, opposed Monteverdi’s innovations—see below;Spanish:Victoria, Tommasso L. da, c. 1540–1613.
THE FIRST ROMANTIC MOVEMENT
The last word in polyphony seemed to have been said by such masters as Orlando Lasso, and Palestrina, and a change into new paths was inevitable. Moreover, men’s minds were craving something more directly stimulating than the passionless web of ecclesiastical polyphony, which was the glory of the 16th century. Freedom was sought from the conventions of modal counterpoint. The monodist revolt was the result.
Famous Monodists
Among distinguished composers of this period and school are:English:Bull, John, c. 1562–1628;Ford, Thomas, b. 1580;Lawes, Henry, 1595–1662;Italian:Cavaliere, E. del, c. 1550–1602;Peri, Jacopo, b. 1561;Gabriele, Giovanni, 1557–c. 1612, early experimenter in chromatic harmony;Caccini, Giulio, 1558–1615;Monteverde, Claudio, 1567–1643;Allegri, Gregorio, c. 1570–1652;Frescobaldi, Girolamo, 1583–1644, famous also as a teacher;Agostino, P., 1593–1639;Cavalli, F., 1596–1676, popularized opera;Carissimi, G., c. 1604–1674, popularized oratorio;Rossi, Luigi de. All the above have separate articles assigned to them in the Britannica.
The Second Great Climax
Those who revolted from the traditions of the polyphonic school went, as was inevitable, too far. A reaction was equally inevitable, for the language of the new music was unformed and was in danger of being stereotyped into the emptiest of formulas. The welding of the old and new ideas was all that was needed to prepare the way for the colossal achievement of a Bach or a Beethoven. It was a busy period when the rules of counterpoint were reviewed and revised, when theories of harmony as a distinct science took shape. But, save for the work of such men as Purcell, the Englishman (Vol. 22, p. 658), born 100 years before his time, the 17th century was mainly one of preparation. The next great climax came in the first half of the 18th century.
17th and 18th Century Composers
Composers of the period who have separate notices in the Britannica are:Italian:Cesti, M. A., c. 1620–1669;Colonna, Giovanni P., c. 1637–1695;Pasquini, B., 1637–1710;Stradella, Alessandro, 1645–1682;Corelli, Arcangelo, 1653–1713, first classic of the violin;Steffani, A., 1653–1728;Scarlatti, Alessandro, 1659–1725, largely created language of modern music;Pitoni, G. O., 1657–1743;Lotti, Antonio, c. 1667–1740;Clari, G. C. M., c. 1669–1745;Bononcini, G. B., c. 1672–1750;Albinoni, T., c. 1674–1745;Astorga, Emanuele d’, 1681–1736;Durante, Francesco, 1684–1755;Marcello, B., 1686–1739;Vinci, Leonardo, 1690–1730;Leo, Leonardo, 1694–1744;Logroscino, Nicola, c. 1700–1763;Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista, 1710–1736;Alberti, Domenico, c. 1710–1740;French:Cambert, R., 1628–1677;Lully, Jean-Baptiste, c. 1623–1687, inventor of the classical French opera style;English:Locke, Matthew, c. 1630–1677;Blow, John, 1648–1708;Purcell, Henry, 1658–1695;Croft, William, 1678–1727;Handel, George Frederick, 1685–1759;Greene, Maurice, 1695–1755;German:Bach, Johann Sebastian, 1685–1750;Hasse, Johann A., 1699–1783;Eberlin, J. E., 1702–1762.
The Third Great Climax
Bach, like Palestrina, seemed to have closed a period; and for nearly a hundred years after his death his influence on the course of musical development was astonishingly small. Again men sought new channels of expression and found them in instrumental music. But a structure less loosely knit than the suite form was needed if the new ideas were to be adequately stated, and the sonata grew into being, a form which has sufficed to this day as a medium for the noblest thoughts of the great composers. The 18th century saw, too, the reform of the opera by Gluck, a great development of orchestral resources, and the rise of the string quartette in chamber music.
Biographies of the following composers of the period appear in the Britannica:German and Austrian:Bach, Karl Philipp Emanuel, 1714–1788;Gluck, C. W., 1714–1787;Hiller, J. A., 1728–1804;Haydn, Franz Joseph, 1732–1809;Dittersdorf, Karl Ditters von, 1739–1799;Winter, P., c. 1755–1825;Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 1756–1791;Himmel, F. H., 1765–1814;Beethoven, Ludwig van, 1770–1827;French:Gossec, F. J., 1734–1829;Gretry, A. E. M., 1741–1813;Mehul, Etienne H., 1763–1817;Lesueur, Jean François, c. 1763–1837;Boieldieu, F. A., 1775–1834;English:Arne, T. A., 1710–1778, preserved English tradition in face of Handelian obsession;Boyce, William, 1710–1779;Jackson, W., 1730–1803;Battishill, J., 1738–1801;Arnold, S., 1740–1802;Dibdin, C., 1745–1814;Shield, W., 1748–1829;Storace, S., 1763–1796;Attwood, T., 1765–1838;Wesley, Samuel, 1766–1837, father of modern organ playing;Italian:Scarlatti, Domenico, 1685–1757;Martini, G. B., 1706–1784;Galuppi, Baldassare, 1706–1785;Jommelli, N., 1714–1774;Guglielmi, P., 1727–1804;Piccinni, N., 1728–1800;Sarti, Giuseppe, 1729–1802;Sacchini, A. M. G., 1734–1786;Paisiello, G., 1741–1816;Boccherini, Luigi, 1743–1805, last real master of suite form;Cimarosa, D., 1749–1801;Salieri, A., 1750–1825;Cherubini, 1760–1842;Paer, F., 1771–1839.
Early in the 19th century the wave of romanticism broke over Europe. The effect on music was not nearly so violent as was the monodic revolt of the 16th–17th centuries, since the resources and technique of the art had now been developed; but it was nevertheless striking and showed itself in several directions, but mainly in two: lyrical and dramatic. The short compositions of Field, Schumann, and Chopin, and the development of the art song are instances of the former; the whole range of programme music, of which the symphonic poem is the prototype, is evidence of the latter; while in opera the reforms started by Gluck were carried to their logical conclusion by Wagner. Two other movements are also significant; the return to Bach and a recognition of his amazing modernity, and the pronounced revival of national characteristics in music, as shown particularly in the new English, Russian, and Bohemian Schools.
Composers of this period, who have had separate articles assigned to them in the Britannica, follow: the growth of national schools will be noted.
19th Century Composers
German and Austrian:Gansbacher, J. B., 1778–1844;Kreutzer, K., 1780–1849;Spohr, Ludwig, 1784–1859;Weber, Carl Maria F. E. von, 1786–1886;Meyerbeer, G., 1791–1863;Hauptmann, M., 1792–1868;Löwe, J. K. G., 1796–1869;Schubert, Franz Peter, 1797–1828;Lortzing, G. A., 1801–1851;Strauss, Johann, 1804–1849, king of valse composers;Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, J. L. F., 1809–1847;Nicolai, Otto, 1810–1849;Schumann, Robert Alexander, 1810–1856;Hiller, F., 1811–1885;Wagner, Richard, 1813–1883;Heller, Stephen, 1815–1888;Franz, Robert, 1815–1892, song composer;Abt, Franz, 1819–1885, art folk-song;Suppe, F. von, 1820–1895;Raff, J. J., 1822–1882;Cornelius, Carl August Peter, 1824–1874, song writer;Bruckner, Anton, 1824–1896, Wagnerian symphonist;Reinecke, C. H. C., 1824–1910;Lassen, Eduard, 1830–1904;Joachim, Joseph, 1831–1907;Brahms, Johannes, 1833–1897;Bruch, Max, b. 1838;Rheinberger, J. G., 1839–1901;Goetz, Hermann, 1840–1876;Neszler, V., 1841–1890:Humperdinck, E., b. 1854;Wolf, Hugo, 1860–1903;Strauss, Richard, b. 1864.
French:Auber, D. F. E., 1782–1871;Herold, L. J. F., 1791–1833;Halevy, J. F. F. E., 1799–1862;Berlioz, Hector, 1803–1869;David, F., 1810–1876;Thomas, C. L. Ambroise, 1811–1896;Gounod, C. F., 1818–1893;Offenbach, J., 1819–1880;Franck, Cesar, 1822–1890, founder of Modern French School;Lalo, E., 1823–1892;Reyer, E., b. 1823;Lecocq, A. C., b. 1832;Benoit, P. L. L., 1834–1901;Saint-Saëns, Charles Camille, b. 1835;Dubois, F. C. T., b. 1837;Bizet, Georges, 1838–1875;Joncieres, V., 1839–1903;Chabrier, A. E., 1841–1894;Audran, E., 1842–1901;Massenet, J. E. F., 1842–1912;Faure, Gabriel, b., 1845;Widor, Charles Marie, b. 1845;Godard, Benjamin L. P., 1849–1895;Planquette,R., b. 1850;D’Indy,. P. M. T. V., b. 1851;Messager, A. C. P., b. 1853;Bruneau, Alfred, b. 1857;Chaminade, Cécile, b. 1861;Bemberg, Herman, b. 1861;Debussy, Claude Achilles, b. 1862.
Belgian: The violinistYsaye, b. 1858.
Italian:Spontani, G. L. P., 1774–1851;Rossini, G. A., 1792–1868;Donizetti, G., 1798–1848;Bellini, V., 1801–1835;Verdi, Giuseppe, 1813–1901;Ponchielli, Amilcare, 1834–1886, on whom have modelled themselves, Mascagni, Leoncavallo, etc.;Boito, Arrigo, b. 1842;Sgambati, G., b. 1843;Leoncavallo, R., b. 1858;Puccini, G., b. 1858;Mascagni, P., b. 1863.
British:Horsley, Wm., 1774–1858;Smart, Sir George T., 1776–1867;Bishop, Sir H. R., 1786–1855;Pearsall, R. L. de, 1795–1856;Field, John, 1782–1837, inventor of the nocturne;Goss, Sir John, 1800–1880;Hatton, J. L., 1800–1886;Barnett, J., 1802–1890;Benedict, Sir Julius, 1804–1885;Balfe, M. W., 1808–1870;Wesley, S. S., 1810–1876;Hullah, John P., 1812–1884;Macfarren, Sir G. A., 1813–1887;Wallace, Wm. V., 1814–1865;Pierson, H. H., 1815–1873;Bennett, Sir Wm. Sterndale, 1816–1875;Ouseley, Sir F. A. G., 1825–1889;Bache, F. E., 1833–1858;Clay, F., 1838–1889;Barnby, Sir J., 1838–1896;Stainer, Sir John, 1840–1901;Sullivan, Sir Arthur S., 1842–1900;Cellier, Alfred, 1844–1891;Mackenzie, Sir A. C., b. 1847;Parry, Sir C. Hubert H., b. 1848, on whom fell the mantle of Purcell;Thomas, Arthur Goring, 1850–1892;Cowen, F. J., b. 1852;Stanford, Sir Charles Villiers, b. 1852;Elgar, Sir Edward, b. 1857;MacCunn, Hamish, b. 1868.
Bohemian:Smetana, F., 1824–1884, founder of modern Bohemian School;Dvořák, Anton, 1841–1904.
Hungarian:Gung’l, Josef, 1810–1889;Liszt, Franz, 1811–1886;Goldmark, Karl, b. 1832;Paderewski, I. J., b. 1860.
Polish:Chopin, Frederic François, 1810–1849;Moszkowski, Moritz, b. 1854.
Russian:Glinka, M. Ivanovich, 1803–1857, founder of national school;Dargomijsky, A. Sergeivich, 1813–1869;Rubinstein, Anton, 1829–1894;Borodin, A. Porfyrievich, 1834–1887;Moussorgsky, M. Petrovich, 1835–1881;Balakirev, M. Alexeivich, b. 1836;Tschaikovsky, Peter Ilich, 1840–1893;Rimsky-Korsakov, N. Andreievich, 1844–1908;Glazunov, A. Constantinovich, b. 1865.
Norwegian: The violinistBull, Ole, 1810–1880;Kjerulf, Halfdan, 1815–1868;Svendsen, J. S., b. 1840;Grieg, Edvard Hagerup, 1843–1907.
Danish:Gade, Niels W., 1817–1890.
Sweden:Wennerbert, G., 1817–1901, song writer.
American:Emmett, D. D., started “negro minstrels,” 1815–1904;Foster, Stephen C., 1826–1864, song writer;Eichberg, Julius, 1824–1893, founded Boston Conservatory of Music;Buck, Dudley, 1839–1909;MacDowell, Edward Alexander, 1861–1908. For notices of other modern composers and their tendencies—seeMusic,Recent Music(Vol. 19, p. 82).
Musical Historians
Famous musical historians and writers on music, whose biographies are in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, are:Aristoxenus, 4th century B.C.;Praetorius, M., 1571–1621;Perusch, J. C., 1667–1752;Barnard, John, 17th century;Hawkins, Sir John, 1710–1789;Gerbert, M., 1720–1793;Burney, Ch., 1726–1814;Gerber, 1746–1819;Forkel, J. N., 1749–1818;Baini, G., 1775–1844;Novello, V., 1781–1861;Callcott, J. W., 1766–1821;Fetis, F. J., 1784–1871;Chorley, H. F., 1808–1872;Chappell, Wm., 1809–1888;Dwight, John S., 1813–1893;Ambros, A. W., 1816–1876;Grove, Sir George, 1820–1900.
(2) THEORETICAL ARTICLES
“In the beginning,” said Hans von Bülow, “was rhythm,” and asRhythm(Vol. 23, p. 277) is the skeleton of every musical phrase and formula, the interesting article by Donald Tovey on rhythm in music may well serve as an introduction to the other subjects in this section. Passing to the elements, the articlesSound,Diatonic Scale(Vol. 25, p. 448) andPlain Song(Vol. 21, p. 705) should be read. In the former article the physical basis of the modern scale is determined, while in the latter an account is given of the modes which for centuries were the vehicles of musical expression. In the articleMusical Notation(Vol. 19, p. 86) the steps by which the present system of recording music was reached are noted, and inPitch, Musical(Vol. 21, p. 660), the whole of this interesting and vexed subject is reviewed by Alfred J. Hipkins, a high authority, formerly hon. curator of the Royal College of Music. The articleMelody(Vol. 18, p. 96) contains in addition to a discussion of the terms a series of useful definitions (e.g., conjunct and disjunct motion) and several musical examples. This brings us to the main articles of this section—Counterpoint(Vol. 7, p. 315),Harmony(Vol. 13, p. 1) andInstrumentation(Vol. 14, p. 651). All are by Donald Tovey and all are brilliant. In particular the articleHarmonydeserves the most careful study, especially interesting being the sectionsTonalityandKey-relationship. The article on counterpoint is mainly a definition of the principles involved and is introductory both to Harmony and to Contrapuntal Forms. InInstrumentationthe question of colour is discussed from the historical and aesthetic aspects, accompanied by valuable analysis of the colour schemes of various composers from the choral writers of the “Golden Age” down to Wagner and Richard Strauss.
Theorists
Famous theorists who have helped to establish the grammar of music are the following:Terpander, 7th century B.C., founder of Greek music (Vol. 26, p. 647);Pythagoras, 6th century, B.C., said to have discovered numerical relation governing the harmonic series (Vol. 22, p. 699);Alypius, 3rd century B.C. (Vol. 1, p. 776);Aristides, Quintilianus, 3rd century A.D.;Hucbald, c. 840–930, inventor of new notation (Vol. 13, p. 847);Guido of Arezzo, c. 995–1050, “Beatus Guido, inventor musicae,” (Vol. 12, p. 687);Agricola, Martin, c. 1500–1556;Zarlino, G., 1517–1590, fixed the diatonic scale;Artusi, G. M., 16th century, opposed monodist revolt;Fux, J. J., wrote the famousGradus ad Parnassum,Rameau, J. P., 1683–1764, to whom the first systematic theory of harmony is due;Albrechtsberger, J. G., 1736–1809, the teacher of Beethoven;Reicha, A. J., 1770–1836;Richter, E. F. E., 1808–1879;Curwen, J., 1817–1880, inventor of tonic sol-fa system;Berlioz Hector, whose text book on instrumentation is classic. On all these separate articles will be found in the Britannica.
Contrapuntal Forms
In making a detailed study of any particular form, reference should be made to the critical sections of the biographies of those masters who have done most towards its development. As has been seen in the historical section of this chapter, theContrapuntal Forms(Vol. 7, p. 41) were the first to attain to a high standard of organization in the hands of such masters asOrlando Lasso(Vol. 16, p. 237) andPalestrina(Vol. 20, p. 627). The articlesMass(Vol. 17, p. 849),Motet(Vol. 18, p. 905),Madrigal(Vol. 17, p. 295),Canon(Vol. 5, p. 190),Chorale(Vol. 6, p. 269), cover the ground of early choral music. In tracing their development reference should be made to the articles onBach, J. S.(Vol. 3, p. 127),Beethoven(Vol. 3, p. 649),Brahms(Vol. 4, p. 390).Oratorio(Vol. 20, p. 161) andCantata(Vol. 5, p. 209) had their beginning in the work of the followers of Monteverde in the early 17th century, and their development may be traced in the work ofCavaliere(Vol. 5, p. 563),Carissimi(Vol. 5, p. 338),Purcell(Vol. 22, p. 658),Bach(Vol. 3, p. 127),Handel(Vol. 2, p. 912),Brahms(Vol. 4 p. 390),César Franck(Vol. 11, p. 3), andSir C. Hubert Parry(Vol. 20, p. 865).
Suite and Sonata
In instrumental music, theSuite(Vol. 26, p. 51), of whichBoccherini(Vol. 4, p. 105) was the last master, most nearly foreshadowed the Sonata (Sonata Forms, Vol. 25, p. 394), and together they tell the tale of the development of absolute music up to modern experiments in the more elasticSymphonic Poem(Vol. 26, p. 289) of whichLiszt(Vol. 16, p. 780) was the first to see the possibilities. In addition to the articlesSonataandSonata Formsthe reader should carefully study that part of the articleBeethovenbeginning on page 647 of Vol. 3; also the articleHarmony,Key Relationships(Vol. 13, p. 5) which contains analyses of several striking key systems, and further reference should also be made to the articlesVariations(Vol. 27, p. 912),Symphony(Vol. 26, p. 290).
Programme Music
To the Romantic movement of the early part of the 19th century may be traced the attempt to escape from the apparent restrictions of the Sonata Form, andSchumann’s(Vol. 24, p. 384) manyFantasie-StückeandChopin’slyrical compositions (Vol. 6, p. 268) are prototypes in little of the tendencies of the time. On a larger canvas are the Ton-dramen of Liszt and the symphonic poems and the elaborate programme music of modern composers such asRichard Strauss(Vol. 25, p. 1003); and thoughBrahms(Vol. 4, p. 389) showed clearly enough that the classical sonata form was a framework sufficiently elastic to hold the most elaborate and modern ideas, the direction in which music has tended is towards the Symphonic Poem in which, by such devices as the transformation of themes and theLeitmotif(Opera, Vol. 20, p. 125) a still greater elasticity is sought in form with a greater continuity of idea in substance. SeeProgramme Music(Vol. 22, p. 424).
Opera
Supplementing the articleOpera(Vol. 20, p. 121) are several which should be consulted.Aria(Vol. 2, p. 489),Overture(Vol. 20, p. 384), and especiallyGluck(Vol. 12, p. 139),Mozart(Vol. 18, p. 951),Weber(Vol. 28, p. 457), andWagner(Vol. 28, p. 237). These, with the biographical notices of operatic composers, which include almost every Italian composer from the days ofPeri(Vol. 21, p. 144), and French composers fromLully(Vol. 17, p. 121), give a mass of information bearing on the development of this popular form.
Song
Song(Vol. 25, p. 400), the oldest of art forms, and almost the last to be rescued from the too narrow formalism of which the classicalAria(Vol. 2, p. 489) is the beautiful example, is so much the most generally popular that the article on it in the Britannica will probably be more widely read than any other on musical subjects. Written by W. A. J. Ford, a scholarly musician and teacher of singing at the Royal College of Music (London), it provides a brilliant survey of the evolution of the song from its earliest beginnings. In connection withit the reader will find much to interest him in the biographical notices of two famous troubadours of the 13th and 14th centuries,Adam de la Hale(Vol. 1, p. 171) andMachaut, G. De(Vol. 17, p. 233); ofMonteverde(Vol. 18, p. 778), the pioneer of the monodist revolt at the end of the 16th century, ofScarlatti, Alessandro(Vol. 24, p. 302), 17th century, who perfected the aria form, ofPurcell, Henry(Vol. 22, p. 658), the great English composer of the 17th century, ofJohann Sebastian Bach(Vol. 3, p. 126) 18th century, ofSchubert(Vol. 24, p. 380), the creator of the modern song, ofSchumann(Vol. 24, p. 384) who brought a yet greater intimacy into the form, ofHugo Wolf(Vol. 28, p. 771), the most clairvoyant of song writers, ofSir Hubert Parry(Vol. 20, p. 865), andSir Charles Villiers Stanford(Vol. 25, p. 773), who have respectively done the best modern work in the English and Irish tradition, and of the AmericanMacDowell(Vol. 17, p. 214). Reference should also be made to the articlesMelody(Vol. 18, p. 96),Accompaniment(Vol. 1, p. 122),Rhythm(Vol. 23, p. 277). Suggestive also are the articlesBallads(Vol. 3, p. 264),Poetry(Vol. 21, p. 889). On the technique of singing the articleVoice(Vol. 28, p. 172) by Dr. J. G. McKendrick, will be found very helpful, especially the section on thePhysiology of Voice Production.
One branch of the subject yet remains, that of musical instruments. Here the editor of the Britannica had the advantage of the assistance of Miss Kathleen Schlesinger (author ofThe Instruments of the Orchestra, and the greatest authority on the subject), who contributed practically all of the articles in the book on musical instruments. A list of them is given below, classified under their most convenient groupings. From these articles in the Encyclopaedia Britannica the reader will get a full account of every known musical instrument whether modern or ancient, with its compass, and scale, and of its connection with other instruments of the same class; so that the evolution of every type is clearly brought out. As a preliminary to a general study of the subject, the articlesOrchestra(Vol. 20, p. 168), andInstrumentation(Vol. 14, p. 651) may conveniently be read. In the former Miss Schlesinger gives a summary of the development of the various classes of instruments and of their concerted use. In the articleInstrumentation, on the other hand, Donald Tovey illustrates theprincipleswhich govern their use. This article closes with an interesting survey of the orchestral schemes at different periods in the history of the art. The following classified list of separate articles on musical instruments in the Britannica, shows how very completely this work covers the field:
Stringed Instruments(Vol. 25, p. 1038).
Strings Plucked by Fingers or Plectrum:Asor;Balalaika;Banjo;Barbiton;Chelys;Cithara;Citole;Cittern;Epigonion;Guitar;Harp;Harp-Lute;Kinnor;Kissar;Lute;Lyre;Mandoline;Nanga;Pandura;Psaltery;Rebab;Rotta;Sambuca;Theorbo;Trigonon;Zither.Strings Set in Vibration by Friction of the Bow:Crowd;Double Bass;Fiddle;Geige;Guitar-Fiddle;Gusla;Nail Violin;Philomel;Ravanastron;Rebab;Rebec;Tromba Marina;Vielle;Viol;Viola;Violin;Violoncello.Strings Struck by Hammers or Tangents:Clavecin;Clavicembalo;Clavichord;Clavicytherium;Dulcimer;Harmonichord;Harpsichord;Pianoforte;Spinet;Virginal.Strings Set in Vibration by Friction of a Wheel:Hurdy-Gurdy;Organistrum.Strings Set in Vibration by the Wind:Aeolian Harp.Appliances:Bow;Monochord;Mute;Mouthpiece;Keyboard;Sordino.
Wind Instruments(mouth blown) (Vol. 28, p. 709.)
The Pipe Class:Eunuch Flute;Fife;Flageolet;Flute;Nay;Piccolo;Pipe and Tabor;Recorder;Syrinx.Single Reed Class(cylindrical bore):Reed Instruments;Arghoul;Aulos;Bass Clarinet;Basset Horn;Batyphone;Clarinet;Pedal Clarinet.Double Reed Class(conical bore):Reed Instruments;Aulos;Bassoon;Bombard;Contrafagotto;Cor Anglais;Oboe;Pommer;Shawm;Clarina;Holztrompete;Cromorne;Rackett;Saxophone;Sordino;Tibia. To reed instruments also belong theBagpipe Class:Askaules;Bagpipe;Biniou;Chorus;Drone;Platerspiel;Symphonia.
Bombardon;Buccina;Bugle;Cornet;Euphonium;Helicon;Horn;Lituus;Ophicleide;Sackbut;Saxhorn;Serpent;Trombone;Trumpet;Tuba; to which may be added, though not of brass or metal:Alpenhorn;Oliphant;Shofar; see alsoMouthpiece;Mute;Valves.
Wind Instruments(mechanically blown).
Accordion;Barrel-Organ;Concertina;Harmonium;Orchestrion;Organ;Physharmonica;Portative Organ;Positive Organ;Regal; to which, though mouth blown, may be addedCheng. See alsoFree Reed Vibration;Keyboard.
Instruments of Percussion.
Sounding a Sensible Note:Bell;Bumbulum;Carillon;Glockenspiel;Gong;Harmonica;Jews’ Harp;Musical Box;Parsifal Bell-Instrument;Xylophone.Not Sounding a Sensible Note:Castanets;Cymbals;Chinese Pavillon;Drum;Kettle Drum;Nacaire;Sistrum;Tambourine;Timbrel;Tom-Tom;Triangle;Tympanon.