CHAPTER VFALLACIES

SUMMARY OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR AN ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY

I. The two factors in the analogy must be alike in all particulars which affect the conclusion.

II. The alleged facts upon which the analogy is based must be true.

III. The conclusion established by analogy should whenever possible be verified by positive evidence.

EXERCISES IN ANALOGY

I. Apply the requirements for validity to each of the arguments from analogy quoted in this last chapter.

II. Suggest arguments from analogy in support of each of the following conclusions:

1. College students should be allowed to select their own courses of study.

2. A course in public speaking is a necessity for those who expect to teach.

3. The greatest moral strength is fostered among many temptations.

4. An inheritance tax is an exceedingly just method of taxation.

5. All colleges should be coëducational.

6. Military drill should be compulsory for all college freshmen.

7. The use of clear and correct English is a prerequisite to success in any profession.

III. Write an argument from analogy in support of one of the propositions given in the appendix.

CHAPTER VFALLACIES

A fallacy is an error in the argumentative process. It may arise from a mistake in the process of reasoning or from a mistake regarding the facts upon which the reasoning is based. The task of detecting and eliminating fallacies in his own argument and of detecting and exposing fallacies in the argument of his opponent is one of the most important phases of a debater’s work.

Self-evident fallacies are few. A fallacy is almost always concealed under cover of language which makes it appear in the guise of valid reasoning. It is usually embedded in an otherwise sound argumentative structure. To detect and to separate it from that which is entirely trustworthy is one of the severest tests of argumentative skill. Just as in a mathematical computation one wrong figure will invalidate the accuracy of the result though all the other figures be correct, so will one false statement in an argument produce the same disastrous effect. A fallacy may occupy but a very small part of the argument and yet be fatal to the solidity of the entire structure. It may consist of only one sentence in several pages of printed matter. It may be but a single statement which makes an unwarranted transition or assumption. Nevertheless it is as fatal to the argument as though it comprised a greater part of the entire discussion.

While an opponent may cover up a fallacy with the deliberate intention to deceive, yet the existence of most fallacies is not suspected by those who use them. Therefore the use of fallacious arguments is seldom evidence of dishonestybut is almost always the result of careless reasoning or inability to detect and remedy such errors. To classify fallacies into groups for the purpose of discussion is a most difficult undertaking. Any division that can be made will not prove all inclusive and all exclusive in practical application. Hard and fast divisions are sure to overlap, and a particular fallacy may be treated under one division or another according to the standpoint of the student and the combination of circumstances under which it exists. For the purpose of this discussion we shall divide fallacies according to the kind of argument in which they occur and according to the form in which they are usually found. This method of division will best serve our practical object, which is the detecting and eliminating of fallacies.

In a perfect induction a fallacy may be detected by scrutinizing the conclusion to make sure that it includes only the specific instances upon which it is based, and then examining each of these specific instances to see that it is true as a matter of fact. If the conclusion includes more than the facts warrant or if the alleged facts are false the perfect induction is fallacious.

In searching for fallacies in an imperfect induction the rules which have already been pointed out as governing the construction of such an inductive argument should be applied. In order to make a systematic search for fallacies in arguments involving this kind of reasoning, the following steps should be taken.

It is comparatively easy to determine the number of incidents claimed to support the conclusion, provided they areall stated in the argument. In such a case the searcher for fallacies merely counts these incidents and passes on to the next step in his investigation. Seldom, however, is the task so easy. In most arguments the writer or speaker extends his conclusion far beyond the actual facts offered in its support. Often the speaker states that “hundreds of other cases,” or “incidents too numerous to mention,” or “thousands of similar cases,” etc., can be produced to show the validity of the induction. The debater should never be overawed by such sweeping statements or allow them to cause him to cease his search for fallacies. He must be insistent in his demand that the number of incidents upon which the conclusion is based be exactly stated or at least that the number be shown as large enough to offset the probability of coincidence.The fallacy of the induction can then be shown to exist by pointing out that the number of incidents in support of the induction is not sufficiently great to warrant its acceptance.

The discussion of this requirement for a valid imperfect induction which has been previously given will make plain the nature of the investigation under it. A fallacy may be exposed in such an argument by showing thatthe class of persons, events, or things about which the induction is made is not homogeneous in respect to the particular about which the conclusion is stated.

It is usually easier to detect unfair examples in an opponent’s argument than in one of the debater’s own construction.The person who uses an induction is almost always prejudiced in favor of the instances which support it, but to the unprejudiced mind the fairness of a given example is not hard to determine. It is therefore important that the investigator assume an unprejudiced attitude towards the examples offered as representative of the class about which the induction is made.The existence of a fallacy in an argument based upon an imperfect induction may be repealed by showing that the specific instances cited in support of the conclusion are not fair examples.

One of the most effective ways to overthrow a generalization is to present exceptions. Even the existence of one exception will greatly weaken the effect of a conclusion, while several exceptions, clearly established, will entirely destroy it. To prove the existence of more exceptions to the rule than there are instances supporting it is to prove it entirely fallacious. The search for exceptions should be made by the same means employed in finding instances to support the induction.The fallacy of an induction may be shown by proving the existence of exceptions to the rule which it states.

An induction which appears on its face to be contrary to usual experience is not an effective instrument of persuasion. By showing that it is contrary to natural law or that no process of reasoning other than induction can be made to uphold it, the student may weaken its force. If clear proof of its validity can be established in this way it is not necessary that other methods of showing a fallacy be introduced.The fallacy of an induction may be established by clear proof of its unreasonableness.

II. Fallacies of deduction.

A thorough study of the chapter on Deductive Argument has revealed the fact that such an argument in order to be valid must be constructed according to certain definite principles. The knowledge of these principles thus acquired should enable the student to detect fallacies in this form of argument. Nevertheless, some of the fallacies to which deduction is liable are so important and so easily concealed that a separate treatment of them is necessary. Fallacies of deduction may be divided into two classes, 1. Material fallacies, and 2. Logical fallacies.

We have already learned that the deductive argument is seldom found in the form of a syllogism but is mostly encountered in the form of an enthymeme, which must be reduced to the syllogistic form. The method of reduction has been explained in the chapter on Deductive Argument and exercises in the use of that method have been given. It is therefore assumed that the student is so familiar with this process that he can readily reduce any argument to the syllogistic form. In the search for fallacies we may begin at this point. After the argument has been reduced to syllogistic form our first task is to examine the major and minor premises for the purpose of discovering any material error, or error of fact. In constructing our own argument we have been cautioned to see to it that both of these statements in the syllogism are true. Now we are examining our own arguments or our opponents’ arguments for the very purpose of finding out whether they contain any error. A sophomore urges John Pitt to come out for the class football team by saying that all sophomores ought to be candidates for places on the team. Reduced to the syllogistic form the argument would stand as follows:

1. All sophomores ought to be candidates for the class football team.

2. John Pitt is a sophomore.

3. Therefore John Pitt ought to be a candidate for the class football team.

Upon examining the major premise we find that it is not true as a matter of fact, because it is obvious that one who is not physically capable of taking part in such a game ought not to do so even though he is a sophomore. The deduction is therefore fallacious. But suppose the major premise to be sound, the next step in the search for fallacies would be to examine the minor premise and find out whether it is true as a matter of fact. An examination of this premise may disclose the fact that John Pitt is a junior. The deduction is therefore fallacious, because the minor premise is not true as a matter of fact.A fallacy in a deductive argument may be exposed by showing that either the major premise or the minor premise is not true as a matter of fact.

We now come to the class of fallacies which inhere in deductive reasoning independent of the truth or falsity of the alleged facts contained in the premises. These are called logical fallacies. They consist of many forms of error in reasoning, but we shall concern ourselves only with those most likely to be encountered. These are four in number, (1) The undistributed middle, (2) The illicit process, (3) Irrelevancy of premises, or ignoring the question, and (4) Begging the question.

One of the most common errors of deductive argument is called the fallacy of the undistributed middle. It consists of a defect in the major premise. This defect is the failureof the major term to include the middle term. The following syllogism is a typical illustration of this error:

1. Some college men are successful in business.

2. Henry Winslow is a college man.

3. Therefore Henry Winslow is successful in business.

The student will observe that the major term, “men who are successful in business,” does not include the middle term, “college men,” but only includes a part of that class of men. This is true because the middle term reads “Some college men.” Therefore it is evident that there are some college men who are not successful in business as well as some who are. To represent this defect graphically the device of circles employed in discussing the construction of valid deductions may again be used. The result is as follows:

It is thus made plain that some college men are within the class of those who are successful in business, while some college men are not within that class. Now, all that we know about Henry Winslow is that he is a college man. Therefore we cannot tell whether he belongs to that part of the class of college men who are successful in business, or to that part of the class of college men which is not included in the class ofmen who are successful in business. We may represent the complete fallacy as follows:

In order to eliminate the logical fallacy contained in the foregoing syllogism it would be necessary to include the middle term in the major term of the major premise. The relation of the terms of the major premise would then be represented by the diagram above.

The completed syllogism would then read as follows:

1. All college men are successful in business.

2. Henry Winslow is a college man.

3. Therefore Henry Winslow is successful in business.

The student must not delude himself with the false impression that he has remedied the defect and that the syllogism may therefore be used as the basis of a sound argument. On the contrary he must now treat the result of his efforts as a new syllogism and begin the search for fallacies all over again. The first step in this process, as we have already seen, is to inquire into the truth of the facts contained in the premises. Let us first examine the major premise. Is it true that all college men are successful in business? A little investigation and reflection will prove that it is not. Therefore the argument is still as fallacious as it was in the beginning. We have merely changed the logical fallacy into a material fallacy. The result of our investigation has been to disclose the fallacy of an enthymeme which reads, “Henry Winslow is successful in business because he is a college man.”

Another form in which the fallacy of the undistributed middle appears in a manner less easy to detect is shown by the following syllogism:

1. All orators are men of great ability.

2. Herbert Lang is a man of great ability.

3. Therefore Herbert Lang is an orator.

Each of the premises in the above syllogism may be perfectly true as a matter of fact, but it is obvious that there is something wrong with the syllogism as a whole. The nature of the defect is not apparent until we begin to apply the rules for constructing a valid syllogism. This reveals the fact that instead of the major term including the middle term, the middle includes the major. If we diagram the major premiseby the system of circles previously employed the following result is obtained:

If the conclusion to be established had been that Herbert Lang is a man of great ability and the minor premise had stated that Herbert Lang was an orator then the major premise as outlined above would have been perfectly valid. But the conclusion that Herbert Lang is an orator does not follow from the fact that he is a man of great ability and that all orators are men of great ability. The only fact that we can draw from these statements is that some men of great ability are orators. Because we say that all orators are men of great ability we cannot be sure of the converse, that is, that all men of great ability are orators. Only some of them are orators, others may be ministers, doctors, lawyers, or business men. Therefore all that we can conclude is that, “Some men of great ability are orators.” It is now plain that when we construct the completed syllogism from this major premise, the same defect will exist which was revealed in the preceding illustration.

1. Some men of great ability are orators.

2. Herbert Lang is a man of great ability.

3. Therefore Herbert Lang is an orator.

By examining the facts expressed in the invalid syllogism we have found that the fallacy consists of an undistributed middle term. This fallacy becomes obvious in some propositions in which the conclusion shows the absurdity of the reasoning process. If we could maintain that Herbert Lang is an orator because he is a man of great ability and all orators are men of great ability, we could argue with equal reason that he is a ground hog because he is an animal and all ground hogs are animals.

The illicit process of either the major or minor term in the syllogism consists of one of these terms appearing in the conclusion in a form essentially different from that in which it appeared in the major or minor premises. In this fallacy the major term which is in the affirmative form in the major premise becomes negative in the conclusion. The following fallacious syllogism illustrates this error:

1. All football men are strong.

2. Amos Buck is not a football man.

3. Therefore Amos Buck is not strong.

The fallacy is evident; the class of football men does not include all the strong men. There are some men who are not football men that are strong. The fact that Amos Buck is not included in the class of football men does not prove that he is not included in the larger class of strong men. To be more concrete let us again make use of the diagrams.

From the diagram on page245it is seen that the fact that all football men are strong and that Amos Buck is not a football man, does not prove anything regarding his strength. He may be within the class of strong men or he may be outside. Hence the syllogism is fallacious. Usually the fallacy is not so apparent as in the above illustration but by reducing thestatements to syllogistic form in the manner indicated above the error becomes apparent.

The minor term in a syllogism sometimes appears in the minor premise as undistributed or particular and then appears in the conclusion as distributed or universal. This is another form of the illicit process. The same result follows when the minor term becomes either larger or smaller or in any way different in the conclusion from what it was in the minor premise. For example, a business man says, “I will not send my son to college because some college men are ‘sports’ and I detest ‘sports’.” This error in reasoning results from the failure to phrase each term in the same form throughout the syllogism. A scrutiny of the terms of the syllogism will therefore reveal the presence of this fallacy.

This fallacy consists in ignoring the conclusion to be established and arguing toward some other conclusion. In logic it is calledignoratio elenchi. It is a very important fallacy, because no error is more common than that of wandering from the real point at issue and discussing some related but irrelevant matter. The error may arise from a deliberateattempt on the part of the speaker to deceive his hearers by taking their attention from the real point at issue, from a failure to analyze the question properly, or from inability to reason correctly.

In discussing this fallacy the first step is to analyze the argument in its relation to the point to be proved. It should be reduced to the syllogistic form, and the irrelevancy between the premises and the conclusion should be made plain. After the premises are found it becomes an easy task to determine whether they establish the right conclusion or some other conclusion.

There are certain ways in which the question may be ignored that are so common that they demand special attention. Of these the most important are the following:

A. The appeal to passion, prejudice, or humor.

Very often the speaker, instead of refuting the arguments of his opponent, will attempt to cast ridicule upon them and thus by humorous treatment divert attention from the real point at issue. Very often the appeal is made to the passion or prejudice of the persons addressed instead of to their reason.

B. The personal attack upon an opponent.

A favorite method of the old time lawyer was to “bullyrag” his opponent in a law suit and thus merge the case at issue into a personal conflict with the opposing counsel. While this practice has long ago disappeared from the court room it is very often encountered in other places. A speaker who has a weak case will sometimes attack the personal character of his opponent and thus seek to change the issue from a debate on the proposition to a wrangle over the personal virtues of the participants.

C. The personal attack upon the person or persons concerned in the controversy.

We argue beside the point when we infer from the moralcharacter, position, or conduct of an individual, the truth or falsity of a particular proposition. If the question is whether or not John Jones killed John Smith, we make no progress by showing that John Jones cheated John Doe out of his farm. If we are told that a certain person advocates prohibition it is no refutation of his arguments to call attention to the fact that he is a drunkard. Thevalidityof a drunkard’s arguments in favor of prohibition are not affected by his conduct, although their influence upon other persons would doubtless be greatly affected by it. We always argue beside the point when we attempt to defend or condemn a principle by praising or condemning the person who advocates it. Neither can we establish the guilt or innocence of an accused person by praising or condemning traits of his character which have nothing to do with the charges against him.

D. The appeal to customs and tradition.

The popular appeal to “let well enough alone,” “what has been should be,” and other conservative arguments of this class entirely ignore the question at issue. If the world had followed these precepts we should be no farther advanced to-day than at the beginning of time. To follow them now would mean that all progress must cease. A hundred years ago no argument could have convinced the average individual that man would be able to travel a mile a minute or that one man could hear another talk at a distance of one thousand miles, or that a machine could be made which would talk. Twenty years ago few people could have been convinced that one could see through solid matter or that a man could fly, or that a wireless telegraph was a possibility. Nevertheless all of these seemingly impossible things have come to pass. Similar things are constantly happening in the less material world of education, politics, and religion. Therefore small weight attaches to the argument which relies solely upon an appeal to custom and tradition.

E. Shifting ground.

This fallacy usually arises from using a word in a double capacity. For instance, “Every American citizen should be democratic in his conduct; therefore he should vote the Democratic ticket,” is an example of this fallacy. Here the term democratic is used in more than one sense. It is first used to indicate an attitude of kindly sympathy towards one’s fellow men; then it is used to designate a political party. Likewise we might argue in an equally fallacious manner that because this country is a republic, every man should vote the Republican ticket. The cause of this fallacy is usually a failure on the part of the arguer to define exactly his own position and to state the meaning of vital words used in the proposition. An unscrupulous debater will take advantage of this fallacy as soon as he is cornered by shifting to a different meaning of the words employed. Whenever a debater begins to prove one proposition and ends by upholding another proposition he has shifted ground. This fallacy is usually so concealed in a maze of words that its detection is difficult.

F. Refuting an argument which has not been advanced.

This form of ignoring the question may arise from a deliberate attempt to misrepresent the opposition or from an honest mistake as to just what argument has been advanced. In either case it ignores the question at issue and is a useless expenditure of time and effort. Sometimes a debater cannot refute the arguments advanced by his opponents and he therefore seeks to occupy his time by arguing against contentions which he thought would be advanced but which in reality have not been mentioned. It is far better not to argue at all than to ignore the real points at issue in this manner.

G. Arguing on a related proposition.

This is a very common way of ignoring the question. For example, in support of prohibition, a debater often provesthat temperance is a benefit to the community. The real question is whether prohibition is advisable as a means of dealing with the liquor traffic. The question as to whether temperance benefits the community is only related. Therefore to argue in support of the related question is to ignore the real one. In a debate on the proposition “Resolved, that the compulsory arbitration of strikes is practicable in the United States” the affirmative devoted its efforts to proving that the system would be of great advantage to the country and that it had worked well in New Zealand. The question, whether compulsory arbitration is practicable in the United States, was entirely ignored by its advocates arguing in support of two related propositions which might be stated as follows: “Resolved, that the compulsory arbitration of strikes would be of great advantage to the United States,” and “Resolved, that compulsory arbitration of strikes has worked well in New Zealand.” The real question at issue was entirely ignored.

To beg the question is to assume its truth or falsity without proof. This does not mean a direct assumption of truth or falsity but an indirect assumption reached in a circuitous manner by an appearance of logical reasoning. In logic this error is calledpetitio principi. It may appear in many different forms but the following are the most frequently encountered:

A. Arguing in a circle.

This error involves more than one syllogism. It begins by assuming the truth of a premise, next upon this premise a conclusion is built and then finally this very conclusion is used in an attempt to prove the premise with which the syllogism was begun. For example, a student is urged to take the course in corporation law in the Harvard Law Schoolbecause it is the best in the country. When the student inquires why it is the best in the country he is told that it is the best because it is given in the Harvard Law School. In other words no reason is given but the statement stripped of its semblance of reasoning is merely that the Harvard Law School is the best because it is the best.

An excellent example showing the refutation of a circular argument is found in Percival and Jelliffe’sSpecimens of Exposition and Argument. It is taken from the argument of Felix Adler against the evils of child labor in the United States.

“There is one other argument so un-American and so inhuman that I am almost ashamed to quote it, and yet it has been used, and I fear is secretly in the minds of some who would not openly stand for it. A manufacturer standing near the furnace of a glasshouse and pointing to a procession of young Slav boys who were carrying the glass on trays, remarked ‘Look at their faces, and you will see that it is idle to take them from the glasshouse in order to give them an education; they are what they are, and will always remain what they are.’ He meant that there are some human beings—and these Slavs of the number—who are mentally irredeemable, so fast asleep intellectually that they cannot be awakened; designed by nature, therefore, to be hewers of wood and drawers of water. This cruel and wicked thing was said of Slavs; it is the same thing which has been said from time immemorial by the slave owners of their slaves. First they degrade human beings by denying them opportunity to develop their better nature; no schools, no teaching, no freedom, no outlook; and then, as if in mockery, they point to the degraded condition of their victims as a reason why they should never be allowed to escape from it.”

B. Directly assuming the point at issue.

In directly assuming the truth of the point at issue muchlanguage is employed which tends to conceal the lack of real proof. Stripped of their wealth of expression such so-called arguments appear as bare unsupported assertions. The following is a good example of this fallacy: “Up to the time when the crime was committed, the character of the prisoner was above reproach, for his conduct was always characterized by honest respect for law and order.”

Often a single word may directly assume the truth or falsity of the proposition under discussion. In opposing the proposition “Resolved, that the boycott is a proper policy for organized labor,” the first speaker began by saying, “It is our purpose to prove that thewicked and pernicioussystem of boycotting is not a proper policy for organized labor.” This statement begged the whole proposition by assuming at the outset that boycotting iswicked and pernicious. A subsequent speaker committed the same fallacy by saying, “We contend that there are ways by which organized labor can accomplish its purpose that are—unlike the boycott—legitimate and proper.” In some cases such question-begging words as those employed above are used in defining the terms of the proposition. This manner of defining terms begs the question as effectively and directly as any of the other fallacious practices discussed under this heading.

C. Indirectly assuming the point at issue.

One of the most common ways of begging the question is to assume the truth of a broad general proposition which includes the one under discussion. This does not directly assume the truth of the proposition, but does it indirectly. For instance, a student declared that “Our football team will win the championship, because the captain of the team says we cannot lose it.” This begs the point at issue, namely—whether our team will win the championship, by assuming the truth of a broader proposition, namely—that whatever the captain of the team says is true.

The same result follows the assumption of particular truths which the proposition involves. In supporting the proposition, “Resolved, that the state should prescribe uniform text-books for the public schools” a student attempted to prove that public instruction should be uniform throughout the state. He thus assumed that uniform text-books would secure uniform public instruction throughout the state. This was a particular proposition involved in the main proposition, and it was the duty of the debater to show that uniform text-books would bring about uniform public instruction.

We have already considered the importance of causal relation in argumentation. A relation clearly established between a cause and an effect affords a substantial basis for valid reasoning. The failure to establish such relation results in error. Of course the causal relation may exist although undiscovered. Nevertheless, the failure to show such relation should always be considered as a warning to look out for fallacies.

The argument from effect to cause may be shown to contain a fallacy by proving any one of the following contentions:

1. That the alleged cause was not sufficient to produce the effect.

2. That an independent cause intervened between the alleged cause and the effect.

3. That the alleged cause was prevented from operating.

In arguing from a known effect to an unknown cause certain fallacies occur with such frequency that we must give them special attention. Of these common errors the following are the most important:

(1).Mistaking coincidence for cause.

Most superstitions are due to this fallacy of mistaking coincidence for cause. A black cat crosses our path as we are starting out on a journey. If some misfortune overtakes us before our return our minds immediately revert to the old superstition that if a black cat crosses our path we must turn back and make a fresh start if we wish to ward off disaster. The black cat is regarded by the superstitious as the cause of the disaster. Obviously there is no causal relation between the appearance of the black cat and the occurrence of the disaster. It is merely a coincidence. If we regard it in any other light we are mistaking coincidence for cause.

Political campaign oratory abounds in this kind of fallacy. One political party comes into power and a period of industrial prosperity follows. The party leaders point to their administration as the cause of the prosperity. On the other hand if a period of depression follows the election, the opponents of the successful party point to it as the cause of the disaster. Seldom in such cases is any real causal relation established. It is more often merely coincidence.

No fallacy is more inexcusable than that which asserts a mere prior occurrence as a cause. Because it rained last Sunday and to-day I lose my pocketbook is no reason why I should maintain that last Sunday’s rain was the cause of my loss. Yet many arguments are advanced based upon a lack of causal relation as evident as that of the above coincidence. In an inter-class debate one of the speakers maintained that the large number of Chinese in a certain city was the cause of the greater amount of crime which existed in that city as compared with other cities of the same size. No causal relation was established, but the mere fact of the presence of the Chinese was set forth as proof that the Chinese were responsible for the crime. One of the critics of the debate pointed out that it was just as reasonable to supposethat the unusually cold weather of the winter just passed was caused by the large number of Congregationalists in the state.

Even when two events are repeatedly associated so far as time is concerned we should not regard the repetition as proof of the causal relation but only as an indication that a causal relation probably exists. We should not arrive at any definite conclusion until the existence of the causal relation has been finally established.

The fallacy of mistaking an effect for a cause consists in pointing to one effect as the cause of another effect when in reality both effects are the result of one cause. For example, a recent writer attributes the anarchistic tendency of the masses of Russia to the arrogance of the soldiery in that country. This reasoning is criticised on the ground that both the anarchistic tendencies of the masses and the arrogance of the soldiery are effects of the same cause, viz.—the despotic government of Russia.

This fallacy arises when an effect is observed and in the search for the cause we accept something which in reality happened after the effect was observed. A striking example of this fallacy occurred in a recent municipal election. The increased cost of city government was charged to the present mayor. His opponents pointed to him as the cause of this increase in the city’s expenses. The mayor’s friends revealed the fallacy by showing that the expense had really been incurred under the former mayor. The acts of the present mayor could not have been the cause of the increased expense because that expense had been incurred before he went into office. Therefore those who made the unjust charge had committed the fallacy of mistaking a subsequent cause for the real cause.

(4).Mistaking an insufficient cause for a sufficient cause.

This fallacy differs from those previously discussed in that there exists some causal relation between the effect and the alleged cause. The error consists of a failure to recognize the insufficiency of the cause to produce the effect without the help of some other cause.

In a discussion of the proposition, “Resolved, that department stores have proved a benefit to municipal communities,” one speaker argued that such stores were the cause of the low price at which small necessities such as hardware and dry-goods novelties could be purchased by the consumer. The next speaker exposed the fallacy of this argument by admitting that department stores had been a factor in lowering the cost of such commodities, but that this could not have been done except for the assistance of another and more powerful cause, viz.,—the invention of machinery by which such articles could be manufactured in enormous quantities.

Fallacies of the argument from cause to effect may be exposed by showing

1. That the observed cause is insufficient to produce the alleged effect.

2. That past experience shows that the alleged effect does not always follow the observed cause.

3. That an independent force has intervened to prevent the observed cause from operating.

4. That the conclusion established by the argument is overthrown by positive evidence.

It must be kept in mind that the argument from cause to effect is subject to errors similar to those discussed in connection with fallacies of the argument from effect to cause.In his desire to predict the course of future events man is led to ignore the complex nature of human affairs. A certain individual believes that if he puts all his money into a business and then gives all his attention to its management that that is a sufficient cause for success. Nevertheless, so much depends upon the nature of the man and of the business that it is extremely difficult to foretell the effect. The principle underlying this situation is common to practically every argument from cause to effect. Unless the fallacy is obvious it requires a broad and penetrating intellect to fathom it.

The fallacies of the argument from effect to effect are discovered by resolving it into the argument from effect to cause and from cause to effect, of which it is composed, and examining the validity of each of these processes.

The chapter on Argument from Analogy treated of the requirements for validity to which such an argument must conform. We may expose the fallacy of an argument from analogy by showing—

1. That the two factors in the analogy are not alike in all the particulars affecting the conclusion.

2. That the alleged facts upon which the analogy is based are not true.

3. That the conclusion established by analogy is disproved by positive evidence.

No test of an analogy is absolute. Its very nature makes it more susceptible to fallacy than are the other forms of argument. At its best it creates only a high degree of probability. As already stated, its chief use is to give clearness and force to persuasive writing and speaking. In the search for fallacies,here as well as elsewhere, the best guarantee of success is an unprejudiced mind equipped with a thorough working knowledge of all the argumentative processes of reasoning and of the numerous fallacies to which they are subject.

EXERCISES IN FALLACY

I. Point out clearly the kind of fallacies, if any, involved in the following arguments.

1. The only people excluded from the privilege of voting are children, idiots, foreigners, convicts, and women. How much longer will the civilized nations of the earth permit their women to be classed with the incompetent and the criminal classes of society?

2. Political parties are a necessity to free institutions. The United States is the oldest democracy on earth and in it political parties have always ruled.

3. The election of a Republican president in 1896 was followed by a period of prosperity unrivalled in our history. Who can doubt that had a Democratic president been elected it would have worked the beginning of a sure decline of our industrial supremacy?

4. The rapid increase in wages for the past twenty years shows the superior advantage gained by the organization of the working men.

5. Is not the Spanish-American war proof of the fact that the government can meet its expenditures in time of great national emergencies without resorting to the income tax?

6. England, France, and Germany are the great powers of Europe. Both England and Germany have signified their willingness to sign this treaty. We are therefore certain that the great powers of Europe will become parties to this treaty provided we give them the opportunity.

7. Soon after the great flood the city of Galveston was grappling with serious municipal problems. By adopting the commission form of city government all these difficulties were solved. Therefore all American cities, oppressed by governmental difficulties, may secure promptrelief by adopting this plan of municipal administration.

8. (1) Some Italians are good musicians.

(2) This man is an Italian.

(3) Therefore this man is a good musician.

9. (1) All college students are interested in athletics.

(2) Ira Simpson is not a college student.

(3) Therefore Ira Simpson is not interested in athletics.

10. My opponent must remember that the finger of suspicion has pointed to him as the one who willfully misrepresented that great mine disaster. Does he dare to assert that he is now telling the truth?

11. The capitalistic class has always oppressed the working man. It has ground into the dust the man who toils for his living. It has enjoyed its ill-gotten wealth by living in luxury while the laboring man has earned his bread by the sweat of his brow. Now, my fellow workmen, shall we cast our vote for one of the most vicious members of this class?

12. Never in its history has the town of Grogan stooped to borrow money for public improvements. No one will dare maintain that this time honored custom, founded upon reason and common sense, should now be broken.

13. Brown County is overwhelmingly Republican in politics; it is therefore quite probable that your cousin who lives in that county is a Republican.

14. The very foundation of this great republic is the idea of democracy. Why, then, should not every right minded citizen recognize his duty to support the Democratic party in the coming election?

15. This climate is very healthful, for if it were not healthful the people who live here would not be free from disease.

16. There must be a substantial reason back of the opinion that the tariff should be lowered, for the prevalence of this opinion throughout the country shows that it has a sound foundation.

17. The inhuman method of killing murderers by electrocution should be abolished.

18. It is evident that the recommendations of the Simplified Spelling Board should be adopted because one of themembers of that board is the most eminent authority on the English Language in this country.

19. The price of wheat is bound to increase rapidly within the next few months because the recent flood of the Arkansas River has destroyed many hundred acres of this crop.

20. James was quite sure that something disagreeable would occur because only last night he saw the new moon over his left shoulder.

21. Since this tax has worked well in England there can be no doubt of its practicability if it is adopted in the United States.

II. Each student should write out and bring to the class at least one fallacy which he has found in the conversation of his fellow-students.

III. Whenever possible use diagrams to show the fallacies in the specimens under I.

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