CHAPTER VICONSTRUCTING THE ARGUMENT

This proposition is true, forI................................, forA.............................., for1............................, fora.........................., for(1)......................, for(a)...................., for(x).................., for(y).................., forB.............................., for1.. etc.II..............................., forA...........etc.B..........etc.

This proposition is true, for

I................................, for

A.............................., for

1............................, for

a.........................., for

(1)......................, for

(a)...................., for

(x).................., for

(y).................., for

B.............................., for

1.. etc.

II..............................., for

A...........

etc.

B..........

etc.

The above symbols with their appropriate indentations are sufficient in variety for almost any brief. To make this plan more concrete let us suppose that the proposition is held to be true for two reasons. These reasons then are the main issues, and are coördinate so far as subject-matter is concerned; therefore they are placed with the symbols I and II, which are next to the left hand margin of the paper. There are two main reasons for I, and these are marked A and B, with a greater indentation from the left hand margin than I. There is one reason for A and it is marked 1 with a slightly greater indentation from the margin than A. If there were two reasons the second one would be marked 2 with the same indentation as 1. That is, the same arrangement applies throughout the entire system that applies to I and II, and A and B. There is one reason for 1 and it is marked a with a slightly greater indentation; the reason for a is marked (1), and the reason for (1) is marked (a). Thereare two facts which prove the truth of (a) and they are marked (x) and (y). In this way the entire brief, whether long or short, is worked out and the relation existing between all its parts clearly shown.

As previously stated, in making the analysis of a proposition an unprejudiced standpoint must be taken. This is true because the object is to find the statements which if proved will establish the truth of the proposition. Since it is the object of the introduction to set forth the main issues it must contain nothing but the process of analysis by which these issues were derived. There must be no statements which require proof and none which indicate a prejudice in favor of one side or the other.

A long introduction must be avoided, because it is almost sure to contain irrelevant matter. Furthermore, a reader or hearer is not going to keep in mind all the history, conditions, definitions, and limitations which a long introduction may properly include, unless they are briefly expressed and lead straight to the heart of the controversy. Again, a long introduction is tiresome. The writer once heard a prominent United States Senator say, after acting as judge of a college debate: “Boil down your introduction. The men who pass on what you have to say, whether in business, politics, or education, want to know what you believe and why you believe it. Get at the ‘because’ part of your speech without delay.”

The process of analysis may have been long and laborious, but once the main issues have been found it is easy to point out the way to them. In the Lincoln-Douglas Debates, which are masterpieces of this kind of work, the introductionsare exceedingly short as compared with the length of the speeches. No time is wasted in getting to the points at issue. A carefully worked out analysis may be presented briefly for it is seldom necessary to an understanding of the question to discuss its origin, its history, the admitted matter and the contentions of both sides. Seldom is it important to discuss more than two of these topics. Those phases of analysis which afford the shortest route to the main issues should be chosen. While some brief writers prefer to give the whole process of analysis, this makes the brief unnecessarily long. Suppose that you went into the forest for the purpose of finding a certain tree. You began a systematic search in which you traveled back and forth through the forest for three days. At last you found the tree. It is but a half-hour’s walk from the edge of the forest. Would you take those to whom you wish to show the tree over the path which you traveled in the three days’ search, or would you lead them directly to it? The answer is obvious. Why, then, should we weary the reader or hearer with a long introduction in which all the steps taken in search of the main issues are set forth, when we can state one or two of these steps and arrive at the main issues without delay?

Lincoln, in his first inaugural address, shows the virtue of a brief introduction. He might have dwelt long upon the origin of the question which he feared would sever the Union; he might have given extensively the history of slavery and the controversies resulting from it; he might have compounded definitions based upon the highest authorities; and all of this would have been relevant matter for the introduction of his speech. Moreover, there is no doubt that all of these matters had been considered by him in his analysis of the question. But when he wished to lead his hearers to the main issues which his analysis revealed, he chose the simplest and most direct route. After a brief introductory sentencehe employed the process of elimination to cut away all extraneous matter by saying:

“I do not consider it necessary at present for me to discuss those matters of administration about which there is no special anxiety or excitement.”

Then he at once took up the subjects of slavery and secession, to which his elimination of extraneous material had narrowed the question.

The same brevity and directness characterizes Lincoln’s introduction to his Cooper Institute speech. Here a statement of admitted matter forms the means by which the point at issue is reached. This offers an introduction which is impartial, since both sides indorsed it, and the main issues arose out of the different interpretation which the Lincoln-Republicans and the Douglas-Democrats placed upon it. The crucial part of the introduction is as follows:

“In his speech last autumn at Columbus, Ohio, as reported in the New York ‘Times’ Senator Douglas said: ‘Our fathers, when they framed the government under which we live, understood this question just as well, and even better, than we do now.’ I fully indorse this, and I adopt it as a text for this discourse. I so adopt it because it furnishes a precise and an agreed starting-point for a discussion between Republicans and that wing of the Democracy headed by Senator Douglas. It simply leaves the inquiry: What was the understanding those fathers had of the question mentioned?”

It is seen that these statements bring us directly to the point at issue through the statement of admitted matter. The adoption of this admitted matter makes necessary some definitions. Lincoln gives these with clearness and exactness. “The frame of government under which we live,” is the Constitution of the United States. “The fathers” that framed this constitution were the thirty-nine men who signedthe original instrument. The “question” which these fathers understood, “just as well, and even better, than we do now,” was: “Does the proper division of local from Federal authority, or anything in the constitution, forbid our Federal Government to control as to slavery in our Federal Territories?” Then Lincoln continues: “Upon this, Senator Douglas holds the affirmative, and the Republicans the negative. This affirmation and denial form an issue; and this issue—this question—is precisely what the text declares our fathers understood “better than we.” Let us now inquire whether the “thirty-nine,” or any of them, ever acted upon this question; and if they did, how they acted upon it—how they expressed that better understanding.” Thus Lincoln brings his hearers to the proof of his argument—to the point where it introduces evidence to show that the great majority of these men answered the question by voting for the prohibition of slavery.

Now let us write out a formal brief of this introduction and thus determine just what matters it really includes.

NEGATIVE BRIEF

Proposition: Resolved, that the proper division of local from Federal authority or the Constitution, forbids our Federal Government to control as to slavery in our Federal territories.

INTRODUCTION

I. Statement of admitted matter.

A. The framers of the Constitution understood this question better than we do.

II. Definition of terms.

A. “The frame of government under which we live” is the Constitution of the United States.

1. The original Constitution.

2. The amendments.

B. “The fathers” were the thirty-nine men who signed the original document.

C. The “question” which these fathers understood “just as well, and even better, than we do now,” is: “Does the proper division of local from Federal authority, or anything in the Constitution, forbid our Federal Government to control as to slavery in our Federal Territories?

III. The question is, therefore, “Did the framers of the constitution understand that the Federal Government is prohibited from controlling slavery in the territories?”

IV. The special issues resulting from this clash of opinion are:

1. Did the words and actions of the framers of the Constitution show that the Federal Government is prohibited from controlling slavery in the territories?

2. Did the First Congress, which contained a part of these framers and which understood their intentions, show that it believed the Federal Government to be prohibited from controlling slavery in the territories?

The foregoing introduction shows well the brevity and directness which should characterize the first division of a brief. The subject-matter indicates the impartial manner in which the subject is discussed throughout the introduction. Nothing is stated which requires proof. The speaker selects common ground upon which both parties to the controversy have agreed to stand. From this position he leads his opponents by logical steps to the arguments which he advances.When the student has once found the main issues he should eliminate all useless steps in the analysis and present with clearness and force the necessary parts of the process which lead directly to the proof.

The object of the introduction to the brief is to set forth the main issues. In like manner the object of the proof is to set forth the evidence which supports these main issues. Therefore the main issues constitute the main headings of the second division of the brief. Moreover, these main issues must all read directly as reasons for the truth of the proposition. To illustrate this rule, let us consider the following example.

BRIEFProposition: Resolved, that the policy of protection should be abandoned by the United States.INTRODUCTION

BRIEF

Proposition: Resolved, that the policy of protection should be abandoned by the United States.

INTRODUCTION

I. }} (First part of introduction omitted)II. }

I. }

} (First part of introduction omitted)

II. }

III. The clash of opinion reveals the following issues:

A. Is protection sound in theory?

B. Is protection sound in practice?

PROOF

I. Protection is unsound in theory, for

A. ...

B. ..., etc.

II. Protection is unsound in practice, for

A. ...

B. ..., etc.

The above example sets forth the form in which these main issues appear in the proof of the brief. The validity of the reasoning which connects the main issues with theproposition may be tested by putting the word “because” or “for” after the proposition and reading it in connection with each main issue; thus:

A. The policy of protection should be abandoned by the United States because (or for) protection is unsound in theory.

B. The policy of protection should be abandoned by the United States because (or for) protection is unsound in practice.

Each main issue should be tested in the manner suggested above. This will show whether the proper logical relation exists between the main issues and the proposition. A further test may be applied by inverting the order of the main issues and the proposition and joining the two by the word “therefore,” as follows: A. Protection is unsound in theory; therefore the policy of protection should be abandoned by the United States. B. Protection is unsound in practice; therefore the policy of protection should be abandoned by the United States. But the words “hence” or “therefore,” should never be used in a brief, because they reverse the natural order and make the main statements subordinate.

After making sure that each main issue is stated so that it reads as a reason for the truth of the proposition, the arguer must next amass the evidence, which has been classified, in support of each of the main issues.

In the same way in which the main issues must read as reasons for the truth of the proposition, every statement in the proof, down to the smallest subdivision, must read as a reason for the statement of the next higher order. There must be no break in this firm logical structure. A chain is only as strong as its weakest link. If any break or weaknessshows in the chain of argument, reaching from the detailed facts up to the proposition itself, the whole argument must be discarded and a new one built in its place. To illustrate this rule clearly, let us take a section from the proof of the following proposition:

Resolved, that all combinations of capital intended to monopolize industries should be prohibited by the Federal Government.

INTRODUCTION(Omitted)PROOF

INTRODUCTION

(Omitted)

PROOF

I. Combinations of capital are unnecessary, for

A. The concentration of capital is possible without them, for

1. Many individuals and partnerships have enough capital to produce commodities in the most economical units.

2. Trades are sufficiently large to admit many great competitors.

B. Combinations of capital are not necessary to resist labor organizations, for

1. Labor unions do not have a complete monopoly of labor, for

a. Strikes are often a failure, for

(1) (Here cite specific instances from your personal knowledge in which strikes have failed.)

2. Associations for the purpose of resisting labor unions are possible without combinations of capital.

II. Combinations of capital are a social evil, for

A. They encourage gambling and speculation, for

1. They practice “watering stock,” for

a. (Cite a number of specific instances.)

2. They inflate or depress the value of stocks at will.

B. They concentrate wealth in the hands of a few men, for

1. John D. Rockefeller gained his immense wealth from the Standard Oil monopoly.

2. (Cite several other specific examples like the above.)

C. They discourage individual enterprise, for

1. Independent producers are driven out of business.

2. An individual cannot build up a business for himself.

III. Combinations of capital are an economic evil, for

A. They limit natural production.

B. They destroy competition, for

1. They absorb large producers.

2. They crush small producers.

C. They raise prices, for

1. They gain control of the market for this purpose.

IV. The prohibition of combinations of capital by the Federal Government is practicable, for

A. The power is given to the Federal Government by the Constitution, for

1. Congress is given power to regulate interstate commerce, for

a. Art. 1, Sec. 8 grants this power.

2. The United States courts have jurisdiction over these matters, for

a. Art. 1, Sec. 8 confers this power upon them.

In the above section taken from a completed brief enough evidence is introduced to show clearly the relation which must exist between each statement. Numbers I, II, III, and IV indicate the main issues. Under I, A and B read as reasons for the truth of I. Under A, 1 and 2 read as reasons for the truth of A and so on throughout the brief. Each statement is connected with the preceding statement, to which it is subordinate, by means of the conjunction “for.” These statements must make complete sense and show their logical relation when connected by this conjunction: as in II. Combinations of capital are a social evil, for

A. They encourage gambling and speculation.

The rule stated at the beginning of this section is one of the most important guides to correct brief making and every part of the proof should be thoroughly tested by reference to it.

Refutation may be introduced at any point in the briefwhere objections arise in connection with the constructive argument. It should always be placed in its logical position, which is under the argument to which the objection is made. Only the strong objections which appear to be obvious hindrances to logical progress should be considered. Any stubborn objections which need to be cleared away before the argument can proceed with safety should be introduced. The argument to be refuted should be clearly stated, and the refutation should be set forth in the same way and subject to the same rules as the other parts of the brief.

An example of the proper introduction of refutation in a constructive argument is shown in the speech of Roscoe Conkling delivered at the Republican Convention in Chicago in 1880, in which he nominated Ulysses S. Grant for President of the United States. The chief objection to Grant’s candidacy was that he had already served two terms as President. The precedent, set by Washington, that no man should serve more than two terms as President, had always been followed and had become one of the well established political customs of the country. Here was certainly a strong objection to the constructive argument of the speaker. Therefore the refutation is introduced where the speaker attempts to show that Grant’s character as a man and his great services to his country entitle him to the presidency. In brief form a statement of the refutation would be as follows:

A.Refutation.The argument that Grant should not be nominated because he has already served two terms as President is unsound, for

1. It is absurd to say that because we have tried Grant twice and found him faithful we ought not to trust him again.

Refutation should always be introduced in the manner which the above illustration indicates. First the series of symbols under which it should come should be determined;then the word Refutation should be placed opposite that symbol, followed by the formal statement that “The argument that ... is unsound, for.” For a further illustration of the manner in which refutation ought to appear the student should consult the completed brief at the end of this chapter.

A conclusion must be forcible and to the point. It should review the main issues and show at a glance their relation to the proposition. The conclusion to the brief given at the end of this chapter is a good example of the form in which a conclusion should be stated.

SUMMARY OF THE RULES FOR CONSTRUCTING THE BRIEF

1. A brief should be constructed in three parts: Introduction, Proof, and Conclusion.

2. Each statement in a brief should be a single complete sentence.

3. The relation which the different statements in a brief bear to each other should be indicated by symbols and indentations.

4. The introduction should contain the main issues together with a brief statement of the process of analysis by which they were found.

5. The main statements of the proof should correspond to the main issues set forth in the introduction and should read as reasons for the truth of the proposition.

6. Every statement in the proof must read as a reason for the statement to which it is subordinate.

7. Statements introducing refutation must show clearly the argument to be refuted.

8. The conclusion should be a summary of the main arguments just as they stand in the proof of the brief, and shouldclose with an affirmation or denial of the proposition in the exact words in which it is phrased.

The following brief written by a student taking his first course in argumentation shows clearly the application of all the above rules. It is not given as an example of a perfect brief on the proposition stated but it furnishes proper suggestions to the person whose experience in drawing briefs is not extensive. In studying this brief the student should observe the relation between the statements under each main topic, the method of building up the structure of the brief so that the relation of the various parts to the proposition is clear, and the fact that in each case every statement rests upon a sound foundation. The citation of good authority and the reliable source from which it was obtained are given wherever an authority is required. The brief may be criticised on the ground that too much reliance is placed upon one source of evidence. As suggested in the chapter on Evidence the exact reference to authority should always be given in order that its value may lend weight to the argument. Furthermore, the student is thus enabled to refer again to his source of evidence for further information in case it becomes necessary.

In conclusion, the student must not forget that these rules should be thoroughly mastered and that a conscious application of them must be made in the actual practice of brief-drawing. It is only by this means that they can be made a part of the argumentative equipment. After the brief is drawn it should be carefully examined and tested by the above rules. If certain parts evince weakness, these should be strengthened by rearrangement, or by supplying more and stronger evidence. The student may be compelled to return again and again to his source of evidence in order to find material of which he has need. If the steps preceding theconstruction of the brief have been carefully attended to, he will find himself so familiar with the subject-matter of the proposition that such work will be undertaken with the delight and interest which the keen investigator feels when he is close on the trail of matter which will prove his conclusions.

AFFIRMATIVE BRIEFProposition:Resolved, that the Federal Government should levy a progressive income tax.INTRODUCTION

AFFIRMATIVE BRIEF

Proposition:Resolved, that the Federal Government should levy a progressive income tax.

INTRODUCTION

I. Recently the question of an income tax has aroused great interest.

A. An amendment to the constitution has been proposed recently which will provide for this tax.

B. The proposed amendment has caused the matter to be considered carefully by the public.

C. Many eminent men have given opinions regarding the advisability of adopting the proposed tax.

II. The following definition is adopted,

The progressive income tax is simply a tax levied upon the income of an individual, the rate of tax increasing as the amount of the income of the individual increases.

III. The contentions of the affirmative and the negative are as follows:

IV. Through this clash of opinions we reach the following issues:

A. Is the income tax necessary?

B. Is the income tax practicable?

C. Is the income tax just?

PROOF

I. The progressive income tax is necessary, for

A. It is necessary in meeting national exigencies, for

1. In case of war the customs duties would cease or be impaired and the government would be without another source from which to draw revenue were not the income tax available. (Norris Brown, U. S. Senator from Neb. inOutlook, 94: 217.)

2. Governor Hughes of New York believes this power (that of levying the income tax) should be held by the Federal Government so as to equip it with the means of meeting national exigencies. (Outlook, 94: 110.)

3. Refutation. The argument that the income tax is not necessary on the grounds that other taxes can be made to cover all necessities is unsound, for

a. In case of war with a great commercial nation when the country would be in the greatest need of revenues, the collection of imposts would cease or be materially diminished. (Justice Harlan of the U. S. Supreme Court in his dissenting opinion in the Pollock Case.Outlook, 94:217.)

II. The progressive income tax is practicable, for

A. Experience shows it to be practicable, for

1. During the great Civil War millions of dollars were collected from this source when the government was in need. (Norris Brown inOutlook, 94:216.)

2. It has proved practicable in England and Italy. “Income taxation gains in economy and productiveness and wins increasing approbation as the years go by.” (Professor Ely, Professor of Economics in the University of Wisconsin, inOutlines of Economics, p. 635.)

III. The progressive income tax is just, for

A. The tax bears upon the individual according to his ability to pay, for

1. It tends to relieve the poor from taxation and place it upon the rich who are able to bear it. (Philip S. Post inOutlook, 85:504.)

B. It makes each individual bear his share of taxation, for

1. Income is as good, and perhaps better than any other single measure of ability to pay and the tax is in accordancewith this idea. (Professor Ely inOutlines of Economics, p. 635.)

2. The income tax reaches certain members of the professional class who under existing laws largely escape taxation through lack of tangible property. (Philip S. Post inOutlook, 85:594.)

CONCLUSION

I. Since the income tax is necessary in meeting national exigencies where other revenues fail;

II. Since experience shows that the income tax is practicable;

III. Since the progressive income tax is just because it bears upon the individual according to his ability to pay;

Therefore, the Federal Government should levy a progressive income tax.

EXERCISES IN CONSTRUCTING THE BRIEF

1. Let each student select some subject in which he is interested and follow the argumentative process up to and including, the construction of the brief.

2. Write out a full and complete brief of one of the arguments given in the appendix.

3. After the briefs have been written out the instructor should have the students exchange, and give them an opportunity in class to point out the defects in each other’s work.

4. Without regard to order or form, let the instructor dictate all the statements in a short brief, and let the student reconstruct a correct brief out of these statements.

CHAPTER VICONSTRUCTING THE ARGUMENT

The last step has left us with the completed brief,—sound, logical, and comprehensive. In some cases the task ends here, the brief being constructed for its own sake and left to stand as a cold, formal, logical framework upholding the truth of the proposition. In this form it may be laid by for those who are to pass upon its validity, or the advisability of adopting or rejecting the proposition which it supports; or the author may explain its structure in an extemporaneous speech. More often, however, the brief is but the framework of the argument which is to be built upon it, giving the whole structure grace and strength.

In this final process great care must be taken to make sure that the naked framework is entirely covered. No rough edges or angular corners should be left protruding from the finished product. The whole structure must be made attractive, and impressive, just as the steel framework of a great building is enveloped in solid walls of stone and marble made elegant by the sculptor’s art.

The distinction between conviction and persuasion, which was pointed out in a previous chapter, again enters into the argumentative process. For purposes of discussion we may assume that the brief itself produces conviction because it shows clearly that the proposition is right. But the naked brief is as cold and formal as a proposition in geometry. Hence it is the task of the written or spoken argument, based upon that brief, to arouse the emotions so that it may move the will and thus end in persuasion. Now, if every individualwere a perfectly rational being the brief would be all that would be necessary to arouse to action, because by itself it shows what is right and what ought to be done. But real men in everyday life are not perfectly rational beings. Their reasoning processes are influenced by environment, education, prejudices, and acquired habits of thought. The emotions of men, too, play a large part in shaping their conduct. Therefore, a process must be instituted in their minds which reaches persuasion through their combined thoughts and feelings.

From the psychological standpoint we may divide this process into three stages, I., Attention; II., Interest; and III., Desire. From the argumentative standpoint we may divide the process into three parts corresponding to the three parts of the brief, viz., I., Introduction; II., Proof; and III., Conclusion. Now it will be seen that the psychological process bears a logical relation to the argumentative process, and that this relation is one of cause and effect. The end of all argument is action. If the argument is successful it creates in their order the mental and emotional conditions of attention, interest, and desire. That is, the introduction, proof, and conclusion of the argument result in the attention, interest, and desire of the individual mind. These processes begin at the same point, since the introduction secures the attention of the reader or hearer; they proceed along the argumentative road together, since the proof must maintain the active interest of the reader or hearer; and they end at the same point, because the conclusion, if successful, leaves the mind with a desire for action. Briefly stated, the introduction arouses the attention; the proof maintains the interest; and the conclusion creates the desire.

The first duty of a written argument is to get itself read;the first duty of an oral argument is to get itself heard; therefore the argument must attract the attention of the reader or listener in the beginning or introduction and must hold his attention throughout the proof. If attention is not secured at the beginning of the argument it is seldom secured at all, for the reader will throw the uninteresting argument aside in disgust, while the listener will allow his thoughts to wander to other subjects. Thus it is evident that the necessity for arousing the attention by means of the introduction is very great.

In order that we may clearly apprehend the relation which should exist between the introduction and attention let us consider, 1. The kinds of attention, and 2. The methods of securing proper attention by means of the introduction.

Natural attention requires no effort of the will to bring the mind to bear upon the subject in hand. The human mind, when not engaged on some definite object, attends in an effortless way to practically every marked change in the circumstances with which it is surrounded. To things that meet our approval we give our attention willingly, but if we are displeased or bored by any happening we give our attention unwillingly. Therefore the object of the introduction is to please in order that attention may be given willingly.

When a speaker walks out on a platform and faces the audience he at once attracts the spontaneous attention of practically everybody in that audience. This much is easy. The problem that now confronts the speaker is to begin his speech by saying something which will turn this spontaneous attention into fixed attention. By fixed attention is meant such attention as willingly follows the train of thought which the speaker has to present. If the introduction is properlyprepared this fixed attention will be the result, but if the introduction is not properly prepared the natural attention of the audience quickly degenerates into what we may term Assumed Attention.

This kind of attention is not given willingly, but is assumed by the audience merely because it happens that the speaker has placed himself on the platform and there is nothing left for the audience to do but to listen to him. Now this assumed attention on the part of the listeners may pass through several degrees of intensity, depending upon the kind of audience and the degree of the lack of skill with which the speaker proceeds. At first the speaker is treated to the ordinary manner of any audience not especially interested in what is being said. This attitude quickly degenerates into indifference, a point at which the audience does not care what the speaker says or whether he says anything. Such a condition as this often continues throughout an entire speech, and the sooner the speaker realizes that fact and brings his argument to an end the better. The next stage of assumed attention is that of abstraction. At this stage the speaker does not even receive the indifferent attention of the listeners. The mind of each individual before him wanders off to some subject in which he is interested personally and the speaker might just as well be talking to empty seats. Usually this is the least desirable stage of assumed attention. Under some conditions, however, it is possible to reach a still less desirable stage, which we may call, for the purpose of making an exhaustive division of this subject, incivility. At this stage the individuals of the audience manifest their displeasure by talking among themselves, and making uncomplimentary remarks about the speaker.

The above discussion will serve to make clear the kind of attention the speaker must attempt to create bymeans of his introduction. We shall now consider some of the methods by which the proper kind of attention may be secured.

One of the most effective methods of securing the natural attention of the audience is by an immediate statement of the purpose of the discourse. It will be remembered that in the preparation of the brief the student was cautioned against the evils of a long introduction. He will also recall that the introduction was to contain only the main issues and the essential steps in the analysis by which they were reached. This same brevity should characterize the introduction to the argument. The audience is naturally interested in what the speaker believes and the reasons for his arguing in favor of or against the proposition. Therefore he may gain the fixed attention by stating at once just what he purposes to do. An extreme form of this kind of introduction would be as follows:

“There are two reasons why we maintain that the Federal Government should levy a progressive inheritance tax; first, because the national government needs it as a source of revenue; and second, because it will remedy the evils resulting from ‘swollen’ fortunes.

“The Federal Government needs this tax as a source of revenue because, etc.”

This introduction is an immediate statement of the purpose of the argument and will secure the attention of either reader or hearer.

In addressing an audience there are some cases in which just such an introduction should be used; for example, when previous speakers have dwelt upon the analysis of the question, or have given full dissertations on the origin or historyof the subject, or lengthy definitions of terms and explanations of processes of reasoning. Again, such an introduction may be used when the time limit is very short or where the audience is presumed to be thoroughly familiar with the subject under discussion. Lincoln uses this method in introducing his discussion on the necessity of a settlement of the slavery struggle, as the following introduction to his Springfield speech will show:

“If we could first know where we are, and whither we are tending, we could better judge what to do and how to do it. We are now far in the fifth year since a policy was initiated with the avowed object and confident promise of putting an end to the slavery agitation. Under the operation of that policy, that agitation has not only not ceased, but has constantly been augmented. In my opinion it will not cease until a crisis shall have been reached and passed. ‘A house divided against itself cannot stand.’ I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved; I do not expect the house to fall; but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing or all the other. Either the opponents of slavery will arrest the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction, or its advocates will push it forward till it shall become alike lawful in all the states, old as well as new, North as well as South.”

In this introduction it is seen that Lincoln comes at once to the point: “I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free.” He makes his introduction complete by repeating this idea so that no one can fail to understand the point he is making. The two sentences which precede his statement and the three sentences which follow it state the same idea in different forms. In an introduction the speaker must not only make his positionso plain that it can be understood, but he must make it so plain that it cannot be misunderstood. This is what Lincoln does in the introduction to his Springfield speech and it is what must be done in every effective speech of this character.

The introduction quoted above touches lightly upon the origin and history of the question with the simple statement: “We are now far into the fifth year since a policy was initiated with the avowed object and confident promise of putting an end to slavery agitation. Under the operation of that policy, that agitation has not only not ceased, but has been constantly augmented.” More extended statements of the history here alluded to are given further on in the argument at such places as they are needed. Here in the Introduction merely the significant results of origin and history are stated in the briefest possible form. This method of stating the introduction well illustrates the application of the general principle that extensive treatment of facts of origin and history should not be allowed to interfere with the immediate statement of the purpose of the argument.

Sometimes the fixed attention of the audience or reader may be gained by the use of an illustrative story. No speaker or writer should attempt to use this method of introduction unless he is absolutely confident of his ability to carry it through successfully. A story must conform to the following rules before it can, with safety, be adopted for the purpose of an introduction:

(1) The story must be interesting.

(2) The story must be well told.

(3) The story must be obviously connected with the point which the arguer wishes to bring out.

If the story be of the comic variety, and is to be told orally, the speaker must make sure that the audience will laughwith him and not at him. Nothing is more fatal to natural attention than a story which “falls flat.” Regarding the aptness of the story as illustrating the point which the speaker wishes to make, it need only be suggested that the connection must be obvious. If any explanation is required after the story is told it usually serves to kill attention rather than to create it. The connection must be so obvious that the speaker is able to lead his auditors skillfully from the story directly to the point at issue.

A third method of introducing an argument is by the giving of a familiar quotation, or a quotation of the opposing speaker or someone concerned in the controversy. Such a quotation must be very plainly connected with the subject, and its bearing on the point which the speaker wishes to make must be evident. In this respect the requirements of an introductory story and an introductory quotation are identical. An example of an introduction in which a quotation is used is that of the speech of Roscoe Conkling in which he urges the nomination of Ulysses S. Grant for President. This introduction begins as follows:

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