CHAPTER VIIIDELIVERING THE ARGUMENT
The statement is frequently made by those well versed in the art of public speaking that a poor speech well delivered is much better than a good speech poorly delivered. Again the statement is sometimes made that in judging the efficiency of an oral argument, twenty-five per cent is counted on the substance while seventy-five per cent is counted on the delivery. Be that as it may, the delivery of an argument is certainly a most important factor in determining its effect upon the hearer. Under the head of delivery we might include the whole field of public speaking and oratory, but since we are treating only of argument we must confine our attention to those phases of public speaking which may be applied in a practical way to the oral delivery of argumentative discourse.
To read an argument is certainly the most ineffective way to present it. After all the work of constructing the argument is accomplished, it is certainly poor policy to intrust its delivery to the lazy method of reading it from the manuscript. Such a method presents all the disadvantages of speaking with none of the advantages of reading. If the argument is read, the reader can inform himself fully of its contents, because he can read it slowly or rapidly as he chooses. Passages which he does not thoroughly understand may be re-read. Moreover, he may go back over the argumentand review its main points as well as scrutinize all the evidence offered to support them. But if the argument is read from a manuscript, the listener must receive it at the rate of delivery which is chosen by the reader. He cannot, as a general rule, ask that the passages which are not clear to him, be re-read, and at the end he is not permitted to go back and ponder over parts which appear to him to be of doubtful validity, nor can he very well question the evidence presented. Furthermore, the reader, being tied down to his manuscript, cannot give the force or expression to the argument which would be possible were he speaking directly to the persons addressed. He cannot see by the look of understanding or perplexity on their faces, just what parts of his argument are clear and what parts are not clear to them. Again, the sympathy which should exist between speaker and audience is almost entirely shut out. A manuscript stands like the Chinese wall between the speaker and his audience.
The defects of this method of delivering an argument are pointed out because there is a decided tendency on the part of college men, and a few men of some reputation, to adopt this manner of presentation, which is certainly the easiest way but which is generally as ineffective as it is easy. Whenever it is important that real results be obtained, whether in the class room, in a formal debate, or in real life, this method should be avoided.
The delivery of a speech memorized verbatim is certainly to be preferred to reading, because it at least affords the speaker the opportunity of stating his case directly to his audience, and permits the use of all the arts of declamation; but since the speech is set in definite form it precludes the modification necessary to adapt the argument to the contentionsadvanced by the opposition. In college debating this form of delivery is especially objectionable because from it the student derives little practical benefit. As has already been pointed out, the great value of debating lies in its training for the practical affairs of life by teaching the student to frame his argument on the spur of the moment, adapt it to the conditions of the particular situation which he is facing, and present it in an effective manner. All of these advantages are lost if the argument is committed to memory verbatim.
By this method the written argument which has been prepared is made the basis of the delivery. It furnishes a substantial foundation for the speech. The argument has gone through the process of construction according to the directions heretofore given. It is, therefore, an efficient instrument of persuasion and the greatest results may be most surely obtained by the method of memorizing the argument by ideas. The three steps in this process of memorizing are as follows:
First, the argument should be read over slowly several times in order that the speaker may get an accurate view of the production as a whole. In most cases the student will have this much accomplished by the time he has written out the argument in final form.
Second, the central idea of each paragraph should be memorized. As a general rule, the paragraphs will conform to the topics of the brief. That is, each topic in the brief, with the possible exception of the lowest sub-topic, will be developed by means of a separate paragraph. The central idea will, of course, be the thought expressed by the statement in the brief which the paragraph is designed to develop. However, this idea should be committed in the formin which it appears in the finished argument, and not in the form in which it appears in the brief. In this way each idea will be grasped in its relation to the rest of the argument as well as in its relation to the manner in which it has been elaborated in the paragraph. Each idea presented should then be committed in its proper order so that the speaker can go through the entire argument and state the idea expressed in each paragraph.
Third, the idea contained in each sentence of the paragraph should be committed to memory. If the student has honestly constructed his argument each statement in it means all and more than he expressed when he wrote it out, therefore the committing of the idea contained in each sentence should not be difficult. Furthermore, the idea should be grasped in its completeness without reference to the words in which it is expressed in the manuscript. In most cases it is well to remember the key-word of each sentence, which expresses the central thought. Sometimes more than one word is necessary for this purpose, but in any event, only those words which embody the heart of the thought, should be committed. All subsidiary words, or words explaining, expanding, limiting, or showing transitions or relations should not be committed, but should be left for spontaneous utterance at the moment of delivery.
This method of memorizing gives naturalness, directness, and spontaneity to the delivery. It trains the speaker to keep his mind firmly fixed on the subject in hand and it eliminates the danger of that monotony which is the result of verbatim memorizing. Perhaps the most important advantage of this method of delivery is the fact that it allows the speaker to adapt his argument to the contentions of his opponent. Since he has made himself thoroughly familiar with the material of his argument but has not tied himself to any set form of words, his expression is flexible. If theargument is to be delivered in a debate, the speaker should practice delivering it so as to meet the various contentions which may be advanced by the opposition. Then when the time comes for the final presentation, he will be prepared to so word his speech as to make it directly applicable to what has just been said on the other side. Practice of this kind is needed in everyday life without regard to the occupation in which the student may chance to engage.
There are other methods of delivery, but we need not give them extended consideration. The argument might be delivered extempore from the brief. This method however, is likely to be ineffective, since the speaker does not express himself with definiteness and precision. Furthermore, he is likely to occupy a great deal of time in presenting points which, if carefully framed in forcible sentences, could be stated directly and briefly. Again, the tendency to ramble is great when the purely extempore method is used.
The speaker should first write out his argument even though he expects to follow what he has written only in a general way. The very fact of his having written out the argument will tend to make more definite his own ideas of what he wishes to say. It blazes the trail or wears a sort of path through the mind of the writer from which he is not likely to deviate far when the final delivery is made. The method of extemporaneous delivery, however, is not well adapted to the presentation of a formal constructive argument, because it is too loose and lacks the conciseness characterizing the method of committing by ideas. After long periods of practice the student may be able to use the purely extemporaneous method with good effect, but while he is a student he should keep to the well-beaten path.
Still another method of delivery is to write out an introduction, a conclusion, and certain important passages, and leave the rest to extemporaneous delivery. This methodmay be used with considerable success providing the time limit is not a consideration, and providing, furthermore, that the speaker is an expert in making the transitions from the committed to the uncommitted parts of his speech. With the inexperienced speaker, this method usually results in a rapid, fiery delivery of the committed parts and a hesitating, stammering, and woefully ineffective delivery of the uncommitted portions. This attracts the attention of the audience to the way in which the speech has been prepared and takes the attention away from the subject of the debate.
From every standpoint the method of committing by ideas is by far the best for both the experienced and the inexperienced speaker. It gives him a command of his argument which inspires confidence. There is not the haunting fear that the speech may be forgotten, a fear which terrorizes the heart of all speakers who commit word for word.
If the debater chooses he may have a full outline of his argument written out on cards and take these with him when he goes to face the audience. No attempt need be made to hide these notes, for they are a legitimate safeguard against emergencies. They should be carried boldly and laid on a table near the speaker so that he can refer to them readily if occasion demands. He should never take cards or notes from his pocket. Such an action always gives the audience the impression that the speaker is trying to do something which is beyond his powers. The notes should be referred to deliberately and only when it is absolutely necessary. To refer too often to notes indicates a lack of thorough preparation and makes an unfavorable impression. The notes should be ready for use, but they should seldom be used. In fact, the best speakers usually leave their notes untouched.
Much harm results from the advice so frequently given tothe debater which counsels him to be natural. If accepted in its proper significance this advice is sound and accords well with common sense. Too often, however, it is taken as a license to disregard all rules of physical training for public speaking, and to give no thought to physical appearance and action while on the platform. On the contrary these things are highly important. In a sense, physical preparation is composed of trifles; such as, matters of position, gesture, and so forth. But it is these things that make for perfection, and we are told with truth that perfection is no trifle. The person who tells the inexperienced debater to be natural has failed to distinguish between natural andhabitual. James Fox may have acquired a bad habit of standing, when before an audience, with all his weight on one foot. We are then erroneously told that that is his natural way of standing because he always stands that way. On the contrary, that is his habitual way of standing, for no normal individual naturally stands with all his weight thrown upon one foot. Such bad habits must be overcome and good habits formed and strengthened. Then, and then only, may we safely instruct the debater to be natural.
The position of the debater on the platform should indicate ease and dignity of bearing. It should give him an appearance of stability and should make easy and natural the use of gestures. The speaker should not stand rigidly throughout his delivery in the same position which he first took. He should move easily about the platform, and all movements should be made deliberately, not abruptly. The position should not be changed too often but when a change is desired the speaker should not turn away from his audience or move sideways along the platform; he should move back and up again in a V-shaped course.
The object of these suggestions is to enable the speaker to acquire ease and naturalness of bearing, for nothing should be done in a stiff, formal manner. Every position and movement should be so natural and spontaneous that the attention of the audience will not be diverted to the personal eccentricities of the speaker but will follow uninterruptedly the progress of his argument.
There is no set way of addressing the audience. Good form and manners vary with the locality. Neither is there a set method of delivering an argument. Individual peculiarities vary so widely and the style of delivery adapted to the personality of the debater is so difficult to attain that we can only point out the most common faults and explain general rules regarding delivery. The best training in actual practice is debating under the direction of a competent instructor.
The voice of the speaker should be clear and strong. We cannot give here any complete treatment of the methods of vocal training which make the voice clear and strong, but, where opportunity affords, the student of debate should have a thorough training in the art of public speaking. Singing, under proper instruction, will also improve the volume and quality of the voice as well as give the speaker greater voice control. A few practical suggestions regarding the use of the voice may be given some attention at this point.
It has been said that breath is the stuff of which the voice is made. Attention must therefore be given to proper breathing. The entire lung capacity should be used. The breath should be directed through the vocal chords so as to produce a pure tone. The speaker should remember to keep the throat muscles relaxed and the tongue, jaws, and lips out of the way. These organs of speech are to be used to mould intoclear-cut words the stream of sound issuing from the vocal chords. Their function is not to suppress sound but to modify it.
Words should be formed as near the lips as it is possible to make them. The speaker must not fear to open his mouth and articulate distinctly. Most words should be formed just back of the front teeth. So formed, the sound is thrown out with force and resonance, for the hard palate or roof of the mouth is a natural sounding board. If the speaker forms his words far back in his mouth they issue only in incoherent mutterings. Since an argument must be heard to be believed, the most thorough preparation up to this point may be entirely offset by a poor delivery. The enunciation of the speaker should be so clear and distinct that the attention of those addressed will be fixed upon what he is saying, not upon the way in which he is saying it.
Every word should be pronounced distinctly. Vagueness in delivery is just as harmful as vagueness in language or substance. If one word in a sentence is pronounced so ineffectively that it is not understood, it may be impossible for the person hearing that sentence to grasp its meaning. In any event it requires the listener to make the mental effort of figuring out what the sentence means, and this mental effort tires the hearer, prevents him from giving his undivided attention to the substance of the argument, and ultimately results in his losing all interest in the discussion. It is therefore plain that clear enunciation is a matter of fundamental importance.
A clear, resonant voice is in itself a valuable asset for the debater. It inspires respect and denotes self-reliance. However, loudness should not be confused with distinctness, for mere loudness often accentuates, rather than remedies poor articulation. The world at large is more ready to believe a person who has a clear-cut, distinct way of speaking than itis to believe one who utters his words in a slovenly manner. It is often true that slovenly habits of speech indicate slovenly habits of thinking and even slovenly morals. The habit of using the voice effectively, however, is not one which can be put on and taken off at will. The voice must be used correctly in everyday conversation as well as in formal debating.
The debater must make plain the important parts of his argument by means of emphasis. In speaking, as in writing, it is useless to try to emphasize everything. Only those parts which have been emphasized in writing out the argument should be emphasized in delivering it. An attempt to emphasize everything results in no emphasis at all. The speaker should therefore study his argument carefully and pick out the parts which are indispensable to his position. The audience will not perform this task of picking out the most important passages; the speaker must do it himself. In the delivery these parts should be emphasized by means of gestures, by speaking them more slowly and deliberately, or by any other legitimate method.
The debater should speak in his average key. By key we mean the pitch of the voice in speaking. By average key is meant that key to which the voice of the particular individual is especially adapted. Average key should not be confused with habitual key. One may easily acquire the habit of speaking either above or below the average key. The tendency of the inexperienced orator is usually to speak in a key which is too high. This defect is tiresome to both audience and speaker and should be overcome at any cost, for the debater should speak in a key which is easy and natural. This enables him to derive the benefit of full inflection both upward and downward, and bestows confidence and ease.
A common fault of the inexperienced speaker is a too rapid rate of delivery. In the beginning of the speech it is especially important that every word be spoken slowly and distinctly. At no part of the speech should the rate be so rapid as to prevent the audience from grasping the full significance of what is being said. The average rate of delivery has been computed to be one hundred and twenty-five words per minute, allowing for pauses and transitions; but the rate should vary according to the speaker, the subject, and the audience. First of all the rate should be adapted to the thought and to the emotion. Simple ideas can be presented rapidly, while complex ideas must be presented slowly. In all cases the audience should be given ample time to grasp the ideas presented. With this caution in mind the speaker may dwell upon the important thoughts and emotions and pass lightly and quickly over the unimportant. Thought and emotion must be fully appreciated by the speaker at the time of delivery, and this appreciation should be indicated in part by the rate of speaking. In general it may be said that the emotions of awe, grandeur, reverence, sorrow, etc., should be voiced with a slow movement, while emotions of joy, anger, indignation, enthusiasm, etc., should be voiced with a rapid movement. However the student should be careful to avoid either a jerky or a drawling delivery. These faults are due usually to a failure to dwell upon the vowel sounds. No set rule can be established, but all of these things should be considered by the speaker when he is preparing to deliver his argument.
Inflection should be used to give variety to the argument, to bring out the special significance of important passages, and to show the bearing which the evidence has upon the general principles. The amateur speaker usually varies his inflection according to the punctuation. This is not a safe rule to follow. The falling inflection indicates that thethought is complete, but not that the end of the sentence has been reached. In argumentative speaking the falling inflection is most frequently used because it indicates positive assertion. It denotes confidence in what is being said. On the other hand, the rising inflection denotes doubt, indecision, negation, or appeal. It is often necessary to express all of these attitudes in delivering an argument; but the falling inflection, which denotes a positive statement, should predominate.
The memorizing of gestures is as ineffective as is the memorizing of words. Both tend to make the delivery mechanical and hence should be carefully avoided. The student should never pick out certain emphatic parts in his discourse and seek to emphasize them by means of gestures which he has studied out and practiced. In fact gesturing is not a necessity in the delivering of an argument. It is certain that poor gesturing is worse than none at all. Gestures add to the effectiveness of an argument only when they are simple and natural. As a general rule they are natural only when they are made spontaneously. Here, again, practice before a competent instructor, or at least before a sensible critic, is indispensable. Every gesture that is made must appear as a natural effort to be understood and believed.
The student should learn to use gestures, not in connection with any particular argument but in connection with the expression of his own thought and feeling. Here, again, the instruction to be natural may prove misleading. The speaker may be naturally awkward, or at least his gesturing may be awkward, and thus produce only a desire to laugh on the part of the audience. This natural awkwardness must be overcome and replaced by a natural gracefulness. The gestures used in argumentation need not be elaborate, infact simple gestures are more effective. The gesture should seem to be a part of the thought or emotion, and training should be resorted to only for the purpose of securing naturalness, gracefulness, and ease. In gesturing, only that which is natural in the right way, that which enforces the thought instead of diverting attention from it, is effective.
The transition from one part of the speech to another should be clearly indicated. In constructing the argument these transition points were made plain by means of transition sentences showing the division between the introduction and the proof, the main issues of the proof and each subordinate issue, and the proof and conclusion. When the argument is to be delivered, however, the delivery should make these transition points stand out like white mile posts. In this way two advantages are gained. First, the structure of the argument is vividly impressed upon the mind of the hearer. Second, these transitions break the monotony of the speech and keep alive the interest of the audience. In beginning each new main issue, and often in beginning the presentation of an important piece of evidence, the speaker should drop to the conversational tone. He should talk directly to his audience as though it were an individual. Then he should gradually increase the force of his delivery until he is speaking in his strongest persuasive manner. This method gives variety to the argument, and thus prevents it from growing monotonous. Furthermore, it insures a better appreciation of the argument as a whole.
Other devices which may be used in connection with the above method for marking transitions are, (1) varying the inflections, (2) changing the rate of delivery, (3) using appropriate gestures, (4) changing the mode of emphasis, (5) making use of pauses, and (6) changing position on the platform.All of these devices must be used with skill and ease. Nothing should appear abrupt and fantastic, but each part of the speech should be made to blend gracefully with the whole argument.
In presenting a series of statistics the necessity for large charts, which may be hung up at the back of the platform and explained by the speaker, is almost absolute. No audience can keep in mind a mass of statistics. The oral presentation of figures makes little real impression upon the minds of the hearers and serves to confuse rather than to enlighten. Therefore these figures must be presented so that the audience can see them. Statistics should be carefully tabulated in accordance with the following form:
The chart and the letters and figures upon it should be large enough to be seen clearly by all auditors.
To set forth tables of statistics is not the only use to which these charts may be put. They may be used to illustrate territorial conditions by means of maps, to show comparisons by means of lines, squares, or circles, and for as many other purposes as the ingenuity of the speaker can invent. Informal debating contests a set of carefully prepared charts usually gives a distinct advantage to their possessors. They stand for something definite, something which the judges and audience may see with their own eyes. These charts may be hung up and left open, but it is often better to have a thin sheet of paper pinned over them. When a chart is to be used either the speaker or one of his colleagues may remove the sheet of paper. It should then be left open to the gaze of the audience throughout the entire discussion. If several charts are used and all of them cannot be left exposed to view, the most important one should be placed in the favored position.
In explaining a chart the speaker should make use of his most conversational delivery. He should take a light pointer in the hand nearest the chart and direct the attention of his hearers to the figures as he states them. In doing this the speaker should always face the audience and talk to them instead of to the chart. He should be so familiar with the material on the chart that he needs only to glance at it for the purpose of directing attention to each new figure as he starts to explain its significance. A carefully prepared chart, clearly explained in accordance with the foregoing directions, is a valuable aid to interest and clearness in the delivery of any argument.
In the last section we concerned ourselves with matters relating to the form of delivery; with things primarily physical. We now turn to the substance of delivery and consider things primarily mental. The attitude of mind which the speaker maintains toward his subject and his auditors is a powerful factor in persuasion.
Clear, intense thinking should always accompany the deliveryof an argument. The mental attitude of the speaker must be one of alert, business-like attention. With the attention of the speaker riveted upon the object of his argument, the audience will be compelled to follow him straight to the conclusion. The simple directness of the speaker who keeps his mind firmly fixed on his subject is irresistible.
No ostentation or striving after effect should be allowed to hold a place in the speaker’s thoughts, for the day of bombastic oratory is passed. This is a practical age; the world demands results, and results demand directness. Simplicity of thought begets simplicity of expression, and the orator with but a single idea underlying his argument has this irresistible power.
In delivering the argument the debater must forget himself, so far as his preparation and personality are concerned, and think only of what he is saying. The simple conversational style in which two persons discuss a subject of vital interest to them is usually direct. This directness comes from the vital interest of the speakers and their desire to make their ideas plain. The same conversational directness should exist in debating. Very often the speaker can obtain greater directness by picking out two or three people in various parts of the audience and talking to them. In a formal debating contest the debater sometimes picks out the judges and talks to them. The use of this method does not ignore the rest of the audience, because the debater is speaking to the audience as a whole, and it does give force and directness to the delivery.
The greatest orators of modern times have been noted for their simplicity and natural directness. In fact, this was clearly the predominating characteristic of the style of Abraham Lincoln and Wendell Phillips; and even Webster, highly endowed as he was with natural attributes whichmade his style grand rather than simple, was above all else noted for his directness.
Earnestness is the basis of persuasion. The man who is in earnest about anything is bound to accomplish something. By this earnestness we do not mean that which is assumed for the occasion, but that earnestness which comes from deep convictions. Without the quality of earnestness the debater becomes a mere speaker of words. For any particular occasion, the speaker should prepare himself by forming in his own mind strong convictions regarding his subject. In formal debating a speaker is sometimes compelled to argue against his convictions. In such a case the best he can do is to present his position. As a general rule the questions discussed in class and debating contests are so evenly balanced and so broad in their application that to arrive at a just conclusion requires more investigation than the ordinary debater can well undertake. The debater should, therefore, be content to fulfil his function as a defender of the truth. He should make his investigation thorough before championing any cause in real life. Having found the proper cause for the exercise of his skill he must first convince himself of its worth; then only can he present his case with the earnestness of conviction.
In general the mental preparation of the speaker who strives for earnestness must begin far back in his career. Sincerity is not something which can be brought out for parade on special occasions. The orator who wishes to impress his fellow men with his sincerity must in all his thoughts and actions be sincere himself. If this fundamental preparation in common integrity does not exist within the speaker, that fact will be recognized by his audience. His words will carry neither weight nor conviction because the hearer mustinevitably declare with Emerson “What you are speaks so loud, I cannot hear what you say.”
The earnestness of the speaker must be the result of high principles, lofty character, and a firm and sincere conviction of the worth of his cause. He must have a deep sympathy with his cause and with his auditors. He must possess a wide knowledge of human nature which will enable him to appeal to the emotions of his hearers in a sympathetic manner. He must take their point of view and feel as he would have them feel in regard to his subject. Then all the force of his being will awake to fortify and render invincible his argument. In this way it will become a conquering instrument of persuasion. The arts of the orator must be employed to lead men, not to drive them. The speaker must take the attitude that he is merely one of his audience who has found out something worth while and who earnestly desires to share his discovery with his neighbors. Anything approaching a patronizing air, or an “I am holier (or wiser) than thou attitude,” is fatal to sympathy and earnestness. He should follow the simple direct method of taking his hearers into his confidence and talking to them as though he feels that they are as wise and good as himself. He should watch the expressions of sympathy or hostility on their faces and lead them quietly along the road of earnestness, the end of which is persuasion.
The speaker’s confidence in himself and in his cause should be absolute. The time for hesitation and self-questioning has passed when the speaker stands before his audience. Then he should feel himself master of the situation. He must take the attitude of mind which befits an expert or a professional. By this we do not mean an ostentatious show of knowledge or insolent superiority. The directions containedin the last section should be a sufficient guarantee against such an attitude. But the speaker must honestly think that he is engaged in an important and commendable undertaking and that he has the ability to carry it through successfully. In order to do this he must assume an attitude of unbiased fairness and honesty. His manner should indicate that he feels himself responsible for the truth. He must never appear to be concealing anything from his hearers, nor should he appear to be taking advantage of his opponents or depriving them of any credit to which they are justly entitled. Never should he misquote an opponent or put an unfavorable interpretation upon what that opponent has said. An audience loves fair play and the knowledge that he is making a fair fight, with everything above board, gives confidence to the speaker.
A speaker should always exercise self-control. At no time should he put all his force into the language which he uses. He should always maintain a reserve force which will give a background of power to his delivery. Never should he allow his temper to be ruffled by anything that may happen during the discussion; to indulge in an outburst of temper is positively belittling. Washington’s advice to young men was “Conquer the territory under your own hat.” This is an apt expression for the debater to keep constantly in mind. The complete self-reliance which puts the speaker at his ease is acquired only by practice. In fact, many great speakers have gone through life facing a period of nervousness just before appearing before their audiences. This trait, however, is not necessarily an evil. The speaker should always appreciate the importance of the occasion and his own responsibility. If he does this to the extent of having his emotions aroused it often makes his delivery more direct, earnest, and confident. The point to be remembered is that he must have that confidence which convinces his hearersthat his argument is the result of clean, clear-cut thinking, and persuades them to act in accordance with the truth which that argument reveals.
The power of a speaker does not exist in the development of any one trait. He must study methods of delivery, and must not weary of painstaking physical and mental preparation. Back of all of this must be the man himself, entrenched in mental and moral strength. No defect is too trifling to be overcome by constant vigilance, no improvement so unimportant as not to merit the most arduous striving. The student who is ambitious to acquire the art of persuasion should practice constantly and neglect no opportunity to appear before an audience. For every principle gleaned from these pages the debater must provide himself with ninety-nine opportunities for practice. It is only by actual practice that anyone can hope to travel far along the road which leads to the goal of perfection.