☞ For Additions see Appendix. ☞
Aachen.
A sub-dialect of low-German orPlatt-Deutsch, vernacular at Aix-la-Chapelle, Lower Rhine. See Müller and Weitz’s “Idiomatikon,” Leipsig, 1836.
AbabdehorAbadeh.
Semitic: a different form of speech was formerly vernacular at Sheikh Abade, in Upper Egypt; the site of some ancient ruins on the banks of the Nile. Since superseded byArabic. Adelung: “Mithridates,” iv., p. 502.
⁂ A division of theBeja,Bejawi, orBisharifamily; they are the most northerly members of this class, which occupies the desert between the Nile and Red Sea from Cosseir to Suakim.R. G. L.
Abadja.
African: a sub-dialect of theOtam.
Abak.
A dialect of the Philippine Islands, closely allied toBissayanandTagala. See Jülg’s “Vater,” p. 1.
Abantes.
An extinct form of speech, classed asThraco-Illyrian, formerly vernacular in the I. of Eubœa, now called Negropont or Egripos, in the Grecian Archipelago. Adelung: “Mithridates,” ii., p. 362.
AbasciorAbassian,seeAbsne.
Abbeville.
A sub-dialect ofFrench, vernacular in Picardy. See De Soilly’s “Idiome Picard,” Abbeville, 1833.
Abbitibbe.
American: dialect of the Christinos or Cree Indians; classed asAlgonkin. See Jülg’s “Vater,” p. 204.
AbenakiorAbenaqui.
A dialect of theAlgonkinrace of N. American Indians, spoken in Lower Canada and the State of Maine. The tribe once occupied the valley of the R. Kennebeck; but the name also includes the Etchemins, Micmacs, and others. See Rasles. Dict., 1833; Vocabulary in Amer. Ethnol. Trans, ii., p. 109.
Abiponian.
A name given by the early Spaniards to the language spoken on the western bank of the Parana in S. America; although on the borders of the Gran Chaco it differs considerably from the dialects spoken in that district. See Dobrizhoffer’s “Geschichte,” 3 vols., 8vo, Vienna, 1784.D. F.
Abor.
A dialect ofAssamese, spoken by a hill tribe on the north-western extremity of Assam. Logan, Jnl. Indian Archipelago, 1853, p. 190.SeeAka.
AbsneorAbkhazian.
A name for the ancientAbasci, now represented by Abascia or Abgah (Abkasia), a country of Asiatic Russia, lying between the Caspian and Black Seas. The modern wordAbsnéis called Abkhazi by the Georgians; with the terminal “eti” for “land,” it is Abkhazeti, and extends from Soukum-kale to Jenikale. The affinities of the Absné language are very uncertain; a large number of its words are similar to Circassian, but a larger proportion apparently not so. See Vocabularies in Güldenstädt’s “Reisen;” Klaproth’s “Reise;” “Asia Polyglotta,” &c.H. H. H.
Abyssinian,seeAgau,Amharic,Galla,Tigre, &c. ☞
Acadian.
American: That division of theAlgonkinfamily containing the languages of Lower Canada and Nova Scotia.
Acaxe.
American: a doubtful name for a probable dialect of theTubar.
Accad.
The oldest known language before the Semitic population settled in Mesopotamia.W. S. W. V.SeeAkkadian.
Accaway.
A dialect of native S. American, belonging to theCarib, or Karib group. Vernacular in the Highlands of British Guiana.
⁂Caribof Demerara, closely allied to theCarabisi. See Hilhouse, Schomburgk, &c.
AccraorAccarah.
A language of theMandingobranch of native African, spoken by a small nation on the Gold-coast, about lat. 5° 35′ N., long. 0° 12′ W.; it is sometimes designated theGhahorGa, and the people are supposed to have been removed by emigration from the interior. Ghana or Gana is a city, governed by a Sultaun, near the upper course of the Niger. Rask’s “Vejledning,” 8vo, Copenhagen, 1828.SeeAquapim.
Achæmenian Persian.
The name of that form of the OldPersianlanguage which is used in the inscriptions of the Achæmenian kings, or the line of native monarchs which commenced with Cyrus the Great and terminated with Darius Codomannus, the antagonist of Alexander. The language is written in an arrow-headed or cuneiform character of a simple kind, and is closely akin to the Zend, Pazend, and the modern Persian. The best work on the language is that of Spiegel, “Altpersische Keilinschriften.”G. R.
Achagua.
A dialect of native S. American, vernacular on the R. Casanare, a tributary of the R. Orinoco; and closely allied toMaipur. “Mithridates,” iii., p. 631.
Achastli.
American: spoken on the coast of California between San Francisco and St. Diego.
Achinese.
A language of theMalayanfamily, spoken in the kingdom of Ache or Achin, the northernmost part of Sumatra. It is distinguished from all other Malay languages by having the accent on the terminal instead of the penultimate syllable, and by a good deal of monosyllables. It is at present very little known, but its presumed affinity to the monosyllabic languages of Asia renders its study highly interesting for investigating the origin of the Malay race.P. J. V.
Acoma.
A dialect of nativeAmerican, vernacular in New Mexico. It is one of the dialects spoken by the Pueblo Indians on the R. Grande. It is also calledLaguna.
Acroa-Merim.
American: a dialect of theGezclass, vernacular in Brazil. See Von Martius, vol. ii., p. 144.
AdaiheorAdaihi.
A very isolated language of N. American. Spoken in Louisiana, in 1805, by forty individuals only. Vocabulary in “Archæologia Americana.” It is also calledAtayo. Vocabulary Amer. Ethn. Trans., vol. ii., p. 95.
Adali(pl.AdaielorAdal.)
LargelySemitic. An Abyssinian dialect, spoken by the tribes between the Highlands and the sea-coast. See Salt’s “Voyage,” Appdx. i., p. 6.C. T. B.
Adampi.
A native African dialect, closely resemblingAccraandKrepee, vernacular on the Gold-coast, W. Africa.
Adareb,seeBeja.
Adelaide.
A variety of nativeAustralian, formerly vernacular at Adelaide, S. Australia; it differs but little from other dialects of the Gulf St. Vincent.
Adige.
A name for theCircassianproper, as opposed to theApkhaz.
Adiyah.
OtherwiseFernandian: the language of Fernando Po, an island on the W. coast of Africa, near the mouths of the Niger.
Æolic.
A dialect of ancientGreekspoken in Bœotia, Thessaly, Ætolia, Elis, Lesbos, Chios and the N.W. part of Asia Minor. Pindar, Sappho, and Alcæus wrote in it.G. R.
Æthiopic,underE.
Afer.
Native name of theDanakil.
Affadeh.
African: a dialect of theBornu.
Affar,seeAdali.
Afghan,seePushtoo.
Afnu.
African: a dialect of theHaussa.
African.
A name for all native dialects of Africa, not directlySemitic. Works by Borth, Kölle, Bleek, Beke, Sir G. Grey, Clarke’s “Dialects of Africa.”SeeIntroduction.
Afudu.
A native African dialect of theOtam, vernacular on the coast of W. Africa, about 4° N.L.
AgauorAgaw.
A language ofAbyssinia, spoken in three dialects; 1. TheHhámara, orAgauof Lasta, the Tcheratz Agows of Bruce; 2. TheAgáwiorAghaghaof Agaumider,i.e.Agau-land; 3. TheFalashaspoken by the Israelitish people scattered over the northern and western parts of the country. Salt’s “Voyage,” Appdx. i., p. 6.C. T. B.
Agglutinative.
A name applied to certain languages, when “two unaltered roots combine to form words;” and words brought into mutual relation by syntax undergo a change of form, accent, or meaning; theCoptic, for example, is considered as essentially agglutinative. The American agglutinative languages are called polysynthetic or incorporating. These languages have generally little or no literature.
Agolelegmüt.
TheEskimoof N. America and Behring’s Straits, especially the island of Nunivok. The terminal “müt,” which is common from Behring’s Straits to the parts about Mount St. Elias, is derived from the Eskimo. See Chromtschenko’s “Reise-Journal,” 8vo, St. Petersburgh, 1824.R. G. L.
Ahom.
A nearly extinct language formerly spoken in Assam, a province of British India; it is a dialect ofSiamese, monosyllabic in form, and appears to have been transported by emigration from the borders of China.
Aht, The.
American: dialect of Van Couver Island; spoken by all the W. coast tribes, from S. of Quatseeno to Port San Juan on De Fucas Straits. See Sproat: “Scenes of Savage Life.” All the tribes speaking it end in “aht.”R. B.
Ahtiago.
A dialect ofMalay, vernacular in Ceram, closely allied toTelutiandAlfuros.
⁂ The more correct form would beAtiahu, the name of a village on the S. coast, with a mixed population. The vocabulary quoted by Mr. Wallace does not constitute a distinct dialect.P. J. V.
Aiawong.
A dialect of nativeAustralian, belonging to the W. coast.
Aimara.
A dialect of the Indians of S. America, largely augmented by Spanish. The natives were subject to the Incas of Peru, at the conquest, and now inhabit the high ground near Lake Titicaca or Chucuito. They are closely allied to the Quichua or native Peruvians.SeeAymara.
Aimauk.
A dialect ofMoghol, spoken by the Tshehar-Aimauk, N. W. Afghanistan, in the neighbourhood of Herat.
Aino.
The native name for the language of the Curile Islands, meaning “man.” ☞
Airica.
American: a dialect of theBetoi.
Aitutakìan.
A mixed form of theTahitianand theRarotongandialects. An island in the Hervey group, S. Pacific. Example, “mau-tangata” = “men.”W. G.
Aka(1).
A dialect spoken by a hill-tribe to the N. of Assam. It is almost identical withAbor. See Brown’s Table: “Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,” 1837.
Aka(2).
African: sometimes used for theYoruba, of which it is a sub-dialect.
Akabi,seeUkuafi.
Akkadian.
A name sometimes given to the language used on the earliest Babylonian bricks, especially those found at Mugheir (Ur), Warka (Erech), Senkareh, Niffer, and other very ancient Mesopotamian cities. The general character of the language isTuranian; but its vocabulary connects it with the dialects of Southern Arabia and Abyssinia, more especially with the Mahra, Galla, and Wolaitsa. The writing is a rude and very complicated cuneiform. It is supposed that the language was spoken in Babylonia from a very early age (B.C.2500?) to the date of the Assyrian conquest, aboutB.C.1300. By that time it had become the language of an extensive literature, and as such, continued to be studied by the more learned Assyrians down to the close of the Empire,B.C.624. The later Assyrian tablets are to a great extent translations from it. See Rawlinson’s “Ancient Monarchies,” vol. i., pp. 61-69, 2nd ed.G. R.
Akkim.
African: a sub-dialect ofFanti.
Ako.
An African dialect, somewhat allied toAfudu.
Akra.
African. Language of the Gold-coast, for the parts about Cape Castle.SeeAquapim.
Akripon.
African: a sub-dialect ofFanti.
Akush.
A dialect ofLesgian, spoken in Daghestan (the ancient Albania), a district situated between the Caspian and the Black Sea.
Akwambu,seeAquapim.
Alabama.
American.Derived from “Alibamon,” the original occupants of the modern State so called.
Alani.
A people originally settled in Eastern Europe and Western Asia, very powerful from aboutA.D.75 toA.D.461. They are now generally considered to have been of theFinnishstock, akin to the Ostiaks, Samoeids, and other races of Northern Asia.G. R.
Alarodii,seeUrarda.
Alatyan.
A name used by Prof. Steinthal for theUral-AltaicorTuranianlanguages.
Albanian.
The vernacular tongue of modern Albania, a maritime province of European Turkey, which answers to the ancient Epirus; the inhabitants are a mixed race, including Arnauts, who are probably descended from the ancient Illyrians, Greeks, and Turks. The ancient language, called oldIllyrian, and closely allied toGreek, has become mingled withSlavonic, written inGreekcharacters. The native name of the Albanian dialect isSkipetar. Both terms mean “mountaineers.” The modern language is sub-divided into theGheghand theToski. See Hahn: “Albanische Studien,” Jena, 1854.
AlemannicorAllemanian.
The oldest form ofTeutonicorHigh-Germanwith which we are acquainted; it is the language attributed to the Suevi or Swabians, who, emigrating to the S., formed with other tribes a great confederation on the Rs. Maine, Rhine, and Danube.
⁂ See Bosworth’s “Dict. of the Anglo-Saxon Language,” ed. 1838, p. 120.W. W. S.
AleutianorAliout-Liseyeff.
The dialect of the Aleutian or Fox Islands, in the N. Pacific, between Asia and America. The inhabitants resemble theMogholsin physical peculiarities, but their language is allied to theEsquimaux. Vocab. Amer. Ethn. Trans., vol. ii., p. 130. ☞
Alfuros.
Dialects ofMalay, spoken by uncivilized tribes of the Indian Ocean. Adelung calls them “Harafora auch Alfurier” in the Moluccas. “Mithridates,” i., p. 585. Wallace calls them the true indigines of Gilolo, and the predominant type of Ceram. “Malay Archipelago,” ii., pp. 16, 19, 96. It is the same word as in the Arafura Seas, W. of N. Guinea. ☞
Algierian.
A form ofArabicvernacular in N. Africa.
AlgonkinorAlgonquin.
A very large class of nativeN. Americandialects, including the Chippewas, Blackfoot, Ogibeway, Ottawa, Mohican, Shawnees, and other principal eastern tribes of red Indians. Vocab. Amer. Ethn. Trans., vol. ii., pp. 78, 106.
Alieh,seeEyish.
Alikhulip.
A dialect ofFuegian, spoken in Terra del Fuego, S. America. Described in Darwin’s “The Voyage of the Beagle.”See alsoTekeenicaandTsoneca.
Alleutiac,seeMilcocayac.
Allophylian.
A name for theAmericanand certain unclassified languages; generally used for all languages which philologists have not yet defined.
Allor.
A dialect of insularMalay, vernacular in the Indian Ocean. This island belongs to the Timor group; its inhabitants are of the dark Papuan type. The language is said to differ but little from that of the neighbouring island of Solor.P. J. V.
Almeida.
A dialect of S. American, belonging to theTupiorGuarinifamily, spoken in Brazil, and allied toCarib.SeeOmagua.
Alphabet.
The English name for the collection of letters or written characters in our language, and derived from their Greek synonyms—viz., Alpha (A) + Beta (B), as in the line fromJuvenal—
“Hoc discunt omnes antealpha et betapuellæ.”—Sat. xiv., l. 209.
These letters or characters are the representatives of certain sounds or utterances; and their numbers, forms, names, and equivalents differ very materially in different countries and in different districts. Ballhorn’s “Alphabete or. und occ. Sprachen,” Leipsig, 1853; 2nd ed., London.SeeLetters.
Alpine.
A collective name for several local dialects derived from oldItalic, but mingled with modernFrench.
Alsacian.
A sub-dialect of oldHigh-German.
AltaicorUral-Altaic.
Generic name for theMoghol,Tungus,Turk,Samoyed, andUgrianlanguages. See Castrén’s “Altaischer Volker.”
Amakosa.
African.SeeKaffir.
Amat.
A dialect of olderDravidianvernacular in Nepaul.
Amazig.
A name for theBerberof N. Africa. It is calledAquel Amarigor Amazig,i.e.“Noble tongue;” the native dialect of Berbers.
Amazons.
A class of native dialects spoken by tribes along the banks of the R. Amazon, S. America; more especially the Amazonas and Humanos, formerly of the lower Putumayo. Wallace, p. 250.
Amberbaki.
A dialect ofPapuan, vernacular in a village so named on the N. W. coast of N. Guinea.
Amblau.
An island of the Amboyna group; the language, belonging to theAlfuru, orsemi-Alfuru, dialects of the Moluccas, seems to differ very considerably from that of the neighbouring islands; judging from the vocabulary given in Mr. Wallace’s “Malay Archipelago.”P. J. V.
Amboyna.
A dialect of the Molucca Islands, in the Indian Ocean; known asAmboynese Malay. The provincial dialect is termedBahasa-tanah, the language of the Moluccan Alfuru. See Vocabularies by Wallace and Lüdeking.P. J. V.
American.
A name for all dialects of the aborigines throughout N. and S. America. Trübner’s “Bibliotheca Glottica,” London, 1858.SeeIntroduction.
Amharic.
The Court tongue of Abyssinia for many centuries. Amhara proper is that district lying between the Dender and Tacazze branches of the Nile. It closely resembles theEthiopic, with alphabets that are nearly identical. The root word is probably identical with “Ham” or “Chem,” the poetical name for Egypt in the Psalms of David.
⁂ ASemiticdialect sprung from the ancientEthiopic, which has gradually become the dominant language of Abyssinia. Its vocabulary and grammar still closely resemble the Ethiopic, but it has adopted a barbarous pronunciation, and the gutturals, which form so important a part of the Semitic alphabet, are no longer pronounced. The best memoir upon it is that by Gesenius in the Encyclopædia of Ersch and Grüber, under the heading “Amharische Sprache.” Other Abyssinian dialects are theAdari, theAfar, theSomauli, theSaho, the languages of Tigré, Danakil, Adaiel, and of Harar.R. P. S.
AmourorAmur.
Dialects ofTungus, vernacular in E. Asia on the R. Amúr. See Latham, pp. 75, 76.
Amyrgii.
An ancient Scythic people, called “Humawarga,” by the Achæmenian Persians, and “Amyrgians” (Ἀμύργιοι) by the Greeks. They seem to have inhabited the high plateau between the Thian-Chan and the Hindu-Kush ranges. Most probably they wereTuranians.G. R.
AnadeerorAnadyr.
The upper and central parts of the R. Anadyr, on the north-eastern extremity of Asia, are occupied by the Tshuktshi, an Asiatic tribe. On the lower Anadyr, however, there is an Eskimo settlement.SeeNamollo.R. G. L.
AnamiteorAnnamite.
A monosyllabic tongue, closely allied toChinese. It is the dialect of Tonquin and Cochin-China, extensive tracts of land in S.E. Asia. Also calledAnnamese. See Dictionaries, A-Latin and Latin-A, by Taberd and Pigneaux, 2 vols., 1838; Marshman, Serampore; and Brown’s “Comparative Table,” vol. vii., Trans. As. Soc. of Bengal.
Andaman.
The dialect of the Mincopie or inhabitants of the Andaman Islands. It is considered to be allied to theBurmese.
Andaqui.
American.Dialect of New Grenada, vernacular on the eastern slope of the Andes, and upper part of the R. Putumayo. See “Los Indios del Andaqui,” pp. 27-29.R. G. L.
Andarcos,seeTexan.
Andi.
A dialect ofLesghian, allied toAkush; vernacular in the Caucasus.
AndianorAndo-Peruvian.
A collective name for certain native dialects of S. America, asAimara,Araucanian,Quichua, &c.
Andoa.
American.Spoken on the frontiers of New Grenada, and on the head waters of the Rs. Tigre and Pastazza. It is bounded by the Shimigas and Zaparu. Small vocabulary by Spruce.R. G. L.
Andreanowski Islands,seeAleutian.
AneiteumorAnnatom.
A Polynesian dialect, allied toPapuan, vernacular in Aneiteum, the easternmost island of the New Hebrides group, S. Pacific Ocean. The language began to be reduced to written form, by the use of Roman letters, by the London Missionary Society; subsequently completed in books, now used by natives, by the “U. P. R. C.” Mission of Scotland.W. G.☞
Anfue.
A native dialect, allied toAdampi, from the Gold-coast, W. Africa.
Angami.
A dialect ofAssamese, vernacular in central and lower Assam.
Anglian.
A name sometimes given to that dialect of the oldestEnglishwhich was spoken in the north and east of England. It has been sub-divided into theNorthumbrianandEast-Anglian. It has also been calledDano-Saxon. See Bosworth’s “Dict. of the Anglo-Saxon Language,” ed. 1838, p. 21.W. W. S.
Anglian, East,underE.
Anglo-Saxon.
A compound language formed by the union of several tribes of Teutonic origin, who conquered and settled in Britain, aboutA.D.449, thence called England. The language is of cognate origin with theAlemannicandGothic; but with accretions from theScandinavianandLow-Dutch.
⁂ What is calledAnglo-Saxonis really the oldest form ofEnglish. The Anglo-Saxon of the first period extends fromA.D.450 toA.D.1100; that of the later period fromA.D.1100 to aboutA.D.1250; after which date we arrive at early Middle English. The specimens of the literature are too numerous to require mention. See the dictionaries by Lye and Manning, Bosworth, Grein, Ettmüller, and the list of MSS. in Hickes’s “Thesaurus,” vol. iii.W. W. S.
Angoane.
A dialect ofMozambique, vernacular on the E. coast of Africa.
Angola.
A dialect ofBantu, vernacular in S.E. Africa; classed by Bleek asBunda.
Angus.
A dialect of the Lowlands of Scotland, frequently cited in Jamieson’s Scottish Dictionary.W. W. S.
Ankaras.
An African dialect, almost identical withWun.
Annamese,seeAnamite.
Annatom,seeAneiteum.
Ansoes.
APapuandialect, spoken at Port Dorey, New Guinea.
AntesorAntis.
A native dialect of S. American, vernacular in Peru on the eastern slope of the Andes. The nearest affinities are to theMoxos. See D’Orbigny’s “L’homme Américain.”
Antonio, San.
Dialect of a mission, so called, current in California, N. America.
Antshukh.
A dialect ofLesghian, allied toAndi.
Anu.
Dialect of a tribe so named, in N. Arracan, in which are many words intelligible to the people of Munipoor.A. C.
ApacheorApatsh.
A dialect ofAthabascan, vernacular in New Mexico.
Apaing.
The same language asArorae.W. G.
Apatsh,seeApache.
Apiaca.
A dialect of Brazil, allied toGuarani, vernacular on the R. Arias, a tributary of the Upper Tapuyos. See Castelnau’s “Expedition,” &c., appdx.
Apinages.
American: a dialect of theGezclass, vernacular in Brazil. See Castelnau’s “Expedition,” &c., appdx.; Von Martius, vol. ii., p. 147.
Apkhaz.
The Georgian name for the tribes between Jenikale and Soukum-Kale, as distinguished from Circassians proper.
Apolonia.
African: a sub-dialect ofFanti, vernacular at Point Apollonia, on the frontier of the Gold and Ivory coasts.R. G. L.
Aponegicrans.
American: a dialect of theGezclass, vernacular in Brazil. See Von Martius, vol. ii., p. 147.
Appa.
A dialect of S. Africa, allied toNufi.
Aquapim.
African: collective name for certain dialects of the Gold-coast near Cape Castle; 1. TheAkra. 2. TheKrepee. 3. TheOtshi. 4. TheAdampi. See Rühs: “Elemente des Akwapim.”
Aquitanian.
The dialect of Aquitania or Aquitaine, a division of ancient Gaul, lying S.W., which included the provinces of Guyenne, Gascony, &c.
Ara.
A name for theArini.
Arabic.
One of the three main branches of theSemiticfamily, spoken in the peninsula of Arabia. Unknown till the century before Mahomet, it suddenly then reached its highest perfection in the poems of the Moallakât. It is the richest, the most flexible, and most exact of all the Semitic tongues, and its grammar the most subtle and perfect, probably, of all known languages. The dialect of the tribe of Koreisch, adopted by Mahomet in the Koran, has been, since the seventh century, the classical language of large parts of Asia and Africa, and has greatly influenced the Turkish, Maltese, Persian, Hindi, and other tongues, owing to the wide range of Arabian conquest. Classical Arabic must be distinguished from Arabic as actually spoken. The “vulgar” Arabic makes scarcely any distinction of vowel-sounds, has a grammar simple to rudeness, and is destitute of the richness and versatility of the tongue as employed by its most famous scholars.R. P. S.
Arago.
A dialect ofPapuan, vernacular in New Guinea.
Araiacu.
American: a dialect of N. Brazil, to the W. of Fonteboa; it is allied to theBarré,Baniwa,Manoa, &c. See Von Martius, vol. ii., p. 133, who places it in hisCrenorGuerenoclass.R. G. L.
ArakaneseorArracanese.
A monosyllabic tongue closely allied to theBurmese, otherwise called theReccanorRukheng. The district in which it is spoken forms a narrow strip of sea-coast, about 500 miles long, extending from Cape Negrais in the S. towards Chittagong in the N., along the E. peninsula of S. Asia.
Aramaic.
Generic name of the languages spoken in the region extending from the Taurus and Lebanon to the R. Tigris. It is one of the main branches of theSemiticstem, and is itself divided into two dialects,East Aramaic, orChaldean, andWest Aramaic, or Syriac. The former became the medium of Jewish thought, and is the language of the Targums and the Talmud, and also of the Samaritan Pentateuch. The latter is Christian. A sub-dialect spoken by the heathen is calledSabaean, orNabathean. The oldest remains of the Aramaic are found in the name given by Laban to the Hill of Witness between him and Jacob.R. P. S.
The Aramaic alphabet was identical with, or derived from, thePhœnician.
ArapahoorArrapaho.
The dialect of a native tribe of N. American Indians of theAlgonkinfamily, vernacular on the R. Platte; originally on the Upper Saskatshewan. Schoolcraft’s “Indian Tribes,” vol. iii., p. 446; Vocab. Amer. Ethn. Trans., vol. ii., p. 96.
Araquaju.
American: a dialect of theBrazilianclass, vernacular on the Upper Amazons. See Von Martius, vol. ii., p. 17.
Araucanian.
Dialect spoken by the powerful independent Indian tribe inhabiting the western slope of the Andes, south of Chili proper.D. F.
Arawack.
A dialect ofCarib, spoken on the N. coast of S. America, in Surinam, Venezuela, and the Guianas (Berbice); supposed to have been introduced by aboriginal settlers from Hayti and other W. Indian islands.
Arayas,seeTaino.
Archaic Greek.
A name for the originalCadmeanalphabet of ancient Greece, it consisted of seventeen letters only, and was derived from thePhœnician.
Arda.
Spoken, according to Alcedo, on the Upper Napo, on the boundaries of New Grenada, Brazil, and Ecuador. A “Doctrina Christiana,” Madrid, 1658, and a “Paternoster” are the only recorded specimens of theArda. No philologist seems to have examined them. The fragmentary languages with which they are the most likely to have been allied are theAndoa, theShimigaes, and theZapara. “Ludwig,” p. 12.R. G. L.
Ardrah.
African: a dialect of the Slave-coast.
Argot.
Frenchpatois, applied to cant and slang dialects. See Jülg’s “Vater,” pp. 132, 485.
Argubba.
African: a dialect of Abyssinia.
Arecuna.
A dialect of theCaribof Demerara, allied toMacusi. See Schomburgk’s “British Guiana.”
Arfak.
APapuandialect vernacular among the mountaineers inland of Doreh, New Guinea.P. J. V.
AriniorArinzi.
A dialect ofYeniseian, spoken in Siberia. See Castrén’s “Versuch einer Ienissei Ostiakinen Sprachlehre.”H. H. H.
Aripe.
American: dialect of Lower California.
Aris.
A dialect ofToumbulu.
Arkiko.
A dialect ofEthiopicallied to Adaiel; otherwise classed as a sub-dialect ofAmharic.
Armenian.
The vernacular speech of Armenia, a mountainous country of Asiatic Turkey, bordering on the S.E. extremity of the Black Sea, including Mt. Ararat. Armenian is written from left to right, and has an alphabet peculiar to itself, which has been modernized from an older original, attributed to Miesrob,A.D.406.
⁂ The language is essentially anAryandialect, akin toAchæmenian PersianandZend, but still distinct from either: into which have been absorbed a large number ofTuranianroots.G. R.
Armenic.
A branch of the great Indo-European family of speech not yet clearly defined. It is the parent of modernArmenian, and of an older form of the same language, calledOld Armenic, now extinct. It has, provisionally, been classed withKurdish,OsseticandPushtoo.SeeAryan.
Armeno-Kurdish.
A name for theKurdishdialect, written in the characters of the Armenian alphabet.
Armorican.
A Celtic dialect, called alsoBreton, anciently vernacular in Armorican Gaul; it was the national language of the independent Duchy of Brittany, and is still spoken in the modern French departments of Finisterre, Morbihan, and Côtes-du-Nord; the language is closely allied toWelsh,Cornish,Manx,Gaelic, &c.
Arnaut,seeAlbanian.
Arniya.
A dialect ofDardu, allied to Kashkari.
AroorOro.
A dialect of W. Africa, allied toMbofia, vernacular in the locality of Brass Town.
ArooorArru.
Dialects ofPapuan, vernacular in a group of islands lying to the S.W. of New Guinea, in the Asiatic Archipelago.
⁂ Herr Van Rosenberg distinguishes two chief dialects. 1. A vocabulary collected at Wammer, Watelei, and Traugan. 2. His “Wanumbae Vocaby.” Others are the Wokam Uju dialects, given by Herr Von Eybergen. Mr. Wallace writesWamma,WokanandOugia.P. J. V.
Aropin.
APapuandialect, vernacular in S. Pacific. See Latham, p. 332.
Arorae.
An island of Kingsmill group, S. Pacific. The language is a mixed dialect of Samoa and Sandwich groups. First reduced by missionaries from Hawaii, 1858; now occupied by Samoan Christian teachers.W. G.
Arrow-Head.
A term employed to designate writing of a particular kind. The ancient inhabitants of Babylonia, Assyria, Armenia, Persia, and other adjacent regions used characters of which the ultimate element was the wedge: ► The resemblance of this form to the metallic point with which arrows were anciently tipped caused our early Oriental travellers to call all characters thus composed “arrow-headed.” Recently, the term “cuneiform,” adopted from the French, has displaced “arrow-headed,” which is now seldom used. It is important to remember that the two terms, whichever of them we employ, in no case properly designate a language, or an alphabet, but simply a manner of forming the conventional signs of speech. There are at least five quite distinct “arrow-headed” alphabets; and in one case the same cuneiform alphabet is used to give written expression to two quite different languages.G. R.
Aryan.
A name for theIndo-Europeanfamily of languages, derived from Ariana, a province of the ancient Persian empire. The word is widely diffused throughout Eastern Asia:ex. gr., the small river Arius, now Heri-Rúd, on which stands the city of Herat; also the river Arus, or Araxes, near Mt. Ararat, in Armenia; Iran, Irac, or Iron. The term “Aryan,” in Sanskrit, implies “noble,” but the root is very widely diffused in an agricultural sense; as in the Greek ἀρόω; Latin, “aro” “to plough;” English, “arable.”
The Aryan family of languages is divided into the following branches:—Armenic,CelticorKeltic,Hellenic,Illyric,Indic,Iranic,Italic,Teutonic, andWendic(orSlavonic-Lettic). Each of these groups or branches will be treated under its proper stem, with sub-branches.SeeIntroduction. ☞
AshanteeorAshanti.
Sometimes calledOdjiiorOtshi, the national language of the Guinea coast, W. Africa; it belongs to theMandingobranch, and is closely allied to theFantee, spoken on the Gold-coast.
AsianorAsiatic.
Klaproth’s “Asia Polyglotta,” Paris, 1823, 1832.SeeIntroduction.
Asilulu,seeAmboyna.
Assamese.
The modern language of Assam, an extensive province of British India adjoining Bengal; it extends along the course of the R. Brahmapootra, towards Thibet. The archaic dialect known asAhom, being extinct, has been superseded by a dialect ofBengali; Assamese is, however, unintelligible to the natives of Bengal. It is written in the Bengali character. See Brown’s “Comparative Table of Dialects: Asiatic Society of Bengal.”
Assan.
A dialect ofOstiak, orYeniseian, vernacular in Siberia. See Castrén’s “Versuch.”
Assineboine.
A N. American dialect, spoken by native tribes of the Saskatchewan River line, between the Red River and Rocky Mountains.
Assinese.
African: a sub-dialect of theFanti.
Assyrian.
The language of the ancient Assyrians, or people of Assyria, a tract lying upon the R. Tigris, between the thirty-fourth and thirty-seventh parallels. This language has become known to us within the last twenty years, through inscriptions disinterred from the buried cities of this region. The form of speech is found to beSemitic, akin to Arabic, Syriac, Chaldee, Phœnician, and especially to Hebrew. It is written, however, unlike most Semitic tongues, from left to right. The characters are very numerous and complicated; they are of the class called “cuneiform” or “arrow-headed,” being formed out of combinations of wedges. The best account of the Assyrian alphabet will be found in the “Expédition Scientifique en Mésapotamie” of M. Oppert. The language must be studied in the “Assyrian Dictionary” of Mr. Norris, and the “Elémens de la Grammaire Assyrienne” of M. Oppert.G. R.
Astek,seeAztec.
Aswarek,seeSerawulli.
Atacama.
American: belongs to a desert land between Chili and Peru.
Atafu.
“Duke of York’s Island.” In Tokelau group; when found it had a mixture of Eastern Polynesian dialects; but now, by use ofSamoanbooks, generally speak that language.W. G.
AthabascanorAthapascan.
A collective name for certain native dialects of N. America, lying to the S. of the Esquimaux. Vocaby. American Ethn. Trans., vol. ii. pp. 78-105. Buschmann: “Der Athapaskische Sprachstamm,” Berlin, 1856-63. ☞
Atiago,seeAhtiago.
Atinan.
LargelyTahitian, with some local peculiarities, but by the use of books in the Rarotongan dialect, is fast becomingRarotongan; example, “fenua-maitai” = “good land.”W. G.
Atlas(Mount.)
The Mount Atlas languages, more or less known, are: 1. TheKabailorShowiah; more definitely theZoave. 2. TheShilhaor MoroccoBerber. 3. TheTouarikorTamazightof the Great Desert. 4. TheGhadamsior theWadreagh.F. W. N.
Atna.
A name forSelish. It is derived from the native word for “man”—“tinni” or “tnai.” Vocaby. Trans. Amer. Ethnol. Society, vol. ii., p. 118. ☞
Atorai.
A dialect ofCarib, vernacular in Demerara.
Atshin.
A dialect ofMalay, vernacular in Sumatra.SeeAchinese.
Attakapa.
A nearly monosyllabic dialect, vernacular among the native Americans of St. Bernard’s Bay, Texas. See Archæol. Americana, ii., p. 307. ☞
Attic Greek.
A dialect of ancientGreek, originally peculiar to Attica, but which became the parent of the so-called “common dialect,” or ordinary language of Greek literature. TheAttichad much in common with theIonic, but affected contractions and retained aspirates where the Ionic discarded them.G. R.
Attigae.
A tribe of the Chech in Caucasia.H. C.
Atures.
According to Humboldt, the Atures were the original occupants of the cataract on the R. Orinoco, which bears their name; their language, on the authority of Gilij, is a form of theSalivi. ☞
Atye,seeWhidah.
Augsburg.
Germanic: dialect ofHigh-Germanspoken in Bavaria. See “Jnl. Für Deutschland,” 1783.
Auramoiset.
A dialect ofKarelian, vernacular in the Government of St. Petersburgh. See “Memoirs of the St. Petersburgh Academy.”
Austral.
A group of numerous islands east of Tahiti, and so farTahitianas to use books in the Tahitian language, though having some local peculiarities by the introduction of letters not in Tahitian; example, “param-akoako” = “exhortation.”W. G.
Australian.
The natives, now fast disappearing, had numerous dialects, all more or less closely allied; resemblances have been traced to theTamuland other languages of S. India; thePolynesian, andPapuan. See Grey’s “Vocabulary” (of S. Western A.) 2nd Edit., London, 1841; and others by Ridley; Sidney, 1856, 1866: Eyre’s “Discoveries,” vol. ii., p. 391.
Auvergne.