THETURNER’S COMPANION.
THETURNER’S COMPANION.
The machines used for Turning, whether round or oval objects, are called Lathes; they are of various shapes and sizes; some very small, as those generally used by watchmakers; others very large and powerful, for turning iron; and others, the kind I am going to describe, of a middling size, for fashioning wood and ivory. The large lathes, being too heavy to be worked with the foot, are usually turned by a steam-engine, but the foot-lathe is the most convenient for the turner in wood; it may be made of iron or wood: if of the latter, it should be constructed entirely of very hard, well-seasoned oak, or of mahogany. There are various opinions respecting the advantages and disadvantages of metallic and wooden lathes; in the former, it is impossible to obviate an elastictremor, which is unpleasant and injurious; but then, on the other hand, they are so much more durable and compact; and they enable you to perform your work with so much more accuracy and exactitude, that they are, on the whole, perhaps, to be preferred. The drawing given inPlate 1will serve as a pattern for either an iron or a wooden lathe; but as the workman could construct the latter for himself, we will suppose the description we are about to give relates to a wooden one.
The bed of the lathe, B B, may be of any length required, and is firmly fastened with bolts to the uprights O O, which form the legs of the lathe, and to which the bed is strongly attached by bolts passing through both; while the nuts that draw them tight, being what is calledcountersunk, are of no inconvenience to the workman. The feet and the two uprights must also be firmly fastened to the legs O O; and to prevent the least unsteadiness or motion, they must be screwed strongly to the floor, and must be of a sufficient size to form a solid support to the lathe.
Plate 1.
Plate 1.
The left hand puppets, C D, or, as they are sometimes called, the headstock, should be of iron, andcast in one piece. The under part fits tightly into the open space in the bed of the lathe, and is fixed there with screws; while the two cheeks of the puppets restonthe bed itself. The mandrel E, to prevent, as much as you can, any vibration, should be as long as possible; it runs in a metal collar, through the puppets C D, and is of steel, turned perfectly cylindrical; it is kept constantly oiled, by pouring a few drops of oil upon it through holes made in each of the puppets. The screw E, at the end, is called the nose of the spindle, and upon it the chucks intended to receive the work are screwed. The back puppet, G, is used to support long pieces of wood; it is moved backwards and forwards on the bed of the lathe, so as to suit the work upon which you are occupied, by loosening the screw L; within the upper part of G is a steel spindle, J, which screws in and out of the headstock, by turning the screw K. Care must be taken that the point of this spindle be exactly on a line with the nose of the mandrel, E. The point, J, takes out, and another nose, L, can be inserted in its place, to receive the pointed end of any small work, should it be more convenient.
Upon the spindle is a brass or a mahogany wheel, F; it has three grooves in it, and the great wheel, K, has three similar grooves turned in a V, so as more effectually to take hold of the band which moves them round. The three different grooves in this wheel, and in the small one, give different velocities to them. The band which turns them is made of strong catgut, and passes under the lower and over the upper wheel, working in the corresponding grooves of each; it is joined with a hook and eye of iron, that have a screw in them. Slightly taper off with a sharp penknife a little of each end of the catgut, so that it will just enter the hook and eye; then hold the band firmly in a vice with your left hand, and with your right take up the hook or eye in a pair of pincers, and screw it upon the catgut till quite firm. This is a far better means of joining the band than any other that can be employed, as the hooks and eyes seldom give way, and obviate the necessity of knots or joins, which are always clumsy and inconvenient. Cord, too, gives way with the variations of the atmosphere, so that it constantly requires shortening in dry, and lengthening in rainy weather; catgut is so slightly influencedby these changes, that its use is far preferable. The treadle, N, when moved up and down with the foot, gives motion to the two wheels, and thus the spindle, with the wood to be worked screwed upon it, is turned round with a quick or slow movement. The axle of the great wheel, S, works in two screws, Q; the crank, M, is connected at one end with the axle, S, and at the other hooks into the treadle frame, N. Plenty of oil should be given to the axle at Q to enable it to work easily. The rest which supports the tools is represented at Fig. 1, and M; it is made of iron, and consists of three parts; the lower has a forked foot, T, which rests upon the bed of the lathe, and enables it to be drawn backwards and forwards, so as to accommodate the workman; this foot is held in its place by a bolt, O, which, passing through the bed of the lathe, is sufficiently broad to rest upon each side of the foot, T, and is tightened by a screw that passes underneath the lathe, P, through which it passes; the upper part of the rest is a cross piece of iron with a cylindrical stem, that fits into the socket, U, and is moved up and down, to the right or the left, by loosening the screw, H. The workman should haverests of different sizes, to suit various kinds of work, but they must all fit into the same socket.
Having now given a clear description of a lathe, I need only add, that it should be placed opposite a window, so as to have the benefit of as much light as possible; a skylight above the head is also a great advantage. As it is indispensably necessary for the learner to exercise himself in plain turning, that is, in the formation of different articles, so as to be able to turn them perfectly round, oval, or hollow, as required, before attempting more difficult and complicated work, we will now give a list of the most useful tools for this purpose.
For the wood, the gouge, Fig. 1,plate 1, is first to be employed, to reduce the unevenness of your work; its edge is rounded. To use it, place the rest on a level with the axis of the work, and hold the handle of the tool downwards so that its cutting edge isabovethe axis. These tools are useful for making concave mouldings. In using them, do not push them roughly against the wood till it becomes tolerably even, or you will spoil their edge and chip the work; and hold your hands very steady.
The chisel, Fig. 2, is next used, to give a smooth and polished appearance to the wood. Its cutting edge is oblique. Elevate the rest considerablyabovethe axis of the work, so that, though held with a less inclination than the gouge, the edge of the chisel operates on a higher part of the surface. Use this tool at first with great caution, for it is much more difficult to manage than the gouge; with an inexperienced hand, the point is apt to dig into the wood, quite spoiling its surface, or else, by pressing it too firmly upon the work, it cuts great pieces in an uneven manner. When skillfully used, it should feel almost to work by itself, merely running steadily along the wood, shaving off all its inaccuracies, and making it look quite bright, smooth, and polished. All soft woods are entirely turned with the gouge and chisel, of both of which you must have several sizes.
Fig. 3 is called a right-side tool, and has two cutting edges, a side edge and an end edge: so as at the same time to cut the bottom and side of a cavity. The left-side tool cuts with the opposite side. In using them, hold the bevel which forms the edge downwards.
Fig. 4 is a point tool, useful for making small mouldings, and much employed in finishing the shoulders and flat ends of work.
Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, are inside tools, used to turn out hollows; also to make cups, and various other articles.
Fig. 10 is a parting tool, used to cut off work, and to make incisions.
Fig. 11 is used exclusively for very hard woods, as cocoas and ebony, which chip if attempted to be smoothed with a chisel; also for turning ivory, bone, or jet; one side and the end are sharp. This tool is very strong, and requires some practice to use it well. Be very careful, in sharpening it, to keep the front edge quite straight, or else, in hollowing out boxes, the inner sides will not be turned out evenly; that is, one part will be thinner than another. This tool is held flat upon the rest, which must be on a level with the axis of the work, or sometimes the tool, by raising the handle, may be lowered so as just to scrape the wood. It is frequently called a graver; in turning metals, it is the tool first used. Copper and brass are easy to turn, and in case ofnecessity, it is useful to have the proper tools, and to know how to manage them.
These tools all are indispensably necessary to the turner, and he should exercise himself constantly in their use; for until he becomes quite master of them, he will injure, spoil, chip, and destroy, whatever he attempts to turn.
Figs. 12 and 13 are very useful to make mouldings of various kinds.
The handles of the tools must be made of very hard wood, and it is a great convenience to have them all of nearly the same size; for the hand, getting accustomed to them, manages them with more facility. Drive the tool firmly into the handle, and hold it there by a broad brass ring, as in No. 1.
To keep the tools in good order, that is, properly ground and sharp, demands great attention. If they become chipped, grind them even on a grindstone, taking care that theBEVELSretain their proper angles. To avoid spoiling their edges, and to enable you to have them always near at hand, a rack perforated with holes, into which they can slip, is very useful. This rack may be fastened against the wall, near the lathe. A screw-driver, two orthree different-sized gimlets, and nails of various kinds, must always form part of the turner’s tool-box; also some files, and a hand-vice.
Before we leave the description of turning tools, we will mention the saw, which is an indispensable addition to the tool-box. There are many kinds, but the most useful are the hand-saw, the tenon saw, and the circular saw. The first is about twenty-six inches long, and is generally made with four teeth to an inch. It is used for cutting wood across, and in the direction of its fibres. The teeth at the lower end are smaller than the upper ones, by which means the wood is not so much torn as if the teeth were all of an equal size. The tenon saw is used for cutting across the fibres of wood; the smallest saw of this kind is about fourteen inches long, the largest about twenty inches. Circular saws are of all sizes; they are easily fitted up with a spindle, which, being screwed on to the nose of the mandrel, and supported at the other end by the back puppet, enables the workman to turn them by the wheel of the lathe, while at the same time he holds the wood or ivory firmly against them. Should a larger circular saw be required, it is moreadvisable to fit it up separately from the lathe, with a frame-work and wheel to itself.
Glue, which is very necessary for turners, requires some little care in preparing; it must first be steeped for several hours in cold water to soften it; if it swells without melting, it is good, and must then be dissolved in water; the proper quantities are, a quart of water to half a pound of glue. The heat should be just enough to melt it, and the pan in which it is contained must be placed in a larger copper vessel, filled with water; by this means, when the water in the outer pan boils, the glue will be dissolved without any fear of its burning, which would immediately spoil it. When you are going to glue a piece of wood to a chuck, put very little glue thinly and evenly over the surface of the latter, then press the wood upon it firmly, and place a lead weight upon them to unite them perfectly.
Plate 2.
Plate 2.
The chucks, upon which the material to be turned, whether of wood, ivory, or metal, is always fixed, next demand our attention. They are of everyvariety of size and form, and are all screwed upon the mandrel of the lathe. Many are made of brass; others (the most numerous, because the turner can make them for himself), are of wood; but these latter should be used soon after they are made; for if not constructed of very dry, hard wood, any great variation in the weather will cause them to shrink, and thus the screw becomes slightly altered, and will not fit tightly to the neck of the mandrel. To avoid the expense of having many brass chucks, which would be very great, if we procured them of the size and shape requisite for all kinds of work, it is a good plan to have several brass plates made about the size of half-a-crown,plate 2, A, with a screw in them, to fit upon the mandrel, and four screw-nails with which to fasten them to wooden chucks of any form. Thus, when these chucks are worn out, unscrew the brass plates and screw them on to others. Inplate 2are the drawings of several chucks, which are useful for various purposes; they are all made of brass, with a screw that fits upon the mandrel. B is a brass plate, about two inches in diameter; from the middle projects a tapering screw, about half an inchlong. This is used to hold any thing that is flat, as a stand, or candlestick base, or, with the aid of the back puppet, to support a long piece of wood, while turning down to fit a stronger chuck. For this purpose, bore a hole in the wood, and screw it on to the chuck. C is the same shape, but has five iron points projecting from its surface; upon them the wood must be firmly fixed by hammering it on. It is better to use the back puppet, as the wood is apt to become loosened by a sudden jar, or any unevenness in the surface.
D is universally useful, either for large or small pieces of work. The wood or ivory may be turned to the proper size to fit, on the chuck B, and then driven firmly into the hollow cup with a wooden mallet; or a piece of common wood may be made to fit it tightly, and a hole turned in it to hold the object you intend to turn.
E is called a ring chuck, and is made of box wood. Drill a hole through the centre, and then saw it across in six parts. By its being turned smaller at one end than at the other, this chuck opens at thesawgates; you then drive on to it, witha hammer, a ring of metal, and the wood inserted in the hole will remain immovable.
F is called a square hole chuck, the hole in the middle having several drills and bits to use with it, as in 3, 4, 5, 6. G is called a die chuck: it is the same in shape as the cup chuck, only not so deep, and it has several screws passing through its sides at equal distances, and meeting in the centre, by which the work is held, so that it serves equally for a large or a small object.
H is exactly the same in shape as G; with the addition of anarm, No. 1, the use of which is as follows. If this chuck does not turn the wood round properly, fasten to the latter what is called acarrier, No. 2, the end of which, projecting further than the chuck, rests upon the arm, 1, and causes all to turn together.
These appear to us to be the chucks most universally in use for concentric turning; the ordinary ones the turner may make of wood, and those for ornamental work we shall mention hereafter.
It may, however, be as well to describe the method of making the wood chucks:—Select a piece of close-grained dry wood—box is the best; havingtaken off the corners and made it tolerably round with a chisel, or a small hatchet, you must then find the centre of the two ends. To do this, lay the piece of wood on a bench; open a pair of compasses to nearly half the diameter of the piece; fix one point of the compasses firmly in the middle, and with the other draw a circle as near the edge of the wood as you can. If you find the circle is not exact, but further from the edge on one side than the other, alter the position of the compasses, till they become right. Bore a hole in the centre, when found, and screw the wood on to the chuck, B. Place your restfacingthe work, and cut in the centre of it a hole, the depth andNEARLYthe size of the screw on the nose of the mandrel. This done, take the piece of wood off the brass chuck, and fasten it firmly in a vice; then screw into the hole aTAP, which has been made on purpose to fit the screw of the mandrel. This tap cuts a thread as you turn it round in the hole, so that when you unscrew it, you have only to screw the wood to the nose of the mandrel, taking care to make it fit quite close to the shoulder; it must then be turned quite round and smooth with the gouge and chisel, andthe face of it also perfectly flat, which is seen by holding against it the flat part of the T square,plate 1, R. If the square touches all the face of the chuck, it is ready to receive the wood; but if you can in any part see the light between them, take the chisel and smooth it over again. The chuck being ready, cut a piece of wood, we will say for a box, round it with a chisel, take some thin glue, and fasten the wood to the chuck with it. When quite hard and dry, begin to turn the sides even, then cut down the groove to receive the lid, which should be glued on to another chuck. To hollow out the box, turn the rest to the face of the work and use the gouge. When of a sufficient depth, take thecallipers,plate 1, K, push the small ends down the box to the bottom, stretch them out as far as they will, and set the screw, then pull them slowly out, so as to measure the size of the top of the inside of the box; if not exactly the same, turn out a little more of the bottom. Now begin to smooth the outside and hollow out the lid, taking great care to make it fit exactly the groove made in the bottom of the box; for this purpose the callipers must be set, so that the forked endstretches to the width of the circumference of the groove; you will then find that the other end will be exactly the same width, and keep trying them to the inside of the lid, till they enter it very tightly; then try the lid on the bottom, and it will fit. By thus using the callipers, you are saved much trouble in taking the work on and off the lathe, to fit the parts together.
You must now cut the lid off the chuck, either with the parting tool, or with a saw, and having it firmly placed on the bottom, smooth and finish off the sides so that they look quite even, and as if there was no separation between them. This done, move the rest to the front of the lid, and finish it up the same, taking care not to leave the slightest scratch or unevenness on the surface; then rub the whole of the work well with sand paper, making the lathe turn very rapidly, first one way, then the other, and finish by rubbing it over with a drop of olive oil on a piece of rag, and the shavings of the wood. The great beauty of turning consists in all the parts being exact, shining, well finished off, and not too thick; to attain this latter perfection, experience is necessary, and I should advise constantpractice in turning box-wood and holly, till the learner is able to make his boxes fit properly, and also look neat and light. The lid being finished, lay it aside, and saw off the bottom; then turn its own chuck to a proper size to receive it, while you smooth and polish the outer part. It is requisite to be very particular in the manner of chucking work, such as boxes, thimbles, or any thing that has been hollowed out; and remember always to make a chuck to fitINTO THEM, instead of puttingTHEMinto one. It is also better to leave a shoulder that the work can rest against,—you are then sure that it is supported evenly; if not, you may find that the slightest inclination to one side or the other will cause you to turn one side much thinner than the other; and if you are working, we will say the top of a box, it will always look crooked, and if the bottom, it will never stand steady. Should the box feel loose and fall off the chuck before it is finished, a little chalk may be rubbed upon the former, which will give it a firmer hold, and prevent the slipperiness consequent on the friction of two pieces of wood; and sometimes a thin piece of paper inserted between them is useful in the same way; for althoughthe work should fit close and firm on the chuck, if the chuck betoo large, so that you have to use force to make them unite, you will most probably split your work all to pieces. Great care also is requisite to get it off the chuck; insert one of the small chisels between it and the shoulder of the chuck, and move it slightly, first on one side, then on the other. Many neat ornaments may be made on boxes with the smaller chisels, such as lines and mouldings; and there are several useful and ornamental tools, calledmilling tools, (seeplate 5, Nos. 1, 2, 3), which are not expensive, and give much effect to the work. They consist of small wheels, upon which the pattern is cut. Place the rest so that there is space for the wheel to turn between it and the work, push it close up to the wood, hold the handle very firmly with both hands, so that the tool cannot slip, and with a few quick turns of the wheel of the lathe, the pattern will be clearly impressed upon the wood. With these simple tools innumerable beautiful articles may be finished; and though they require neither the application nor talent that can be displayed in performing other ornamental work with the eccentric chuck,cutter, and drill, still they possess two great advantages—cheapness, and facility of management, and are easily procured.
By a little attention and ingenuity, a great variety of elegant and useful articles may be made on the lathe, with the assistance of but a limited collection of tools,—such as thimbles, boxes, cups, rings, stands, small vases, stilettos, pen-handles, pin-cushions, needle-cases, and vinaigrettes.
We now come to the most difficult operation in turning, that of cutting a screw; to perform it well and easily is a proof of the workman’s skill and proficiency in the art. There are many ways of doing it; we shall therefore give the best and least expensive. The screw tools, figures 14 and 15,plate 1, must fit exactly one into the other. Fig. 15 is an outside, Fig. 14 an inside tool. As the threads may be required to be cut coarse or fine, according to the work you are engaged upon, the small grooves in the tools are made to suit. Having turned your box quite round, and hollowed it out,cut the groove upon which the lid is to fit; place the rest at a convenient distance, turn the wheel, not too fast, and move the outside screw-tool along the rest with a regular horizontal motion, and it will cut a screw, the threads of which will fill up the space between the teeth of the tool. But care must be taken to jerk the tool off when at the end of the space intended for the screw; or if it be allowed to remain stationary, cutting the wood, the threads will be destroyed, and become useless. When this is well done, turn out the lid of the box till it nearly fits the bottom, and in the same manner press the inside screw tool against the side of the cavity, draw it out horizontally as the work moves round, and if carefully managed, it will soon be made to fit upon the outside screw. As, however, to accomplish this well, and with precision, great practice is requisite, an invention, called a traversing mandrel, is frequently used, particularly by beginners: we will endeavour to give a description of its form and use.
At the end of the mandrel A,pl. 4, is a brass cylinder, I, which fits upon the end, and is kept in its place by a nut, 2, which screws firmly into it.Below this, fixed to a brass plate that rises and lowers at pleasure by turning the screw-key, B, is attached the screw-guide; (a brass plate cut into grooves of various sizes to suit the thread you wish to cut, fig. 3;) this guide moves round on a pin. To use this machine, unscrew the nut B, pull off the brass cylinder, and in its place put on the guide, C, and screw the nut in again; turn the other guide, 3, to the groove which corresponds with it, and which is usually numbered, to avoid mistakes; turn the key B till the lower guide meets the one you have just put on the mandrel, and slips easily into it. You will now find that by only allowing the fly-wheel to movehalf roundand back again, the mandrel will run backwards and forwards, and thus have the exact motion requisite for cutting a screw. Fix your rest, and hold your tool (which must have the same sized thread as the guide then on the mandrel) quite steady upon the rest, against the revolving wood, and in a few minutes the screw will be produced. The inside screw is made in the same manner, with the inside tool, by turning the rest in front of the work. Do not press the tool too hard to the wood at first, till the threads are slightly cut,so that the teeth may enter always in the same place. About six different-sized screw guides and tools to fit will be quite sufficient for an amateur turner. There is also another way of cutting screws, by means of a traversing chuck. On the mandrel, R,pl. 4, is screwed the chuck B, to which are screwed the chucks of the lathe, R. On the outside of B is turned a screw, fitted to an inside screw worked in the block C, from which extends an arm, D, sufficiently long to allow the arm E to slide up and down it; a piece of iron should be screwed to the circular block, C, of such a length as to be capable of moving in a groove that may be cut in the collar; it is intended to prevent the block C from turning quite round. The rest, G, must not stand, as usual, parallel to the work in cutting the outside screw, but at right angles, as when an inside screw is to be cut, in order that the further arm of the rest, F, may be joined to the end of the second arm, G. It is necessary that the second arm, E, shall be capable of fastening firmly the first arm, D, to any part of the rest, G, F, as also to have a joint at each end, to admit in a horizontal plane its free action. Thus, as the lathe turns to or from us, the armsmust traverse forwards or backwards, which gives a similar motion to the tool, H, that is screwed firm to the further arm, F, of the rest, and thus you can cut a screw with a single point tool. Of course any unsteadiness would spoil the screw. If you draw the centre of the rest nearer to you, and thus bring the tool nearer to the arm, E, a screw of a much larger-sized thread will be cut; for as the rest, turning in its socket, moves on a centre, the further the tool is from the centre, the greater will be the radius of the circle described, andvice versâ.
It may, perhaps, be feared that a piece of wood so far from the collar, K, may be apt to spring; but this is easily avoided, by not making use of the chuck, B, till the screw is to be turned. Another disadvantage would seem to arise from the impossibility of cutting screws when the puppet head is made use of. But this may also be obviated by lengthening the arm, E, to the part where the screw is to be cut, and thus we have the same screw as the traversing one. The socket, S, slides on the rest, and may be fastened to it by a screw, the upper part that turns on a pivot admits the arm, E, to slide through it, which arm is held firm with a screw.
At the commencement of the work, the rest stands at right angles with the wood on which the screw must be cut; then, by bringing it back to its original angle, and sliding forwards the tool to the last thread of the screw that was just cut, we proceed to any length required. When two or three threads are cut, the most unskillful turner will be able to continue the screw with a common screw tool.
Fig. D,plate 4, is a boring collar, used to support any long slender body which is required to be turned hollow. Without a support of this kind it would be impossible to keep the wood in its place; and it would either incline from the centre, thus causing the hollow to be drilled out quite crooked, or it would spring from the chuck. To obviate these two inconveniences, the two collars, figs. C and D,plate 4, are employed. In the former one, which is made of iron or brass, the holes are conical, and their centres are all precisely at the same distance from the axis of the collar. In using it, remove the right hand puppet, and provide a much lower one. Through it drill a hole, the same sizeas that in the centre of the boring collar. The centre of this hole must be in the same line with the centre of the mandrel. The collar, when attached to it, faces the mandrel, and is held firm by a screw. When fixed, the centre hole is opposite the axis of the mandrel; and when the largest hole is used, it clears the top of the headstock to which it is affixed. The end of the work to be bored being placed in the hole which fits it, the tool is held upon the rest against its centre, and the boring is easily and accurately performed.
Plate 3.
Plate 3.
The collar, D, is perhaps, a simpler apparatus for supporting long pieces of slender wood or ivory, and has this advantage, that the workman can easily make it for himself. It should be constructed of very hard, well-seasoned wood. The foot, E, must be in breadth exactly the size of the aperture in the bed of the lathe, and is kept quite steady by a bit of wood thrust through it underneath the lathe. Into this collar, fit many pieces of wood with different sized holes bored through them, (all exactly in a line with the axis of the mandrel,) so as to admit large or small pieces of work, the sides being grooved, and the supports sawn to correspond: theyall slide in with great ease, and are kept quite steady by an iron pin which runs through the top. The fig. G, shows the collar, with one of the supports slipped in, the other sliding upon it; H is the collar, showing the groove, and L L are two supports that fit into it. Themiddleof the apertures of these supports, whether large or small, must always be exactly on a line with the axis of the mandrel, therefore, after they are bored quite true on the lathe, they are sawn exactly across the hole. This is a very useful addition to the lathe, not only as a support when boring holes, but also to be used with the right hand puppet, to give strength to any long slender piece of work, as a screen-handle or a pen-holder; for, being of great length, the stress necessary to the proper management of the tools would be apt to break the wood or ivory, and it is easy to make one of the ornamental mouldings of a proper size, to enable it to run smoothly in one of the supports; if too tight, the wheel will not turn, and if too loose, the work will jerk up and down.
For boring, there are many shaped tools of various sizes; 16, 17,pl. 1, are drawings of the most useful. They have no handles, but at thesmaller end a hole is drilled, to admit the point, J, of the puppet, G,pl. 1. Having, with one of the turning tools, made an aperture in the work sufficiently large to allow the boring tool to enter, screw the puppet, G, firmly to the bed of the lathe, then turn the small wheel, K, till the point enters the hole in the tool, which must be steadied by holding it straight and firm with a pair of pincers. Make the wheel turn rather quickly, and with the left hand keep moving the left wheel, K, very gently, so as to force the tool into the wood. After a few turns, stop the lathe, and take out the boring tool, to get rid of the shavings and dust; move the puppet nearer and begin again. A little difficulty will be found in making the tool enter the wood, orbite, as it is called, but, by humoring it gently, it will soon take hold; care must be taken to keep it quite straight, and not to go too fast, or it will be liable to break. This method of boring is only used for small hollow tubes, needle-cases, crochet-needles, handles, and small work.
There are many beautiful English woods which are excellent for turning; beech is very universally used, and it should be cut into moderate sized pieces and boiled, to render it more durable, and to make it work smoothly.
Elm and chestnut are also much admired; if the latter be dipped in alum water, then brushed over with a hot decoction of logwood, afterwards with one of Brazil wood, it will be made to imitate mahogany. Green wood should never be used, as it is apt to split; it should be kept for at least a year before attempting to turn it. Some persons, if they fear the wood has not been sufficiently seasoned, cut it up and put it in a vessel filled with a ley made of wood ashes. In this it must be boiled for an hour, and allowed to remain in the liquor till quite cold, afterwards it must be dried in the shade.
Old walnut wood is very beautiful; to improve its colour, it may be put in the oven, and when worked, polish it with its own oil, very hot.
Sycamore, when grown in favourable situations,is as white and nearly as hard as holly; the cherry, yew, laburnum, and pear-tree woods, are also very beautiful; but though invaluable for plain turning, they are not hard enough, or of a sufficiently close and fine grain, to admit of ornamenting them in delicate and minute patterns. The milling tools are generally employed for them. Of all English woods, the holly is the whitest, and is rendered still more so by boiling; it is, when very good, used for inlaying, in imitation of ivory. Box is the hardest and toughest of our woods; when cut plank-wise, it is apt to warp, if not well seasoned; but its yellow colour, if highly polished, is much admired, and it will receive the most delicate patterns; it is also used as a substitute for ivory.
The foreign woods are those most prized by the ornamental turner, on account of their hardness, and the beautiful polish which can be given to them. Cocoas, or the wood of the palm, is much used for all kinds of ornamental work. It is of a beautiful brown, streaked with darker veins, and is found in the West Indies.
Ring wood is extremely hard, of a chocolatebrown, with black veins; it is a good wood for turning, and comes from Brazil.
Partridge and leopard woods, tulip and snake woods, are also frequently used; the latter is of a very deep red, and very hard.
Calamander wood, a tree growing in the island of Ceylon, is very hard and heavy, and the veins in it most beautifully shaded. The principal colours are a fine chocolate, sometimes deepening almost into black, then gradually shading into a cream colour. It is a very hard wood, and takes a high polish.
African thorn is of a beautiful dark colour, and much prized when it can be obtained good, which is rarely the case.
Ebony, an exceedingly hard, smooth, foreign wood, is much admired by turners. The best is a jet black, free from any veins, and receiving a very high polish. There is some difficulty in keeping woods to prevent them from warping or cracking. The foreign woods, particularly, being usually very dry, often open in fissures while working. The best method of preserving them is to place them in a cool and rather damp place, and to rub a little oilnow and then over the outsides, to keep them moist. If the wood is sufficiently large to allow of its being quartered, the danger of its splitting is much less; but the foreign woods are rarely large, as the trees are generally very high, but small in circumference. If foreign woods cannot easily be obtained, box wood and holly may be stained so as greatly to resemble them. The dying woods to be used must be in small chips or raspings. When the wood is ordered to be brushed over several times with the fluid, it should be dried between each time. If the stain is wished to be very deep, the wood should be boiled in the stain.
Mix two ounces of Brazil wood, and two of potash, in a quart of water; let them remain in a warm place for some days, stirring them occasionally. With this boiling liquid, brush over the wood till it becomes of the requisite colour; then dissolve two ounces of alum in a quart of water, and, whilethe wood is wet, brush it over with it. For a pink or a rose red, use double the quantity of potash.
Steep one ounce of turmeric in a pint of spirits of wine; let it stand for several days. Brush the wood over with it. A red yellow is made by adding to the above a little gum tragacanth.
Brush the wood with a hot decoction of logwood, then with common ink.
Boil one ounce of logwood and two drachms of Brazil wood in a quart of water, over a moderate fire. When one-half is evaporated, strain it, and brush the wood over with it. When dry, brush it over with a solution composed of a dram of pearl-ash in a pint of water.
For a light stain, mix two ounces of madder and one of fustic in a quart of water, and boil them all together; a darker stain is made by using half an ounce of logwood in the place of the madder, and then brushing the wood with a weak solution of potash.
All hard woods are easily polished; first, they are made perfectly smooth and even, with the turning tools, after which rub them with sand paper, then with Dutch rushes, which, to prevent their breaking into small pieces, should be steeped in water. While using these, make the lathe turn quickly round, sometimes one way, sometimes the other, to prevent any unevenness, and keep moving the sand paper, &c. &c., or the edges are apt to cut lines. When this is done, and the work looks smooth, rub over it a drop or two of olive oil, wipe it clean with its own shavings, take it off the lathe, and brush it with a very hard brush, the same as those used for blacking leather.
As it is impossible to turn well unless your toolsare in good order, great care must be taken to keep them very sharp. If a bit of the steel splits away, as is frequently the case in turning hard woods, grind it down till it becomes even again, then rub it on the Turkey stone, with a little olive oil, till the edge is so sharp that you cannot see it; for the gouges and hollow tools, thick Turkey stones, rounded at the edges, are sold, which enter into the groove, and the outer edges are rubbed on the flat stone.
As soon as the turner becomes quite master of his tools, he will find ivory much pleasanter to work than wood; it is not so liable to split, it turns smoother, polishes with less trouble, and shows any ornamental work much better than wood. But then it is very expensive, and very difficult to obtain good and white. New ivory may be bleached by exposing it in the sunshine, and wetting it constantly, or it will crack; but till the ivory is cut up, you cannot tell whether it will be good or not. Pieces may be bought cheaper that have a hollow in the middle, they serve very well for pedestals of vases, by screwing another bit into the hole, or for boxes, by gluing in a piece of ebony to fit the hollow.Ivory is polishedbeforeornamenting, with putty powder, ground very fine, rubbed on with a piece of linen dipped in water, dry it, and rub very hard with a bit of felt, and the polish will be beautiful. But after it is ornamented, polish only with a brush dipped in water and chalk, or even in plain water.
For dying ivory, it is first necessary to cleanse it from the grease which it always contains, more or less, and which would prevent its receiving the stain or dye. For this purpose, mix half a pound of nitre in an equal quantity of water, tie a string round the pieces of ivory, and dip them in while the liquor is hot, then plunge them into cold water.
Take half a pound of pieces of scarlet cloth, put them into a clean earthen pot; add one ounce of soft soap, after which pour in three quarts of soft water. Boil all together for half an hour, stirring it frequently, and squeeze the cloth several times, to extract the colour. When this is done, have ready an earthen vessel, put into it as much pulverized alum as will lie upon a sixpence, pour thescarlet liquid over it, and extract all the colour from the cloth by pressing it in a canvas bag. Steep the ivory in this liquor till it becomes of the proper scarlet.
Boil a quarter of a pound of logwood shavings in a quart of water, in an earthen vessel, for half an hour. Steep the ivory in it.
On taking the ivory out of these boiling liquors, immerse it instantly in cold water, to prevent its cracking.