CHAPTER IIGENERAL PRINCIPLES; MATERIALS

Best trust the happy moments. What they gaveMakes man less fearful of the certain grave,And gives his work compassion and new eyes;The days that make us happy make us wise.

Moreover, every teacher of handwork knows how little ease the busy children in her classes get—in these classes they are never passive listeners or passive learners by heart. They see the needof accuracy, the labour necessary to produce it, they suffer for every mistake they make, they realise some of the joy and pain of creating, and, best of all perhaps, they realise the joy of work—active, muscular work as distinguished from their ordinary scholarly work.

With regard to the question of work it has been ably said that "No one has yet preached in an adequate way the gospel of work—real hard work—as the most amusing of all occupations—not a noble duty."

It is somewhat unfortunate that directly one begins to like one's work one is accused of playing.

To return to toy-making (which is work or play, according to whether one dislikes or likes it)—whether toy-making be taken in the school or not, the teachers will find it a useful hobby. Through it they can amuse themselves and renew their youth; through it they will have an enduring bond of union with their children.

Our knowledge of history and geography often fails to impress our children; they probably think we are a little foolish to burden our heads with so many facts that seem to have no bearing on to-day; but when we can use our hands and make a toy they see us with other eyes, we are really clever people worth cultivating.

If toy-making be taken as a form of handwork in school, one enlists at once the interest of the parent—especially of the father—the mother sometimes, not often, objects to the mess. This interest of the parents is a great gain; the father delights in doing a bit of the work—sticking on the difficult funnel, sawing the hard piece of wood; child learns from parent, and parent from child, and in this way the father may again remember half-forgotten ambitions, half-neglected talents, and find in toy-making a profitable occupation, profitable mainly in the fact that any occupation which recalls to the grown-up person his youth, with its fresher outlook on life, must be wholesome.

Finally, if the handwork classes make the children more 'at home' with themselves and with life, they will have done something; if they help them toward self-realisation they will help them toward the joy the writer speaks of who says, "Joy of life seems to me to arise from a sense of being where one belongs, as I feel right here; of being four-square with the life we have chosen.All the discontented people I know are trying sedulously to be something they are not, to do something they cannot do.... It is curious, is it not, with what skill we will adapt our sandy land to potatoes and grow our beans with clay, and with how little wisdom we farm the soil of our own natures?"

In toy-making in schools it is very necessary to design toys that can be made from materials which are easily obtained. The Board of Education in a report on handwork in the London elementary schools says: "The range of materials used is limited, as a rule, to paper, cardboard, clay, and 'prepared wood' or 'stripwood.' It is perhaps unfortunate that these are almost entirely 'school materials,' in other words materials which are not likely to be much used outside the school, either in the child's home or in after life."

There is truth in this—to give the child too much 'prepared material' tends to make him less inventive, resourceful, and painstaking, and prevents him from continuing his work at home, where he has not got prepared material. Any series of toys made from the same material—say a series of toys made from match stales or from 'stripwood'—has very limited educational advantages. Toys made from a combination of waste materials are the best—match-boxes, cardboard and wooden boxes of all sizes, mantle-boxes, reels, corks, broom-handles, silver paper, etc., can all play a part in producing an effective, even a beautiful toy. Most of the toys described in this book are made from so-called 'waste materials.'

With regard to infant school work, squares of white paper—cartridge paper or ordinary exercise paper—which the children can colour themselves are better than a too slavish use of the coloured gummed squares supplied to schools. Further directions with regard to materials will be given in connexion with the various toys. It is advisable to use as few tools as possible, both because the fewer tools the less expense and because the fewer tools the more thought and ingenuity required. To have a perfect instrument at hand for every need paralyses work, thought, and happiness. Most of the toys in this book are made—if forlittle ones, with scissors, if for older ones, with hammer, saw, and file.

A graduated course is necessary. Generally speaking, the little ones from five to seven make their toys of paper, clay, plasticine, and raffia. Children from seven to ten can make simple wooden toys. Wooden toys are the best; many things can be done with wood, impossible with cardboard or paper, and they are so lasting.

Cardboard modelling is always difficult, and as a rule should not be attempted by children younger than nine. Except that they provide practice in accurate measurement, toys made of paper and cardboard by children of nine or older are disappointing, they crush so quickly. Quite strong toys can, however, be made from a combination of wood, cardboard, and paper.

If really strong paper toys are required (for example, the various articles of doll's furniture, the table and chair, etc., are more valuable if strongly made), an excellent medium can be made by pasting (using ordinary flour paste) two or three sheets of paper together and allowing them to dry thoroughly under pressure. Both or all three sheets must be pasted over before they are brought together to avoid subsequent curling. This will, however, prove too stiff a medium for children younger than five.

Skewerswill be found very useful in toy-making. Any ordinary metal skewer is useful for boring holes in cardboard and corks, while the short meat skewers, three inches long (cost twopence per dozen), are an excellent substitute for bradawls when the children are making the early light woodwork models; later on in woodwork a fine workman's bradawl is required, or a drill.

Wooden skewers are useful for axles of all kinds.

Another useful boring tool (for making holes in paper, corks, or cardboard) is the metal pin stopper supplied with tubes of seccotine. This bores a hole in cardboard or paper that is the right size for a match. When boring holes in cardboard the children will find a cotton reel useful to bore upon; their meat skewer or seccotine pin stopper can then pass through the cardboard into the hole in the reel.

Methods of joining Cardboard and Paper Edges.(1) Leaving a flange. In Fig. 1 the shaded portions represent flanges—flangeAis for joining side of houseBtoC, flangesD,E,F,Gare for holding the roof; they must, of course, be bent at right angles to the sidesBandH. (Note flange in socket of candlestick, Fig. 49, Chapter IV, and in pigeon-house, Chapter X.)

Fig. 1

If Fig. 1 is made of cardboard, flange A must have the surface of the cardboard pared away, otherwise the joining will be clumsy. The dotted lines represent bends only in the case of paper, but half cuts in the case of cardboard.

Fig. 2

With regard to the size of the flange, this will depend upon the strength of the adhesive used and the stiffness of the material. Generally speaking, the larger the flange the better, for a narrow flange tends to turn up and must be held down longer than a wide one.

A good general rule to remember when joining two pieces of material is this—that it is always the thinner of the two that is to be pasted or glued. This must be borne in mind when using the second method of joining cardboard or paper edges.

Fig. 3a

Fig. 3b

(2) Using paper hinges. The hinge should extend the whole length of the edges that come together, as in Fig. 2,where pieces of cardboardAandBare joined by the hingea b c d e f. Before pasting the hinge must be folded alongb e, care being taken thatb eis at right angles toa candd f.

The sides, bottom, and roof of the Noah's Ark are joined together by paper hinges (Chapter X).

(3) Wherever it is necessary to join curved edges, the flange must be cut as in Fig. 3a, flangea b c d. Fig. 3bshows paper curved and flanges bent down ready for pasting.

This is the method used for fastening on paper funnels, the bottom of the paper mug (Fig. 57, Chapter IV), etc.

The Making and Fixing of Wheels.If it is desired to attach movable wheels to any of the toys described in the following chapters (in the early chapters for greater simplicity the wheels are gummed to sides of carts, or to matches, etc.), the following methods are suggested.

(1) The wheels can be rigidly fixed to the axle—that is, a match end is pushed tight into the cardboard wheel and the axle is free to turn in loose bearings, as in Fig. 4, fixed under the cart or other vehicle or to the sides. These bearings can be cut from cardboard or cartridge paper.

In Fig. 4 the paper is bent at a right angle along the dotted line, and the rectangular portion is gummed under the cart. If the rectangular portion is gummed to the side of the cart no bend is needed. The parts of the match sticks that pass through the holes must be rounded with sand-paper so that they will turn easily in the holes.

Fig. 4

(2) The axle can be glued to the bottom of the cart and the wheels left free to revolve. The wheels are kept in their places by the following plan. Cut some small cardboard washers, seccotine one near each end of the axle as in Fig. 5a, taking care that they do not come under the cart. Slip on the wheels, taking care that the centre hole is punched large enough to allow the wheel to revolve freely. This will be the case if a steel meat skewer (size about 7 inches long) has been used to make the holes. Fix washers outside the wheels to keep them on, as in Fig. 5b. These washers keep the wheels from sagging.

These wheels will revolve if the match stick has been rounded with sand-paper.

Fig. 5a

Fig. 5b

With regard to the arrangement of the toys in this book, roughly they are described in order of difficulty, but for convenience sometimes this order has been departed from. For example, match-box toys have been grouped together, cork animals, etc. The teacher must select her own models from different parts of the book and use them in accordance with her children's ability and her own taste.

Another important principle to follow is this. The teacher should give as few directions as possible, be as silent as it is possible for a teacher to be. The child has an excellent opportunity in these classes of learning from his own mistakes. This opportunity must not be taken from him; he must be given the chance of finding out his own mistakes. Moreover, every difficulty should not be anticipated for the child; nor should too many warnings be given. Let the children set to work as soon as possible and use their tools without too many instructions about them. Let them ask, let them have the pleasure of discovering; every child wants to learn, but not every child wants to be taught.

All models should be made as large as is reasonably possible; this should be insisted on from the beginning. Lastly, great accuracy (though much to be desired) must not be expected from the child; careful work must be insisted on, but one must learn to recognise the careful work of a child (which is so different from that of the grown-up person) and not heedlessly blame him or her for not reaching perfection.

Accuracy is so often the outcome of 'lack of vision.' The child so often has that 'vision,' that imaginative outlook on life that floods the mind with ideas, but lacks accurate power of expression, while the grown-up person has the accurate power of expression, but has lost the fresh imagination of youth and all its ideals. We must see to it that we do not dim our children's vision.

Materials.White paper of any kind that is not too thick and bends easily,e.g.cartridge paper, plain white foolscap, pages from exercise books. Pieces of coloured paper are introduced into some of the toys. It is better, however, to encourage the children to colour the white paper with chalks. One must remember, however, children's delight in coloured paper and let them have it sometimes. A wall-paper sample book will provide coloured paper, and gummed coloured squares are supplied to most schools. These gummed squares are really too thin for effective toy-making, and there is the temptation to the child to lick them when making models from them.

Adhesives.In many cases the toys can be fastened together by means of paper-fasteners. Where this is not possible the following adhesives are recommended. (1) Gloy—this is clean and fastens the paper fairly securely. (2) Higgins' Vegetable Glue. This has one great advantage over Gloy: it cannot be spilt. A little of it can be put on a piece of paper for each child; this is a great convenience in a large class. (3) Home-made paste of flour and water; this is very clean and wholesome.

PAPER TOYS FROM THE SQUARE

The following toys should be made aslargeas possible, never from a square of less than 4 inches each side. The larger the toy the thicker the paper that can be used and the stronger it is. In the following diagrams, lines to be cut are drawn, lines to be folded are dotted, parts to be cut off are shaded.

As soon as possible the child should be shown how to make a large brown paper envelope to keep his work in.

Model 1.The Rabbit Hutch.Fold paper into 16 squares as in Fig. 6. Cut lines indicated. Draw bars in squareA, or foldalongT S(Fig. 7) and cut out the bars; the door is drawn and cut in squareb. Colour the whole yellow or brown to represent wood. GumLoverM;NoverM;OoverN. The same on the other side. A small paper-fastener makes a good handle. Rabbits and carrots can be cut out of paper to furnish the hutch (Fig. 7).

Fig. 6

From a similar square folded into sixteen squares aRailway Carriagecan be made. In this case the door is cut in the middle ofC D(Fig. 8). Windows and panels are drawn on the paper. A roll of paper is put on top for the light, or a small piece of cork can be used. The wheels are drawn by means of halfpennies, then folded in half; one half is pasted under the carriage, the other appears as in Fig. 8. Three or four carriages can be made and fastened by strips of paper.

Fig. 7

Children delight in chalking the blinds of their carriages in various colours and labelling them 1st, 2nd, or 3rd Class. The top of the carriage should be darkened with pencil or chalk, or a piece of black paper pasted over it.

Fig. 8

A Luggage Van or Cattle Truck(Fig. 9) can be made from a square of the same size by cutting off oblongE F(Fig. 6) and gummingLoverNandMoverL.

TheBasket(Fig. 10) is a simple model. One quarter of thesquare is cut off to form a handle. Cut remaining portion as in Fig. 11, double over cornersa,b,c,d, paste cornerdoverD,coverC,boverB,aoverA.

Fig. 9

Fig. 10

The basket should be coloured with yellow chalk to represent straw; the handle is fastened on with paper-fasteners.

Fig. 11

Paper fruit, apples and oranges, can be cut out to go in the basket.

A Wardrobe.Fold square into sixteen parts and cut as in Fig. 12. GumAoverCandBoverA. Repeat withD E F. Gum a piece of silver paper on the door for a mirror; squareH, with its corners cut off, forms ornament on top (Fig. 13). A match is gummed inside, on which clothes are hung. The children can either draw these and cut them out, or cut them out from old fashion plates.

Fig. 12

Fig. 13

Fig. 14

An Oak Chest.Make exactly as for wardrobe, but stand on the long side. Draw panels and colour light brown (Fig. 14). By cutting off the lid and making a handle from it a basket can be made. The children themselves may be able to suggest some of these articles and should be encouraged to.

A Sedan Chaircan be made in the same way as the wardrobe(see Fig. 12). Loops of paper are gummed on atAandB(Fig. 15), through which the shafts pass; a window can be cut by folding the doorC D G Hin half alongK L. A piece of coloured paper can be gummed inside the window for a blind; some sort of ornament can be gummed at the top alongC DandE F. Panels, etc., can be drawn.

Fig. 15

A Market Basket(Fig. 16). Fold square as for wardrobe (Fig. 12), cut off the quarterK L M H. GumAtoBandCtoA—the same withD E F. To make lids, halve the quarterK L M H. GumKtoA(outside) andLforms one lid; gumHtoDandMforms the other lid. Paper-fasteners may be put in each lid for handles. The handle of basket must be made from another strip of paper. The basket should be suitably coloured before being gummed together.

Fig. 16

A Cradle(Fig. 17). Begin with a square (each side four times the diameter of a penny). Fold and gum together as for basket. Cut two round discs of stiff paper the size of a penny. Fold these in half. Gum one half of each disc on to bottom of cradle; the other half forms the rocker. These halves must be made less round by being cut as in Fig. 18, so that the cradle will rock. By means of the penny portionsAandBcan be cut to form top and bottom of cradle, a strip of paperC D Ecan be gummed across one end (roundA) to form a hood (Fig. 17).

Fig. 17

Fig. 18

Fig. 19

Fig. 20

A Settee.Fold a square as for wardrobe (Fig. 12), cut off one quarter,K L M H. GumAtoB,DtoEfor arms. Cut arms as in Fig. 20. For back legs of settee use portionK L M H; gumKtoFandHtoC(Fig. 19). To strengthen the settee gum a piece of paper overN OandM L. Coloured paper can be pasted on back, sides and seat as shown in drawing. The legs may either be cut out or simply drawn on the paper as in illustration (Fig. 20). The settee will prove a really strong piece of doll's furniture. Thechildren should be allowed to furnish a doll's house with the various articles described in this book. When they have had some practice in making them each child can be allowed to make one piece of furniture for a school doll's house.

Fig. 21

Fig. 22

Table.Top of table is a square of white cartridge paper. Make the legs from a double square, each square the same size as top of table. Fold and cut the double square as in Fig. 21. Bend flapsA B C Dcarefully alonga b. GumAtoB,CtoB,DtoAto form legs. Gum square top on toA B C D. A square of coloured paper can be gummed on to top of table as in drawing (Fig. 22). LegEcan be gummed toFby means of a paper hinge, or a flange may be provided, as in Fig. 1.

Fig. 23

Fig. 24

To make aChairto go with the table. Take a double square the same size as that used for legs of table. Fold into eight as in Fig. 24. Cut in half alonga b. SquaresA,B,Cform front legs, seat and back of chair respectively. SquareFis gummed toB, so thatEforms back legs. The chair must be strengthened by gummingHtoCandGtoE. Coloured squares can be gummed to seat and back; the rest of the chair can be chalked to represent wood (Fig. 23). A dining-room suite may be made in this way.

Side-board.Begin with two equal squares. Cut and fasten one square together as for rabbit hutch (Fig. 6), but cut two doors. One quarter of the second square must be cut and gummed on to back to form a mirrored top (Fig. 25). A piece of silver paper may be gummed on to back for a mirror. From the rest of the second square plates and dishes can be cut and coloured to go on top and inside sideboard.

Fig. 25

Fig. 26

Fig. 27

An Arm-chair.Begin with square folded into sixteen parts (Fig. 26), cut off one quarterD H N S, again cut off one quarterO P R. Cut remaining square as in diagram. GumEtoAandGtoC. Cut these squares to form arms. GumOtoKandRtoMto form back legs and sides. To strengthen chair cut offNfromD H. GumHtoPandDtoB. The corners ofBare rounded. Coloured paper can be pasted over the arms and in the middle of back, seat and sides (Fig. 27). Legs can be chalked onP,L,KandM, or cut out as shown in the figure. If preferred the arms are not folded over but cut round. This arm-chair is a strong one and will hold a heavy doll.

Fig. 28

Fig. 29

A Bed.Fold a double square as in Fig. 28. Cut portions indicated. GumA B C DtoE F G H, the same the other side. Bend upMandNto form head and foot of bed. These can be cut any shape, or simply be coloured to represent beams. Legs can be drawn on or cut out of sidesF H K LandB O D P(Fig. 29).

Fig. 30

Fig. 31

Fig. 32

A Coal Scuttle.Begin with a 4-inch square, fold into sixteen parts, cut off a quarter, cut off a quarter again; cut remaining portion as in Fig. 30. GumAoverB,CoverB. For the stand take the smallest quarter (Fig. 32), fold and cut as in diagram. GumAto bottom of coal scuttle,BandCform the supports; a handle can be cut and gummed on as in Fig. 31.

The children can cut a shovel out of paper to slip in a little paper band at the back (Fig. 31). The coal scuttle should be coloured black, with yellow to represent brass.

Fig. 33

Fig. 34

A Drawing-room Cabinet.Fold and cut square as in Fig. 33. GumBoverA,CoverD. BendEandKdown and cut corners off to form shelves as in Fig. 34.G Hcan be cut round, or in any way to make suitable top for cabinet. Silver paper can be pasted on where desired for mirrors, doors cut or drawn, etc. From Fig. 33 the children will be able to make a number of simple and effective articles of doll's furniture—namely, doll's dresser, oak settee for hall, dressing-table, wash-stand, writing-case. These the children must be allowed to suggest and think out themselves.

Fig. 35

A Shop or Stall.This will hold together without the use of gum. Fold and cut as in Fig. 35. Fold together so that squareE N G Mcovers squareG M K T; the same the other side. Bend backC S G QalongS Qto form side (Fig. 36); the same the other side. FoldB F D HalongF Hfor roof, foldB V D Wdown as in Fig. 36; this portion should have name of shop written on it. FoldA B F CalongR S, so thatA Ccoincides withB F. Fold downR B X Vso that top ofC S G Qlies betweenR B X VandA R X Z; the same the other side; this folding keeps the shop together. Gum can be used if greater strength is desired. From paper the children can cut materials to furnish their stall. From a similar square a piano can be made as in Fig. 37. A piece of paper must be gummed toV B W Dto close up the hollow; the sidesS C G Qmust not be bent back but cut as in Fig. 37 to represent the sides of a piano.

Fig. 36

Fig. 37

Fig. 38

Some Simple Tents.A good imitation of an "A" tent can be made by little ones from a square. Several of these make an excellent encampment for toy soldiers. Fold and cut squareas in Fig. 38. To fasten it together paste square 1 to square 2; this forms the back of the tent; edgesP O,K L, etc., rest along the ground. CornersLandMmust be bent back to form the entrance. Pieces of cotton are fastened alongF MandF Lfor straps for lacing up the entrance (see Fig. 39).

Fig. 39

Fig. 40

Fig. 40 shows a drawing of a real "A" tent spread out flat upon the ground. It is made of strips of canvas, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 sewn together. Children can imitate this in paper.

Fig. 41

A Triangular Tent.This is very simple. Fold and cut as in Fig. 41. PasteA E BoverE B D. Cut door atF.

Fig. 42

Fig. 43

A Bridge(Fig. 42). Begin with square (8 inches each side), fold in four and cut off one piece. Fold again in four, folds running in opposite directions to first folds, and cut off one piece. A square,A B C D, remains, divided into nine squares (Fig. 43).FoldA GandF Cin halves, cut off shaded portions. JoinL E,F N,M GandH O, and cut off shaded portions. Cut alongL R,N S,M PandO Q; bend as in Fig. 42. Matches can be gummed on the slopes of the bridge. If a piece of white cardboard or paper is placed underneath a river can be marked on it and paper boats made.

Fig. 44

Fig. 45

The children can make a very pretty scene from this. Trees can be coloured and cut out of paper and gummed upright by means of a little flap of paper left at the end of the trunk of the tree. The house can be cut out of a piece of folded paper (Fig. 44) so that it will stand; animals can be cut in a similar way (Fig. 45). Boats are made of plasticine, with paper sails stuck in it. Children can add other animals and think of other additions to the scene.

Fig. 46

Fig. 47

Fig. 48

A Punt(Fig. 46). Begin with a square, fold into sixteen parts, cut off a quarter. Fold in half oblongsA BandC D(Fig. 47). Cut off the shaded portions. Cut along the linesM E,C N,O B,P G. Fold alongM K,F N,O LandP H. The child will accomplish this fold more easily if she puts her ruler along a line fromKtoMand folds the paper over it. A coloured band should be chalked round the punt. To fasten it together gumK E MtoM E C N,C N FtoM E C Nand so on the other side. Three seats are fastened inside, made from the quarter cut off the original square. The length of the seat is equal to the distanceE C; the height of the seat to half of the distanceK E(Fig. 48).

The punt should be made from a square of cartridge paper, eleven inches each side. It will be found to float well on water.

Fig. 49

Fig. 50

A Candlestick(Fig. 49). Begin with two squares of coloured paper (sides 4 inches); one forms the bottom of the candlestick; half the other forms the socket. To make the socket fold and cut as in Fig. 50. The other half divided lengthways forms the handle. The handle and socket can be fastened on with paper-fasteners or gummed. It looks neater when gummed. A roll of yellow paper or white paper coloured forms the candle; into this roll some cotton-wool is put and into this a piece of red paper for the flame. Children delight in making candlesticks of different colours and decorating their form rooms with them. The candlestick can be strengthened by being gummed on to a piece of cardboard (a post-card will do). A round candlestick can be made in a similar way.

To make the socket, fold the oblong (Fig. 50) into four parts, leaving a piece,E, over; gumEtoA.

A Lantern.Begin with an oblong 8 inches by 5½ inches,A B C D(Fig. 51). Fold alongE T KandG Hto get flanges. FoldC A B Dinto half to obtain the lineL M, and foldA L M Binto four parts to obtain the lineL´ M´. FoldA H C Ginto four parts alongQ P,O NandS R. Draw the top of the lantern inA H L´ M´, as in Fig. 51, and cut off the shaded portion. Draw or cut windows in the sides of the lantern. Cut the flangeabcas in the diagram. Make the candle and the candlestick to fit into the lantern as in Fig. 49. (Note the length of the edge of the candlestick is the width of the lanternE T.) Bend the flangesa,b,cat right angles to the sides and gum the candlestick to these.Flangedcan be gummed to the edgeL´ E, and a door cut in one of the sides, or flangedcan be cut off and then sidelforms the door. Make holes in the tops of the lantern and tie together with thread, as in Fig. 52, or the flanges can be left round the triangular tops and they can be gummed together. Fig. 52 shows the finished model.

Fig. 51

Fig. 52

Colouring the Lantern.The lantern can be made of black paper (lines must be drawn on the white side), or white paper chalked, or painted black or yellow, etc., according to taste.

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