A new and deadly form of warfare is the use ofGas. Until April, 1915, we knew nothing about it and then we had to face it to our great cost. We had no masks and no apparatus of any kind to help us combat it. Having been taken by surprise in an engagement that almost cost us Calais, we set to work to devise means to counteract it. The method adopted is the helmet, made of cloth, and very much like a fireman's smoke helmet. It has large goggles similar to the ones that motorists wear. The cloth is kept saturated with a solution of ammonia which acts as a neutraliser of the chlorine gas. A tube passes through the cloth into the mouth, and through this tube the air from the lungs is breathed out. It is, of course, fatal to inhale air through it, and all the air that is breathed in has to be inhaled through the cloth of the helmet.
The importance of training the soldier to beable to meet gas cannot be overemphasised. He should be drilled frequently with the helmet on to accustom him to the feeling of it, and alarms should be sounded from time to time to teach him to don the helmet as rapidly as possible. In some of the military schools in France the men were actually taken without helmets into chambers where there was just enough gas to make them realise it was there, and were then sent into other chambers with a "deadly" mixture of gas with their helmets on. This training makes them realise the importance of helmets.
Many forms of helmets have been used from time to time, and in this matter as in many others we have learnt from our enemies. For the most recent British mask contains the "nosebox" or "beak" which conforms to the German model. As in most other things, simplicity is to be desired where it can be combined with effectiveness, and it is the simplicity of the cloth helmet with the tube that even to-day commends it to many critics above the "box" forms—those that require an independent supply of oxygen. Where men such as gunners are liable to be exposed to fumes for some considerable length of time, either from cylinder gas or from shells or even from tear shells, or mustcontinue at their posts at any costs, an independent fresh air supply is necessary.
Detailed instruction also should be given as to what men are to do during and after the gas attacks; for there are some forms of gas that do not appear to affect the individual at all, and then all of a sudden, when he begins to use his limbs, he drops dead from heart failure. Instruction on this subject must come from the medical and chemical experts who have made a close study of the effects of gas.
Allied to gas isLiquid Fire. This fire is projected in long streams from the nozzles of pipes that come from a high pressure cylinder, sometimes placed in the bottom of the trench, and sometimes carried on the backs of special men. These globules of burning oil that are sent forth reach a distance of thirty or forty feet from the nozzle of the pipe. The effect of liquid fire is more terrible than words can tell, and it requires great bravery on the part of troops to have them advance in the face of these streams.
Clouds ofSmokeas well as gas are used. One of the ruses that was adopted at the battle of Loos was to project smoke forward for a few minutes until the enemy should become quite used to it, and then send out streams and wavesof gas to take him unawares. These are frightful methods of warfare which the Allies have had to turn to in order not to allow the enemy, from his violation of his pledged word, and contrary to the rules of warfare, to gain an unfair advantage. But there are many of us who believe that no other enemy than the Germans would have descended to these depths of infamy.
Sooner or later in the course of his trench experience the soldier will be subjected to an infantry attack. Artillery shelling, aeroplane attacks, mining, etc., are part of everyday's programme, but infantry attacks come only now and then. Theymaycome at any time and the enemy is not in the habit of announcing them beforehand. It is not likely that they will occur in broad daylight without any warning. If they are to be made then, they will be preceded always by a concentrated artillery preparation. Night is the danger time. There are two periods of special danger—one, the hour before sunrise, and the other the hour after sunset. At these times there is sufficient light for men to be able to see their way to advance over almost any ground, and not sufficient light for the defending force to be able to take careful sight with their rifles and machine guns, etc. Consequently these hours are the most favourable for making an attack, and every onemust be on the alert to ward them off. These times are called "Stand tos" or properly "Stand to arms." While they last, every officer and every man of the front and support line is on duty. Rifles are cleaned, inspected and loaded, bombs, gas-masks, revolvers, bayonets, etc., are got ready, and every one remains at his post of duty. In the blackness of night and in the broad light of day the danger is much less and consequently some of the force can be relieved for other tasks, during the night, or for rest during the day.
Should an attack be made, it becomes the business of the men in the trench to hold the enemy off just as long as they can, at whatever cost to themselves, while some one telegraphs back for the supports and reserves, and possibly for the assistance of the artillery. Trenches must never be surrendered without giving these fresh men a chance to regain the advantage, and should the trench be lost, a counter attack must be immediately arranged before the enemy has had time to reverse the trenches and connect them up by saps and communicating trenches with his own system. No time must be lost, for the longer the delay, the greater the difficulty of making the counter attack successful.
As to the methods of holding the trenchagainst an infantry attack, it will be evident that the men must take up their position on the firing step and fire as rapidly and as steadily as they can. Bombs should be kept and thrown only when the enemy has got well within range for them. Machine guns can do effective work of course and the artillery should be communicated with and they will open fire with shrapnel. Where ammunition permits, a barrage or curtain of fire should then be established behind the enemy's front line to prevent him bringing up reserves to take the place of those that have fallen, and also to weaken him for the time when a counter attack on him has to be made. Star shells, that illuminate the ground, will of course have been fired to give the machine gunners and the rifle marksmen a better chance to find their targets.
Obedience, steadiness and tenacity are required of the men, and only training and experience will develop these excellent soldierly qualities. The poor type of soldier will either forget to use his weapon altogether or else fire wildly and uselessly. An infantry attack is not a pleasant experience, but soldiers must be taught to expect it, and that it will probably give them the opportunity of using the final and greatest weapon of the infantryman—the bayonet.
Trenches can only be considered as devices for affording temporary protection during the time that preparations are being made for delivering an attack. No one wants to remain in trenches for ever. At the best it is a miserable kind of life, and from a military point of view, it gets nowhere. Nor is it capable of being maintained without great loss in men. So costly did it become to us, and so great was the monotony and the feeling of helplessness, that we welcomed the word when it came to us to deliver an attack. At least that would bring us action, and give a variety to life.
During the first year of the war, attacks had almost always to be made without sufficient artillery preparation. Even at the Battle of Neuve Chapelle, where we assembled over 480 guns on a little more than a mile of front—a greater collection than had ever been got together in history—we had not sufficient artillerypreparation for the attack that was to be made. There were enough guns but not enough shells to fire from them. The result was that much of the enemy's wire was still intact when the infantry rushed over, and the advance was held up in certain important points where we could be enfiladed.
We have learnt that the only method of delivering an infantry attack against prepared positions is to give them a thorough hammering with shells. Every particle of wire should be destroyed, so as to eliminate the risk of men being shot down as they attempt to pass through it. At the Battle of Loos our guns bombarded their lines from Monday morning to Saturday morning, and kept hammering at them so as not to give them a chance to repair either their wire or their parapets. An effective curtain of fire was established at the same time to render it impossible for them to bring food and supplies up to the line that we were about to attack. For the last ten minutes before the men actually went over the parapet, there was a perfect tornado of shells falling upon and behind their lines. Any one who remained at his post alive during the previous days would find it almost impossible to continue there during this deluge.
If the artillery preparation is adequate, thebattle is half over. General Haig's successes on the Somme, and the consequent German retreat on a large scale, have been due, in the first place to the excellent work of the gunners. Of course the gunners themselves have been dependent on many other branches of the service pre-eminent among which is the aeroplane corps. Targets are seldom seen by the gunners who have to depend for their information on the men who can fly ahead and come back with actual photographs of the positions to be bombarded. Too great emphasis cannot be placed upon the work of these gallant flying men. During the battles of the Somme, they have not only been doing this reconnaissance work for the gunners, but they have been flying very low after they reached the enemy territory and using their machine guns on the advancing or retreating infantry. So low did they fly, indeed, that the enemy did not risk firing upon them with their guns for fear of hitting their own men. They were fairly safe as far as the opposing infantry was concerned for the man in the machine is well protected from below and at the sides from rifle bullets.
While the artillery is active, the junior artillery, the bomb gunners must also get to workto throw over as much H. E. as possible to break down the resistance of the enemy.
Then again there is the gas, which has now come to be used as a definite part of an offensive. Gas is conveyed to the trenches in large drums, under pressure, and at the proper moment is liberated in waves against the enemy. It should be in the hands of trained men who can be trusted not to liberate it a moment before the time comes.
While gas has proved very effective under certain circumstances—and almost decided the fate of Calais early in 1915—yet it is obviously dependent upon the weather and especially the wind. Even if the direction of the wind is correct for the use of gas, the kind of wind may not be suitable at the moment. The wind must not be high nor squally, but needs to be low and gentle, just sufficient to carry the gas across to the opposing trenches without dissipating it on the journey. Then again it must be remembered that it can seldom reach the gunners who may open up intensive fire on the trenches from which it is being liberated, burst the drums and make the place untenable. Of course all the men who are employed in liberating gas should be warned to have their helmets in position to guard against these emergencies, and alsoagainst leaks in the drums. Gas masks must be tested daily to see that they do not admit any of this deadly poison.
In addition to these preparations, a good many reconnaissance parties must be sent night after night out into No Man's Land to map it thoroughly, place directing boards there, dig small saps to facilitate an advance, and learn the condition of what remains of the enemy wire. This work is difficult and dangerous, and must be given to trustworthy, brave, resourceful men. For it must be remembered that the enemy will probably come out into this neutral territory at night to try and learn the plans of the opposing side, just as they are trying to learn his plans. Many bloody conflicts have taken place out there under cover of darkness when the patrol from one side has entered into conflict with the patrol from the other.
Those in charge of the attack will arrange that at a specified time the bombardment will cease, and the men leap over the parapets. This time is usually arranged for, say, one minute after six, or thirteen minutes after eight—some time which the enemy cannot guess accurately. During the final awful ten minutes, the finishing touches are given to rifles and bombs and revolvers. Then exactly at the appointed timethe electric buzzers in the trenches sound the signal to advance. The first man over the parapet is always an officer. Unlike the Germans, we do not drive our men but expect them to follow us, and this accounts in part for the very severe casualties that have been suffered by British officers.
Where the distance between trenches is short, say, a couple of hundred yards, it is covered as fast as men can run. It is a veritable race with death; for the enemy must not be allowed to recover from the bombardment in time to get his machine guns up into position again before the infantry arrives before his trenches. The attacking infantry must throw themselves down into the trenches and begin work at once with bomb and bayonet. Since the enemy has adopted the plan of having his dugouts deep down in the earth, it is a little easier to reach him before he is able to emerge. In this work bombs are most effective. All of the enemy communicating trenches must be effectively barricaded or protected by bombers and riflemen to keep him from bringing up any reserves and thus taking the attacking force from a flank. In an attack of this kind the ground cannot be covered too rapidly, and no thought must be given to cover.
But when attacks have to be made over long distances, the plan is either to dig out saps that will reach to within a reasonable charging distance of the enemy, or else have the infantry proceed at a moderate and steady pace, so as not to arrive at their objective winded and useless for bayonet work. The principle of having sectional rushes while neighbouring sections open rapid fire will be found useful.
The German method of advance is characterised by the close order formation, the British by the open order formation. The German training is such that he cannot act independently to any very great degree, but needs to feel the support of another strong arm near him, if possible touching him. They attack in waves of men packed so closely together that it is impossible to miss them if you get a shot at them at all, and of course they are ideal marks for machine guns. But in the British and French armies men are trained to be self-reliant and to advance even when they seem to be alone. An interval of three paces is usually maintained between individuals, and that renders them less of a target for marksmen. They are also trained to take command of other men should their officers or non-commissioned officers be put out of action.
Should any of the enemy wires be still intact, they must be cut by the first comers so as not to hold up the main attack. This is done by ordinary wire cutters—which every man is supposed to carry as part of his equipment—or else by a new device that is attached to certain rifles. By means of this a number of the wires are caught together and then when the rifle is fired the bullet cuts them and a passage through is made.
If the trench should be successfully taken and all the enemy disposed of, the first work to be done is to "reverse" it, and connect it up by communicating trenches with the old position. For this work engineers are sent immediately behind the infantry, and they carry with them quantities of sand bags and shovels and picks and wire, etc., with which to complete this task. Of course the infantry must also help, and for this purpose it will be as well for each man to take with him a few sandbags on his back—not enough to encumber him, but sufficient to be of service in putting up hasty defences.
The test of the success of the action will come as soon as the enemy is able to organise a counter-attack. He will know the range of the trench to a nicety and will not be slow to hurl the weight of his shells against it. Then, too, hewill try to bring up reserves, who with bayonet and bomb will attack their old position. For many weary hours the infantry may be busy on this task of repelling counter attacks, and consolidating their new position.
So many details have to be cared for in an attack that it is well to rehearse it thoroughly beforehand and to see that every individual knows just exactly where he is supposed to be and what he is to do. Only in that way will confusion be avoided. It will be necessary also for the attackers to wear distinguishing marks in the form of a white band on the arm or a white piece of cloth on the back if the attack is to be made in the darkness or with poor light.
The question of prisoners inevitably comes up. What is to be done with them? How are they to be taken care of? It will be seen that this is a big problem in an attack where men cannot be disengaged from their tasks of taking trenches without greatly weakening the operation. To tell off men to look after prisoners when every man is needed to break down the resistance that is still being offered by others of the enemy, is a procedure obviously surrounded with dangers. And yet, in the interests of humanity it has to be done, for the only other alternative is to take no prisoners. Atthe battle of Loos many of the German prisoners that we took came to us in embarrassing mobs. They were weak and hungry and required little persuasion to lay down their arms. Under these conditions we could manage a great many prisoners with a few armed men. Where they surrendered in ones and twos we found there was a disposition on the part of some of our troops to disengage themselves from the battle to lead them back. A man is naturally proud of the fact that he has taken a prisoner and wants to deliver him himself. But we insisted that they be turned over at the earliest opportunity to others who were in charge of small numbers of prisoners, and that as soon as possible they be given into the charge of men who were slightly wounded, but who could still be relied on to give a good account of themselves if trouble arose. It is also a good thing to have a quantity of loose telephone wire about—as almost always happens in a battle—and wind this round the prisoners, making sure that they keep their hands in the air. Even barbed wire will do, though it is not so comfortable for the prisoners concerned, and it may be necessary to relax the rule about keeping both hands up!
Raids are attacks on a small scale, and on adefinite portion of the enemy's line. They are usually carried out by parties varying in number from twenty to a hundred commanded by one or more officers. Almost the same preparation as for an attack is necessary in most cases to break down the barbed wire before the lines. But in some cases they are carried out as surprises and then other means must be relied on to overcome the difficulties of the barbed wire. As in the case of attacks, rehearsals must precede the operation itself so that every man will know exactly what he is supposed to do and where he is supposed to be. In a recent raid during the time that the snow was on the ground, the Canadians secured a number of women's nightgowns and put them on over their uniforms. In this remarkable garb they proceeded over No Man's Land to visit the German lines.
If artillery preparation has been given, that must be depended on to have broken the wires and the thing to be done then is to reach the enemy parapets before they have time to recover and bring the machine guns into action. But by far the greater number of raids come as surprises to the enemy. They do not hear the men beyond their parapets lying on their stomachs and busily cutting the wires with theirsnips. The first they know of it is when a bomb lands in the trench or else the body of one of the attacking infantrymen, as he enters their stronghold to begin his work of destruction. In raiding parties, more than at any other time it is well to remember the adage that "silence is golden," and that the best results can only be obtained if every man is determined to follow his instructions to the very letter. If the party is cut off by superior forces it must make up its mind as to what it is going to do, though most men, I am sure, will prefer to fight to the death rather than surrender.
The question is often asked by prospective soldiers as to what is the irreducible minimum that a man should take to war, in the way of equipment. I say irreducible, for it is to the interest of the infantryman who has to carry practically all his belongings on his back, to reduce his load as much as possible consistent with efficiency and comfort. The tailors in London who undertook the tasks of equipping young officers for the trenches, having more interest in making sales than anything else, did their best to persuade their victims that the omission of one of dozens of things they proposed would expose them to very grave risks. No one could possibly have carried all the equipment they suggested and no Army Service Corps would ever have been able to handle it as baggage. Some of the men who fell victims to these outfitters went to France looking more like "Xmas trees" than anything else, for it was only when there was no moreroom on their bodies to hang anything that these excellent gentlemen were satisfied, and let them depart.
In this list that I am now giving, I propose to deal with the equipment of the soldier first and then add to it the items that seem to me to be essential for the Officer.
First of all there is the rifle, the soldier's best friend. It should be cherished and cared for as though his life depended on it—as it frequently may. We used to inspect the rifles of the men at least twice a day in the trenches, and any sign of neglect was at once dealt with. It must be kept free from all rust and dirt, well oiled and polished, and with every part of the mechanism in first class working condition. Any text book on musketry will give the information necessary for the effective care of the rifle. We found that the breech of the rifle was often in danger of becoming fouled through mud or sand. Accordingly we advised the men to keep that part covered whenever the rifle was not in action. Small khaki cloths with snap buttons were made, but where these were not obtainable, the leg of a sock served quite as well. But it must be easily removable.
Rifles are sometimes fouled through putting into them cartridges that are rusty or muddy.All cartridges should be cleaned before being inserted. Now it is obvious that time cannot be taken for this task during an engagement, and so it must be done before the rifle is to be used. As the cartridges come from the factory they are perfectly clean; but if they are carried about for days and weeks in the carriers on the equipment they get very dirty. Officers must inspect them from time to time and see that damaged ones are sent away and not allowed to be fired through the rifles. No care can be too great. It is a pitiful sight to see a man in action with a rifle that has become clogged through carelessness. It is a good thing to give rewards for those who consistently present clean rifles for inspection, and to punish those who do not. When a man realises how much he is dependent on his rifle he will be certain to take care of it.
The next thing is the bayonet. I have said that all infantry work leads up to the use of the bayonet, and so, if a man is to be ready for this final test, his bayonet must be in good shape. Of course there is not much to get out of order, but there are a few movable parts that must be kept oiled, and the blade itself which must be kept clean. It is a slight courtesy thatyou can pay your enemy, that you give him clean, instead of rusty, steel.
Another weapon that has proved itself indispensable in this war is the entrenching tool. It is a small instrument with a detachable handle, and the head itself has a shovel at one end and a pick at the other. It is a wonderful little tool for hasty entrenching and no attack should be made without it. It has been the means of saving many, many lives in this war.
Unfortunately, the perfidy of the enemy has made necessary another addition to the equipment of every soldier, and that is the gas mask. The best kind consists of heavy khaki cloth, kept wet with a solution to counteract and neutralise the chlorine in the gas, and equipped with goggles very much like what motorists wear, and a tube that enters the mouth. The air to be breathed is drawn in through the cloth itself, and the air that has been used is driven out through the tube. It is not a comfortable process but it is considerably better than imbibing deadly gas.
Of course a water bottle must be carried and must always be kept clean. On every possible occasion the soldier should wash it out with hot water and some form of disinfectant. Men should be discouraged from rushing to their waterbottles for drinks at all times, especially when they are on the march. Thirst is a thing that we can easily control if we will.
We learnt that it was an excellent practice to have strapped about the equipment in a place where they could easily be got at, two sandbags. They are not heavy or bulky to carry, and if hasty cover is needed they will be found invaluable.
Lists of the clothes necessary are given in every military manual, and it will be well to follow the one for the special army to which you belong. Besides, the clothing necessary will vary according to the climate in which the troops have to serve. Quite obviously the equipment for the Philippines will be different from the equipment for France. But we found that it was a good plan to have warm underclothes for the winter, not the heaviest variety, but reasonably heavy. It is better and more convenient to add to the clothing should occasion warrant it rather than carry heavy underclothes all the time. In summer the underclothing should be light. But whatever the season, a change should be carried in the pack on the back. In the case of socks two or three emergency pairs should be in the pack. These socks should be made of wool, preferably undyed,and should be thick and heavy for all times. I am aware that it is much nicer to have thin silk socks for the summer time, but they are not intended for marching in nor yet for use with heavy military boots.
Two pairs of boots should be taken, one pair on the feet and one pair in the pack. Tennis shoes should also be carried to put on at times to rest the feet.
I need scarcely indicate what toilet articles are needed, for they are the same on service as would be taken for a week-end at the seaside. But I would add that it is a good thing to include a cake of strong carbolic soap to discourage the lice.
Emergency bandages, sewn into the tunic, may be the means of saving your life.
Some means must be adopted for protecting the ears from the noises of the rifles and bombs and shells. Cotton wool will serve, but a much better device is on the market, called "Ear Defenders." They are small vulcanite cylinders that are inserted into the ears. Near the end of the cylinder there is a diaphragm of fine gauze which is pushed up against the wall by the sound waves created by great noises (thus protecting the drum of the ear) while they do not respond at all to the waves from small sounds.Consequently it is quite possible to hear the words of a person speaking, and not be affected by the noise of the guns. I have used them myself and can vouch for their efficacy, though it does take a little time to become used to them.
Then again nearly every soldier will need a wrist watch. These should be luminous, for there is much waste of time involved in striking a match or going to a lamp to see the time. It pays to buy a good watch, and by all means get a removable cover for the glass face, for glasses easily break, and it is difficult to get them repaired on service.
I do not intend this list to be exhaustive, but to contain the most important things that a soldier will need to include in this equipment.
Officers are allowed more baggage, and will need more, but the mistake must not be made of overloading or taking unnecessary things. They will need a canvas valise and a sleeping bag to go with it, and, if possible, a very light mattress, weighing not more than a few pounds. A canvas water bucket and a wash basin, and a change of uniform are very necessary. As to weapons, I found that the Colt automatic was very serviceable. Swords are of course not carried in France. They are a nuisance for most purposes, though they do make excellent toastingforks. In action we led our men, equipped only with revolver and cane. In raids and trench work a handy instrument is the trench dagger—a knife of about nine inches long, ending in a handle that has openings for the four fingers to go through, thus serving as a "knuckle duster." Field glasses are essential and indeed they should be supplied to some of the non-commissioned officers as well. Nothing under four nor over eight diameters should be chosen. Below that figure they do not magnify enough, and above that figure they magnify too much. Six or seven is ideal for the infantryman.
Some form of collapsible periscope may be carried, but most of us discarded the ones we had bought in England in favour of the simple ones that I have described in another place.
I would utter again the warning against loading up with too many things. Get few things but get good ones and keep them good is the best advice that I can give.
A closing word should be said on the subject of trench ruses. As in every other form of warfare, deception must be practised on the enemy. He must be made to believe you are doing things that you are not doing and that you propose doing things that are not in your plans at all. Any number of these ruses will occur to the minds of my readers, and I want to mention a few of them that we actually tried.
One of the best ruses is to let the enemy get hold of fake orders. These can be placed on bodies immediately after an action and there will be a good chance of the enemy accepting them as genuine. We have reason to believe that some of the prisoners that we took came over for the purpose of letting false orders fall into our hands. It is pretty hard on the individual to make him the goat in this way and I do not recommend it.
Making elaborate preparations for an attackin one spot, and then actually attacking from another point when his reserves have been drawn to the first point, also used to work well.
It is well to learn the calls and signals of the enemy for use during an attack, and thus to throw his men into disorder. There have been Germans in this war who carried out the daring ruse of appearing in our lines in the uniforms of staff officers and giving orders to our men. They were brave individuals and scarcely seem to merit the swift punishment that came to them on detection.
In the trenches it was sometimes necessary to move about the few men that we had and to keep them firing first in one place and then in another to convey the impression that we were in considerable force.
Ruses had to be adopted to discover snipers. On one occasion I needed to find a sniper who had just killed three of my men, and was such an excellent shot that he broke my periscope. For this purpose I made a dummy man out of sand bags and had a soldier put him cautiously above the parapet (head only) while I observed from a neighbouring bay. I detected him from the dust that his bullet raised from his parapet, and a few well aimed artillery shots put himand his loop hole out of business. My poor dummy was badly wounded in the process.
The Turks in Gallipoli used to paint some of their snipers a green colour and send them out between the lines among the small bushes.
A pretended retreat will sometimes lure the enemy from his trenches to destruction.
Sending out patrols in one section to draw fire while careful reconnaissance work is being done at another spot will sometimes find him off his guard.
Dummy guns, of course, have played a large part, and have been responsible for the waste of a great deal of ammunition. They are placed where they can be observed by the aeroplanes, who promptly report their presence. It is said that at the Dardanelles the forts once opened fire on the battleshipQueen Elizabeth. After a while they sank her—and her guns floated off! It is telling no secret now to say that many of the units in the British navy had duplicates constructed out of old vessels. Their business was to draw fire to themselves while other craft did the work. Hence the wooden guns. They served another purpose as well, for it was very difficult for spies to inform Germany where the real fighting ships were at any time.
In short, the whole business is to "get the enemy's goat." Keep him guessing. Wear him down with worrying. Break his nerve and spoil his sleep, that his physical resistance may be weakened. On the other hand, learn to estimate the intention on the enemy. Do not underrate him. In all cases and under all circumstances follow out the excellent motto of the Boy Scouts—
BE PREPARED.
Transcriber's NotesHyphen removed: "dugout" (p. xii, Figures 7-9), "loopholes" (p. 66).p. 105: "and" changed to "an" (the only method of delivering an infantry attack).p. 120: duplicate "to" removed (excellent practice to have strapped).
Hyphen removed: "dugout" (p. xii, Figures 7-9), "loopholes" (p. 66).
p. 105: "and" changed to "an" (the only method of delivering an infantry attack).
p. 120: duplicate "to" removed (excellent practice to have strapped).