CHAPTER XVII.

CHAPTER XVII.AGRICULTURE.—COTTON.THIS most valuable plant has now become of more importance to Pernambuco even than the sugar-cane, owing to the great demand for the cotton of that province, and of those adjoining to it, in the British markets. New establishments are forming yearly for the cultivation of the cotton plant, notwithstanding the great inconveniences which must often be experienced in accomplishing this object. The districts which are chosen for the purpose, and universally allowed to be the best adapted to its growth, are far removed from the sea coast, arid and oftentimes very scantily supplied with fresh water. Absolute distress is felt from a want of water in some of these situations, at the time that other parts of the country are enjoying perfect ease in this respect. The opinion is very general that the cotton plant will not thrive in the neighbourhood of the coast[167], and that frequent changes of weather are injurriousto it. The dry and wet seasons are doubtless more regularly marked at a distance from the sea, and if any variation is felt in such situations, it is from a want of rain, and not from a superabundance of it. The cotton plant requires that a great portion of the year should be dry; for if much rain falls when the pod is open, the wool is lost; it becomes yellow, decays, and is rendered completely unfit for use. The soil which is preferred for its culture is a deep red earth, with veins of yellow occasionally running through it; this becomes extremely hard, after a long interval without rain. The cotton plantations are yearly receding farther into the interior, where-ever the Sertam plains do not prevent this recession. The plantations of this description which were formerly established nearer to the coast, are now employed in the rearing of other plants. The constant supply of new lands which the cotton plant requires, for it is judged necessary to allow the land to rest for several years before it undergoes cultivation a second time, may in some degree account for this. Perhaps too, the rapid increase of the population upon the coast may have had some effect in forcing back those who plant an article of trade, to give place to others who cultivate the necessary food for the inhabitants of the country. The cotton is often sold by the planter incaroço, that is, before it has been separated from the seed, to other persons whose livelihood is obtained in preparing it for the export market; but as the labour of conveyance is, of course, considerably increased whilst it is in this state, the dealers establish themselves near to the plantations; they recede as the planters recede. Some years ago a number of the machines for separating the cotton from the seed were to be seen within two leagues of Recife; a few years after they were removed to Goiana, and now the principal resorts of the dealers are Limoeiro and Bom Jardim; places, as will have been seen, which are several leagues distant from the coast.The lands are cleared for planting cotton in the usual manner,—by cutting down the trees and burning them; and the holes for the seeds are dug in quadrangular form at the distance of six feet from each other. Three seeds are usually put into each hole; in theBritish colonies, it is found necessary to make use of eight or ten seeds. The time for planting is in January, after theprimeiras aguasor first waters; or at any rate as soon in the year as any rain has fallen. Maize is usually planted among the cotton shrubs. Three crops and sometimes four are obtained from the same plants; but the second crop is that which generally produces the finest wool. The shrub has a pleasing appearance whilst it is in full leaf, and is covered with its most beautiful yellow blossoms; but when the pods begin to open and the leaves to wither, its thin and straggling branches are left uncovered, and the plant much resembles a large black currant bush, that has been left unpruned for a length of time. The cotton is gathered in nine or ten months. The machine for detaching it from the seed is simple, and might be rendered still more so. Two small rollers are placed horizontally in a frame, and nearly touching each other. At each end of these rollers there are grooves through which a cord runs, which is connected at the distance of a few yards with a large wheel, to which handles are fixed, and this is turned by two persons. The rollers are so formed as to turn in opposite directions, so that as the cotton is thrust against them with the hand, it is carried to the other side, but the seeds remain, for the opening between the rollers is not sufficiently broad to allow them to pass[168]. The machine which is used in the British colonies seems to be of the same construction in the main, but it is still more simple, for the rollers are made to turn by means of the feet of the person who holds the cotton to them[169]. After it has undergone the above process, some particles of seeds which have been accidentally broken still remain, and of other substances which must be removed. For this purpose a heap of cotton is made, and is beaten with large sticks; this is a most injurious operation, by which the fibre is broken; butas the value of the commodity to the manufacturer chiefly depends upon the length of the fibre, no trouble ought to be grudged to avoid this practice.The seeds adhere “firmly to each other in the pod.” Mr. Edwards speaks of this species in the British colonies, and gives to it the name of kidney cotton, saying that he believes it to be “the true cotton of Brazil[170].” The yellow or nankeen cotton is likewise to be found at Pernambuco; but it does not form an article of cultivation, being regarded rather as a curiosity. I have seen some species of wild cotton, of which however as I have neither note nor specimen, I cannot pretend to give a description.The profits which are obtained in favourable years by the planters of cotton, are enormous; but frequently disappointments are experienced. Oftentimes a whole crop is totally lost, and instead of large returns, the year proves entirely unproductive; or after a fair promise, the grub, the caterpillar, the rain or the excessive drought destroys all hope until the following season. The other great agricultural object,—the sugar-cane, is not subject to these numerous and ruinous reverses; for even if the year is unfavourable, at least enough to pay the expences may be expected. I have heard it urged that the market is very little affected by the supposed failure of a crop; but it must be remembered that in a country of such vast extent, one quarter may escape all mishap, whilst another is unfortunate.[171]The quality of the cotton which is produced in South America, either to the north or south of Pernambuco, is inferior to that of the province of which I am treating. The cotton of Seara is not sogood, and the cotton of Maranham is still coarser. Cotton is the staple commodity of both these ports. Proceeding from Pernambuco to the south, the cotton of Bahia is not so fine, and the small quantity which is produced at Rio de Janeiro is not so good as that of Bahia.In treating of sugar and cotton, I have stated the chief points in which the planters in the Columbian islands and those of Brazil principally differ. Those of my readers to whom this subject is particularly interesting may be referred to the well known work which I have consulted.[172]THE MANDIOC PLANTS.Themandioc requires good land, and the same spot will not produce two crops successively; it must be allowed to rest for one or two years or more. The operation of planting it is simple, and differs in no respect from that which was practised formerly by the Indians[173]. The flour which is made from this root is calledfarinha de pao, or stick flour[174]. There are several species of the mandiocplant, of which some are adapted to high lands, and others to low and moist situations; but when the plant is cultivated upon the latter, hillocks must be raised, else the root would decay. Cattle are fed upon the root and stalk: these are first prepared by being cut into small pieces and exposed to the sun for several hours; if this was not done, the food would be injurious to them. I have however seen some of the draught oxen that have become so habituated to it as to eat the root quite fresh, without receiving any apparent injury;—in the manner that the human body becomes callous to the most violent medicines by long custom.I had in my possession, whilst I resided at Jaguaribe, one of these animals, who generally once in the course of every week at least contrived to get out of the inclosure, and pass part of the night in some neighbouring mandioc ground. He was so dexterous in tearing up the stalk with the root attached to it, that the marks of his footsteps alone made us quite confident of the nature of the thief. Whilst I was at Itamaraca, I lost a sheep, which had drank of the juice of the mandioc. The negroes and other persons were makingfarinha, and a trough stood under the press for the purpose of receiving the juice. The sheep were attempting to come under the shed for the purpose of reaching some of the roots, of which they are extremely fond; one of them approached the trough, which was filled with the juice, and although it was almost immediately perceived and driven away, still the effect of the small quantity which had been taken began to shew itself in a very few minutes;—the animal tottered and fell, rising again, and again falling. Oil was poured down its throat in considerable quantities, but to no purpose.The body swelled to an enormous size, and the animal was dead in about ten minutes after it had drank of the juice.[175]The insect which is mentioned by Piso (quoted by Mr. Southey) under the name oftapuru, and is said to be generated by the juice of the mandioc, after it has become putrid, I have often seen. It is still known under the same name, which however is not peculiar to this worm, but it is likewise applied to maggots of every kind. The juice is not kept for any purpose, but it remains in the trough occasionally for some days, owing to the carelessness of the person under whose care these things are placed[176]. Of the deadly nature of this worm I never heard any mention. The species of mandioc which is calledmanipebais prohibited, owing to the greater activity of its poisonous juice, and it is now almost extirpated; it had the advantage of greater durability under ground. Those kinds which are usually planted decay if the stalk is broken off, but the stalks of themanipebamaybe cut away, and the root will still continue sound until, on the following year a new stalk springs up. I have heard it said, that in the dry soils of the Mata a few of the other varieties of this plant will allow of the same treatment. Although the mandioc plant requires a dry situation, still when the rains fail in January the crops fall short, for it is in this month, immediately after the first waters, that the principal plantations of it are made. The Brazilians have a peculiar name for each part of this plant; the root is calledmandioca, the stalkmaniva, the leavesmanisoba, and the juicemanipueira. There is one species of the plant, of which the juice is harmless; it bears the name ofmacaxeira. Its root never grows to a great size, and it is therefore rather planted as an article of luxury than as regular food. From this species less juice is extracted than from the roots of equal dimensions of any of the other kinds of mandioc[177]. The rind of those species of mandioc which are in general use is of a dark brown colour, but there is one kind of which the rind is white.The most expensive part of the process of making the flour of the mandioc, consists in disengaging the rind from the root; this is done with difficulty, by means of a piece of a broken blunt knife, a sharp pebble, or a small shell, with one of which each person is supplied; in this work a considerable number of persons must be occupied, to furnish employment to the wheel which grinds the root. This wheel is placed in a frame, and a handle is fixed to it on each side, by which it may be turned by two men, one of them working ateach of the handles. A trough stands under the wheel, and the wheel is cased in copper, which is made rough by means of holes punched in it, the sides of the holes are not filed smooth. The mandioc is thrust against the wheel whilst it is turned with great velocity, and being by this means ground it falls into the trough underneath. From hence the ground pulp is put into a press, that the juice may be extracted; and after it has undergone sufficient pressure this pulp or paste (maça) is removed on to a hot hearth, upon which a person is employed to keep it in continual motion, that it may not be burnt; when quite crisp it is taken off the hearth, and on being suffered to cool is in a state to be made use of.[178]There is another mode of preparing the mandioc for food; it is putinto water in a pannier or closed basket, and is allowed to remain there for some days, until the root becomes soft, from which the mandioc, when in this state, is calledmandioca molle. It is prepared in this manner for the purpose of making cakes, &c. but not generally, for food. I tried to introduce thefarinha, made from steeped mandioc, among the slaves whilst I resided at Jaguaribe; the flour which was made from it, was much finer than that which is obtained in the usual manner, but the negroes did not like it so well, and I did not think it wholesome for them on consideration, and therefore the old way was continued. The mandioc must have made a certain advance towards putrefaction before it becomes sufficiently soft to be bruised, and this cannot fail I should suppose to be injurious. The smell from themandioca molleis extremely offensive, and is one of the annoyances in walking the streets of Recife, in which it is sold. The smell is however entirely removed after thefarinhahas been for some minutes upon the oven.[179]THE COCO-TREE.Thesandy soils of the coast in which this plant seems to delight would, if they were not cultivated with it, remain almost useless; but from the produce which the coco-tree yields, they are rendered very valuable. The lands which are occupied by this plant alone yield a settled income to the owners of them without much labour; whilstthe cultivation of any other requires considerable toil; however the long period, of from five to seven years, which the tree requires before it bears fruit, cannot fail to be considered as a drawback upon the profits which it ultimately affords, and upon the great age to which it arrives. However perhaps there are few trees of equal size that yield fruit in so short a period. It is a most valuable production, of which every part is appropriated to some useful purpose. The Brazilians say, that it affords to them both food and shelter; of the trunk and of the leaves their huts are built; of its fibrous roots baskets are made, and cordage of the outward husk. Its fruit renders to them meat and drink, and an excellent oil is likewise to be obtained by skimming the juice which may be pressed from the pulp. The coco is in general use in cookery among all ranks of people, and it forms one of the chief articles of internal trade[180]. When a plantation of this tree is about to be established, the ripe cocos from which the plants are to be reared, are placed in the ground, about twelve inches below the surface, in long and almost united rows, for the convenience of being watered. They are frequently placed in this manner, under the eaves of houses, which saves much trouble, for by the accumulation of water from the house top, each shower of rain produces sufficient moisture, and the owner is relieved from any farther trouble in this respect. At the expiration of five months the shoots begin to make their appearance above ground, and at the end of twelve months from the time that the cocos were first put into theearth, the young plants may be removed[181]. They are then placed at the distance of eight or ten yards from each other, upon the land that has been cleared for the purpose of receiving them. As soon as they have once taken root, and by far the major part of them fail not so to do, very little care is necessary. They must however be preserved tolerably free from brushwood, at least during the first years; and indeed at all times the fruitfulness of the tree will be increased, if it is allowed its due space.[182]THE CARRAPATO OR CASTOR TREE.Thisplant may be, as well as the coco, reared in sandy soils, but it will flourish with more luxuriance, upon those that are of a richer kind. The oil, which is extracted from the seed, is in general use for lamps and other purposes, but neither is it eaten, nor known as a medicine; but it is administered as an outward application. It is given to animals that have drank the juice of the mandioc, and is sometimes successful in forcing the poison back from the stomach. The plant is much cultivated, but it is frequently to be seen growing spontaneously.[183]BRAZIL WOOD.Thewood from which is extracted the beautiful red dye, which is so much esteemed in Europe, is, I believe, generally supposed to be peculiar[184]to the country to which it has given a name[185]. It is often called in Pernambuco (from whence, I imagine, that it isexclusively exported)pao da Rainhaor Queen’s wood, owing to the circumstance of the trade in it being a government monopoly; and it is exported to Europe on account of the Crown. No care has been taken to prevent a scarcity of the wood, and indeed its ultimate extirpation; it is cut down unmercifully wherever it is met with by the officers who are appointed for this purpose, without any regard being paid to the size of the tree. No plantations have been formed of it, and consequently it is now rarely to be seen, within many leagues of the coast. The labour which is required in obtaining it is now considerable, for the weight of the wood renders its conveyance very difficult upon the backs of horses, and this is the only manner in which it can be carried. The pay which is given by the government to the carriers is below the usual rate for work equally laborious, and therefore a wide source of oppression is afforded. The carrier receives with his load a slip of paper, declaring the weight of the wood which he is conveying; this is to be presented by him at theIntendencia da Marinha, or dock-yard at Recife, and he must wait until the wood is again weighed and the paper countersigned, before he can return home. These men are delayed sometimes for several days, before they are permitted to return; and they find that it is their interest to make many presents to the inferior officers, that they may be quickly dispatched. Here the old system of indifference to what is just, still most glaringly continues. This account of the treatment of the men who convey the wood, I received from several who had been employed in the business.If the trade in the wood was to be laid open, it would only tend to its scarcity still more speedily than under the existing system; but as soon as it became scarce it would be rendered an object worthy of cultivation: however, as long as it is to be obtained in its wild state, and enormous profits can be made, the government will probably continue to supply the market on their own account. Every sugar plantation might cultivate a great number of thesetrees, without any additional land being required to be cleared for the purpose of planting them. The fences of theCercados, or fields, might be strengthened by the addition of the Brazil inserted at intervals; instead of other trees being used in this way.I never saw the plant, but I have heard it described in the following manner. It is not a lofty tree; and at a short distance from the ground, innumerable branches spring forth and extend in every direction in a straggling, irregular, and unpleasing manner. Practice is requisite to obtain a knowledge of the tree, for the valuable portion of it is the heart, and the outward coat of wood has not any peculiarity. The leaves are small, and never cover the branches luxuriantly.[186]The Tatajuba, orFustic.—This is a species of wood producing a yellow dye, which is well known in England. It is of spontaneous growth. A demand has lately been made for it, and destruction has followed wherever the plant can be met with.The FeijamorKidney Beanis planted in April and May with the mandioc. It is much used in the neighbourhood of the coast by the free part of the population, but is not produced in sufficient quantities to form a common food for the negroes. When it is cooked with the juice of the pulp of the coco-nut it makes a most excellent dish. In the cotton districts it forms one of the chief articles of the negroes’ food.Milho, orMaize, is planted with mandioc, and sometimes in the cane fields; but as the best crop is obtained by planting it with the mandioc in January, few persons sow it at any other time. In the inland districts it is sown with the cotton, and in such situations yields more plentifully than in the lands which border upon thecoast. Boiled maize is a common breakfast for the slaves in the cotton districts; the dish resembles thick peas’ soup, and is far from being unpalatable if sugar or treacle is added. The people call itangu de milho.The Banana Plantis too well known to take up much space here. There are in Pernambuco three species of it; thebanana curtaor short banana; this is a small fruit, not exceeding two inches in length;—thebanana compridaor long banana, which is the plantain;—and lately the third species has been introduced, and has obtained the strange name of thebanana de quatro vintemsor fourvintemsbanana, because the clusters of the fruit are so large that each cluster may be sold for fourvintems,—rather more than 5d.I do not think that as much utility is derived from the plant as it is capable of affording; it is not so generally used as a food by the negroes, as it ought to be. Thebanana curta, with dryfarinha, is a common breakfast among people of colour.[187]The Batatas.—Of these there are several species; but that which I had the most opportunities of seeing was thebatata roxaor purple potatoe, which is so called from the purple tinge of the pulp after it has been boiled; this is the best of the tribe. The taste is pleasant, and would be still more so if it was not rather sweet. Thebatatais a creeping plant, and is re-produced from the roots, or from the sprouts of the branches. If the branches of roots that have been pulled up remain upon the ground, and a shower of rain falls soon after they have been broken off, their vegetation will recommence. Thebatatasare at present planted more as a luxury for the planter’s house than as food for the negroes; but I do not think that there is any plant which is more capable, or even so capable, of affording assistance to the mandioc as this; and perhaps it might supply its place. The mandioc should be supplanted, if any thing else could be discovered to answer the purpose of a staple article of food; for it is uncertain in yielding its crops, and requires the best land. To neither of these disadvantages would, I rather think, thebatatabe found subject. The European potatoe has been planted, in several instances, at Pernambuco; the first crop is as well tasted as the roots from which it was produced, but the potatoes were small; a second crop, being obtained from the same family of roots, has been sweetish, and on advancing, the potatoes become still more similar to thebatataof the country[188]. Yet the plants appear to be totally different from each other, for the Brazilbatataor potatoe is produced from a creeper.Tobaccois planted upon almost all the sugar-plantations, and by a majority of persons of the lower classes, for their own use. A considerable quantity is imported from the southern provinces of Brazil into Pernambuco. The ants do not molest the plant, but inthe parts of the country which are much infested by these insects, the peasants mix the seed of the tobacco with wood ashes before they strew with it the ground which they are about to sow. The ants have an antipathy to the ashes, and thus the seed is preserved.Riceis very little cultivated in Pernambuco; but at Maranham it forms the second object of trade. The use of it in Pernambuco is inconsiderable, from the idea that it is unwholesome for the negroes; and indeed I never met with any of the Africans who preferred it to other kinds of food.CoffeeandCacaoare yet planted as experiments, for their introduction into Pernambuco is recent.[189]Ipecacuanha.—Although this is at present only to be found in a wild state, I have inserted it here, for it must shortly take its place among cultivated plants. The small quantity exported is procured by the Indians and other persons of the same rank and habits of life, in the thickest woods. It thrives most in the shade. The plant is destroyed also by many of the larger kinds of game, to which it serves as food. There are two species of it which are distinguished by the names of white and black Ipecacuanha; the latter is that which is used for medicinal purposes in Europe[190]. The white is used by the Brazilians in colds and coughs, and is taken to purify the blood after a fever.Gingeris indigenous, but is now rarely to be found in a wild state[191]. The white ginger is that which is in general use.Malagueta Pepperis a small shrub which is to be seen under the eaves of almost every cottage. The pods are of a bright scarlet colour, of about one inch in length, and one quarter in breadth. It is a hardy plant; for although it droops under excessive drought, it is seldom destroyed by it. Often are to be seen at the same time, and upon the same bush, the blossoms, and the green and the ripe scarlet pods. Wherever this shrub springs up care is taken of it; for the people of all ranks are from habit almost unable to eat their food without themalagueta. The pods are bruised when about to be used, and either form an ingredient in every dish, or they are served up in all the sauces[192]. Thepimenta de cheiro, or scented pepper, is likewise common, but it requires more care in rearing, and is a smaller shrub than themalagueta. The pods are of a bright red in general, but sometimes they are, naturally, of a pale yellow colour; they are round, and about the size of a crab apple.Teais stated to be indigenous in Brazil[193]. A priest of considerablereputation as a botanist, told me that he had discovered this plant in the neighbourhood of Olinda; but afterwards again he informed me that he was afraid he had been too sanguine.[194]Horticulturehas of late years been rapidly improving, and the markets of Recife are now well supplied with vegetables and roots. The gardeners are chiefly Portugueze, from the provinces of the mother country, or from the Azores. Peas[195], cabbages, and several other kinds of European vegetables and roots are to be purchased, besides others which are peculiar to the country, such asmandubimsand yams. The European onion produces a small root of an oblong form[196], which is known in Pernambuco under the name ofcebolinho, as the diminutive ofcebola, an onion. The vine is to be seen in many of the gardens in the neighbourhood of Recife and of Olinda; and formerly there were a great many at Conception upon the island of Itamaraca, but few now remain. No wine is made. The fruit trees are some of those which are common to the southern parts of Europe, such as the orange[197], the fig, and others, but no olives; besides these, there are the manga, the jack, and a numerous list, some of which have been mentioned incidentally in the course of this volume; but I have tarried already too long upon this branch of my subject, and must now proceed to something else.i415A Planter and his Wife on a Journey.CHAPTER XVIII.THE FREE POPULATION.THE insufficiency of the population of Portugal to the almost unbounded plans of the rulers of that kingdom, has, in all probability, saved her South American possessions from the dreadful contests which are to be apprehended in the neighbouring Spanish colonies, between the Creole white inhabitants and those of colour. The struggle yet rages with exterminating violence between the descendants of Europeans, born in South America, and the natives of Old Spain; but when this is at an end, another equally, if not more destructive, is to be looked for between the former and their countrymen of mixed casts. The appeal which the creole whites have made to the people, and the declarations which they have publicly set forth, of directing their proceedings by their voice; the exposure of those abstract principles of government which are so delightful in theory, but so difficult of execution, will, most probably, bring down upon their heads the destruction which has thus been courted. In the Portugueze South American dominions, circumstances have directed that there should be no division of casts, and very few of those degrading and most galling distinctions which have been made by all other nations in the management of their colonies. That this was not intended by the mother country, but was rather submitted to from necessity, is to be discovered in some few regulations, which plainly shew, that if Portugal could have preservedthe superiority of the whites, she would, as well as her neighbours, have established laws for this purpose. The rulers of Portugal wished to colonize to an unlimited extent; but their country did not possess a population sufficiently numerous for their magnificent plans. Adventurers left their own country to settle in the New World, who were literally adventurers; for they had not any settled plans of life, and they were without families. Persons of established habits, who had the wish to follow any of the ordinary means of gaining a livelihood, found employment at home; neither could Portugal spare them, nor did they wish to leave their native soil. There was no superabundance of population, and therefore every man might find occupation at home, if he had steadiness to look for it; there was no division in political or religious opinion; there was no necessity for emigration, save that which was urged by crimes. Thus the generality of the men who embarked in the expeditions which were fitted out for Brazil, were unaccompanied by females, and therefore, naturally, on their arrival in that country, they married, or irregularly connected themselves with Indian women, and subsequently with those of Africa. It is true that orphan girls were sent out by the government of Portugal[198], but these were necessarily few in number. In the course of another generation, the colonists married the women of mixed casts, owing to the impossibility of obtaining those of their own colour; and the frequency of the custom, and the silence of the laws upon the subject, removed all idea of degradation, in thus connecting themselves. Still the European notions of superiority were not entirely laid aside, and these caused the passing of some regulations, by which white persons were to enjoy certain privileges. Thus, although the form of trial for all casts is the same, in certain places only can capital punishments be inflicted upon the favoured race; the people of colour are not eligible tosome of the chief offices of government, nor can they become members of the priesthood.From the mildness of the laws, however, the mixed casts have gained ground considerably; the regulations which exist against them are evaded, or rather they have become obsolete. Perhaps the heroic conduct of Camaram and Henrique Dias, the Indian and negro chieftains, in the famous and most interesting contest between the Pernambucans and the Dutch, and the honours subsequently granted by the crown of Portugal to both of them, may have led to the exaltation of the general character of the much-injured varieties of the human species of which they were members. Familiarity between the chieftains of the several corps must be the consequence of their embarkation in the same cause, when the war is one of skirmishes, of ambuscades, of continual alarm, of assistance constantly afforded to each other; a patriotic war, against a foreign invader, in which difference of religion exists, and each party mortally hates the other. On these occasions all men are equal, or he only is superior whose strength and whose activity surpasses that of others. The amalgamation of casts which is caused by this consciousness of equality could not have had a fairer field for its full accomplishment, than the war to which I have alluded; and the friendships which were formed under these circumstances would not easily be broken off. Although the parties who had been so united might have been, in their situations in life very far removed from each other, still the participation of equal danger must render dear the companions in peril, and make the feelings which had been roused on these occasions of long duration; they would continue to act, long after the cessation of the series of occurrences which had called them forth.The free population of Brazil at the present time consists of Europeans; Brazilians, that is, white persons born in Brazil; mulattos, that is, the mixed cast between the whites and blacks, and all the varieties into which it can branch; mamalucos, that is, the mixed cast between the whites and Indians, and all its varieties;Indians in a domesticated state, who are called generally Caboclos; and those who still remain in a savage state, and are called generally Tapuyas; negroes born in Brazil, and manumitted Africans; lastly, Mestizos, that is, the mixed cast between the Indians and negroes. Of slaves, I shall speak by and by more at large; these are Africans, creole negroes, mulattos, and mestizos. The maxim of the civil law,partus sequitur ventrem, is in force here as well as in the colonies of other nations.[199]These several mixtures of the human race have their shades of difference of character as well as of colour. First we must treat of the whites. The Europeans who are not in office, or who are not military men, are, generally speaking, adventurers who have arrived in that country with little or no capital. These men commence their career in low situations of life, but by parsimony and continual exertion directed to one end, that of amassing money, they often attain their object, and pass the evening of their lives in opulence. These habits fail not, oftentimes, to give a bias to their dispositions, which is unallied to generosity and liberality. They look down upon the Brazilians, or rather they wish to consider themselves superior to them; and until lately the government took no pains to remove the jealousy which existed between the two descriptions of white persons; and even now, not so much attention is paid to the subject as its great importance seems to require.[200]The Brazilian white man of large property, who draws his descent from the first Donatory of a province, or whose family has for some generations enjoyed distinction, entertains a high opinion of his own importance, which may sometimes appear ridiculous; but which much oftener leads him to acts of generosity,—to the adoption of liberal ideas,—to honourable conduct. If he has been well educated, and has had the good fortune to have been instructed by a priest whose ideas are enlightened, who gives a proper latitude for difference of opinion, who tolerates as he is tolerated, then the character of a young Brazilian exhibits much to admire. Surrounded by numerous relatives, and by his immediate dependants, living in a vast and half-civilized country, he is endued with much independence of language and behaviour, which are softened by the subordination which has been imbibed during his course of education. That this is general, I pretend not to say; few persons are instructed in a proper manner, and again, few are those who profit by the education which they have received; but more numerous are the individuals who now undergo necessary tuition, for powerful motives have arisen to urge the attainment of knowledge.I have heard it often observed, and I cannot help saying that I think some truth is to be attached to the remark, in the country of which I am treating, that women are usually less lenient to their slaves than men, but this doubtless proceeds from the ignorant state in which they are brought up; they scarcely receive any education, and have not the advantages of obtaining instruction from communication with persons who are unconnected with their own way of life; of imbibing new ideas from general conversation. They are born, bred, and continue surrounded by slaves without receiving any check, with high notions of superiority, without any thought that what they do is wrong. Bring these women forwards, educate them, treat them as rational, as equal beings, and they will be in no respect inferior to their countrymen; the fault is not with the sex, but in the state of the human being. As soon as a child begins to crawl, a slave of about its own age and of the same sex is given to it as aplayfellow, or rather as a plaything; they grow up together, and the slave is made the stock upon which the young owner gives vent to passion; the slave is sent upon all errands, and receives the blame of all unfortunate accidents;—in fact, the white child is thus encouraged to be overbearing, owing to the false fondness of its parents. Upon the boys the effect is less visible in after-life, because the world curbs and checks them, but the girls do not stir from home, and therefore have no opportunities of wearing off these pernicious habits. It is only surprising that so many excellent women should be found among them, and by no means strange that the disposition of some of them should be injured by this unfortunate direction of their infant years.As vegetation rapidly advances in such climates, so the animal sooner arrives at maturity than in those of less genial warmth; and here again education is rendered doubly necessary to lead the mind to new ideas, to curb the passions, to give a sense of honour, and to instil feelings of that species of pride which is so necessary to a becoming line of conduct. The state of society, the climate, and the celibacy of the numerous priesthood, cause the number of illegitimate children to be very great; but here theroda dos engeitados, and a custom which shews the natural goodness of the people, prevent the frequent occurrence of infanticide, or rather render it almost unknown. An infant is frequently during the night laid at the door of a rich person, and on being discovered in the morning is taken in, and is almost invariably allowed to remain; it is brought up with the children of the house (if its colour is not too dark to admit of this,) certainly as a dependant, but not as a servant; however a considerable tinge of colour will not prevent it from being reared with the white children. Theseengeitadosor rejected ones, as individuals who are so circumstanced are called, are frequently to be met with, and I heard of few exceptions to the general kindness with which they are treated. Public feeling is much against the refusing to accept and rear anengeitado; the owner of a house, who is in easy circumstances, and yet sends the infant from his own door to the publicinstitution which is provided for its reception, is generally spoken of in terms of indignation. Sometimes a poor man will find one of these presents at his door, and he will generally place it at the landholder’s threshold on the following night; this is accounted excusable and even meritorious, for at the Great House the child has nearly a certainty of being well taken care of.I have observed that, generally speaking, Europeans are less indulgent to their slaves than Brazilians; the former feed them well, but they require from the poor wretches more labour than they can perform, whilst the latter allow the affairs of their estates to continue in the way in which it has been accustomed to be directed. This difference between the two descriptions of owners is easily accounted for; the European has probably purchased part of his slaves on credit, and has during the whole course of his life made the accumulation of riches his chief object. The Brazilian inherits his estate, and as nothing urges him to the necessity of obtaining large profits, he continues the course that has been pointed out to him by the former possessors. His habits of quietude and indolence have led him to be easy and indifferent, and although he may not provide for the maintenance of his slaves with so much care as the European, still they find more time to seek for food themselves. That avaricious spirit which deliberately works a man or a brute animal[201]until it is unfit for farther service, without any regard to the well-being of the creature, which is thus treated as a mere machine, as if it was formed of wood or iron, is however seldom to be met with in those parts of the country which I visited. Instances of cruelty occur (as has been, and will yet be seen,) but these proceed from individual depravity, and not from systematic, cold-blooded, calculating indifference to the means by which a desired end is to be compassed.Notwithstanding the relationship of the mulattos on one side to the black race, they consider themselves superior to the mamalucos; they lean to the whites, and from the light in which the Indians areheld, pride themselves upon being totally unconnected with them. Still the mulattos are conscious of their connection with men who are in a state of slavery, and that many persons even of their own colour are under these degraded circumstances; they have therefore always a feeling of inferiority in the company of white men, if these white men are wealthy and powerful. This inferiority of rank is not so much felt by white persons in the lower walks of life, and these are more easily led to become familiar with individuals of their own colour who are in wealthy circumstances. Still the inferiority which the mulatto feels is more that which is produced by poverty than that which his colour has caused, for he will be equally respectful to a person of his own cast, who may happen to be rich[202]. The degraded state of the people of colour in the British colonies is most lamentable[203]. In Brazil, even the trifling regulations which exist against them remain unattended to. A mulatto enters into holy orders or is appointed a magistrate, his papers stating him to be a white man, but his appearance plainly denoting the contrary. In conversing on one occasion with a man of colour who was in my service, I asked him if a certainCapitam-morwas not a mulatto man; he answered, “he was, but is not now[204].” I begged him to explain, when he added, “Can aCapitam-morbe a mulatto man[205]?” I was intimately acquainted with a priest, whose complexion and hair plainly denoted from whence he drew his origin; I liked him much, he was a well educated and intelligent man. Besides this individual instance, I met with several others of the same description.The regiments of militia which are called mulatto regiments, are so named from all the officers and men being of mixed casts; norcan white persons be admitted into them. The principal officers are men of property, and the colonel, like the commander of any other regiment, is only amenable to the governor of the province. In the white militia regiments, the officers ought to be by law white men; but in practice they are rather reputed white men, for very little pains are taken to prove that there is no mixture of blood. Great numbers of the soldiers belonging to the regiments which are officered by white men, are mulattos, and other persons of colour. The regiments of the line, likewise, (as I have elsewhere said) admit into the ranks all persons excepting negroes and Indians; but the officers of these must prove nobility of birth; however, as certain degrees of nobility have been conferred upon persons in whose families there is much mixture of blood, this proof cannot be regarded as being required against the mulatto or mamaluco part of the population. Thus an European adventurer could not obtain a commission in these regiments, whilst a Brazilian, whose family has distinguished itself in the province in former times, will prove his eligibility without regard to the blood which runs in his veins. He is noble, let that flow from whence it may.[206]The late colonel of the mulatto regiment of Recife, by name Nogueira, went to Lisbon, and returned to Pernambuco with the Order of Christ, which the Queen had conferred upon him[207]. A chief person of one of the provinces is the son of a white man and a woman of colour; he has received an excellent education, is of a generous disposition, and entertains most liberal views upon all subjects. He has been made a colonel, and a degree ofnobility has been conferred upon him; likewise the Regent is sponsor to one of his children. Many other instances might be mentioned. Thus has Portugal, of late years from policy, continued that system into which she was led by her peculiar circumstances in former times. Some of the wealthy planters of Pernambuco, and of the rich inhabitants of Recife are men of colour. The major part of the best mechanics are also of mixed blood.It is said that mulattos make bad masters; and this holds good oftentimes with persons of this description, who have been in a state of slavery, and become possessed of slaves of their own, or are employed as managers upon estates. The change of situation would lead to the same consequences in any race of human beings, and cannot be accounted peculiar to the mixed casts. I have seen mulattos of free birth as kind, as lenient, and as forbearing to their slaves and other dependants as any white man.Marriages between white men and women of colour are by no means rare, though they are sufficiently so to cause the circumstance to be mentioned when speaking of an individual who has connected himself in this manner; but this is not said with the intent of lowering him in the estimation of others. Indeed the remark is only made if the person is a planter of any importance, and the woman is decidedly of dark colour, for even a considerable tinge will pass for white; if the white man belongs to the lower orders, the woman is not accounted as being unequal to him in rank, unless she is nearly black. The European adventurers often marry in this manner, which generally occurs when the woman has a dower. The rich mulatto families are often glad to dispose of their daughters to these men, although the person who has been fixed upon may be in indifferent circumstances; for the colour of the children of their daughters is bettered, and from the well-known prudence and regularity of this set of men, a large fortune may be hoped for even from very small beginnings. Whilst I was at Jaguaribe, I was in the frequent habit of seeing a handsome young man, who was a native of the island of St. Michael’s. This person happened to be withme on one occasion when the commandant from the Sertam was staying at my house. The commandant asked him if he could read and write, and being answered in the negative, said, “then you will not do,” and turning to me, added, “I have a commission from a friend of mine to take with me back to the Sertam a good-looking young Portugueze of regular habits, who can read and write, for the purpose of marrying him to his daughter.” These kind of commissions (encommendas) are not unusual.Still the Brazilians of high birth and large property do not like to intermarry with persons whose mixture of blood isveryapparent, and hence arise peculiar circumstances. A man of this description becomes attached to a woman of colour, connects himself with her, and takes her to his home, where she is in a short time even visited by married women; she governs his household affairs, acts and considers herself as his wife, and frequently after the birth of several children, when they are neither of them young, he marries her. In connections of this nature, the parties are more truly attached than in marriages between persons who belong to two families of the first rank; for the latter are entered into from convenience rather than from affection; indeed the parties, on some occasions, do not see each other until a few days before the ceremony takes place. It often occurs, that inclination, necessity, or convenience induce or oblige a man to separate from the person with whom he has thus been connected; in this case, he gives her a portion, and she marries a man of her own rank, who regards her rather as a widow than as one whose conduct has been incorrect. Instances of infidelity in these women are rare; they become attached to the men with whom they cohabit, and they direct the affairs of the houses over which they are placed with the same zeal that they would display if they had the right of command over them. It is greatly to the credit of the people of that country that so much fidelity should be shewn on one side, and that this should so frequently as it is, be rewarded by the other party, in the advancement of those who have behaved thus faithfully, to a respectable and acknowledged situationin society. It should be recollected too that the merit of moral feelings must be judged of by the standard of the country, and not by our own institutions. I have only spoken above of what occurs among the planters; for in large towns man is pretty much the same every where.The Mamalucos are more frequently to be seen in the Sertam than upon the coast. They are handsomer than the mulattos; and the women of this cast particularly surpass in beauty all others of the country; they have the brown tint of mulattos, but their features are less blunt, and their hair is not curled. I do not think that the men can be said to possess more courage than the mulattos; but whether from the knowledge which they have of being of free birth on both sides, or from residing in the interior of the country where government is more loose, they appear to have more independence of character, and to pay less deference to a white man than the mulattos. When women relate any deed of danger that has been surmounted or undertaken, they generally state that the chief actor in it was a large mamaluco,mamalucam; as if they thought this description of men to be superior to all others. Mamalucos may enter into the mulatto regiments, and are pressed into the regiments of the line as being men of colour, without any regard to the sources from which their blood proceeds.Of the domesticated Indians I have already elsewhere given what accounts I could collect, and what I had opportunities of observing. The wild Indians are now only to be met with at a great distance from the coast of Pernambuco; and although they are very near to Maranham, and are dreaded neighbours, I had no means of seeing any of them.I now proceed to mention that numerous and valuable race of men, the creole negroes; a tree of African growth, which has thus been transplanted, cultivated, and much improved by its removal to the New World. The Creole negroes stand alone and unconnected with every other race of men, and this circumstance alone would be sufficient, and indeed contributes much to the effect of uniting themto each other. The mulattos, and all other persons of mixed blood wish to lean towards the whites, if they can possibly lay any claim to relationship. Even the mestizo tries to pass for a mulatto, and to persuade himself and others that his veins contain some portion of white blood, although that with which they are filled proceeds from Indian and negro sources. Those only who can have no pretensions to a mixture of blood, call themselves negroes, which renders the individuals who do pass under this denomination, much attached to each other, from the impossibility of being mistaken for members of any other cast. They are of handsome persons, brave and hardy, obedient to the whites, and willing to please; but they are easily affronted, and the least allusion to their colour being made by a person of a lighter tint, enrages them to a great degree; though they will sometimes say, “a negro I am, but always upright”[208]. They are again distinct from their brethren in slavery, owing to their superior situation as free men.The free creole negroes have their exclusive regiments, as well as the mulattos, of which every officer and soldier must be perfectly black. There are two of these regiments for the province of Pernambuco, which consist of indefinite numbers of men, who are dispersed all over the country. These regiments are distinguished from each other by the names of Old Henriques and New Henriques[209]. The name of Henriques is derived from the famous chieftain, Henrique Diaz, in the time of the Dutch war. I have heard some of the most intelligent of those with whom I have conversed, speak in enthusiastic terms of the aid which he gave to the whites in that struggle. I have seen some portion of one of these regiments, in Recife, accompanying the procession of our Lady of the Rosary, the patroness of negroes. They were dressed in white cloth uniforms turned up with scarlet, and they looked very soldier-like.They were in tolerable discipline, and seemed to wish to go through the duty of the day in the best manner that they were able; they acted with an appearance of zeal and the desire of excelling. Those of which I speak formed a finer body of men than any other soldiers which I had an opportunity of seeing in that country. On gala days the superior black officers in their white uniforms, pay their respects to the governor, exactly in the same manner that the persons of any other cast, holding commissions of equal rank are expected to go through this form. These men receive no pay, so that their neat appearance on such occasions bespeaks a certain degree of wealth among them; neither are the privates nor any other persons belonging to these regiments paid for their services. Some of the whites rather ridicule the black officers, but not in their presence; and the laugh which is raised against them is caused perhaps by a lurking wish to prevent this insulted race from the display of those distinctions which the government has wisely conceded to them, but which hurt the European ideas of superiority. The old regiment of Henriques was, at the time that I resided in Pernambuco, without a colonel, and I heard much discussion on several occasions among the Creole negroes, about the fittest person to be appointed to the vacant situation.[210]The creole negroes of Recife are, generally speaking, mechanics of all descriptions; but they have not yet reached the higher ranks of life, as gentlemen, as planters, and as merchants. Some of them have accumulated considerable sums of money, and possess many slaves, to whom they teach their own trade, or these slaves are taught other mechanical employments by which they may become useful.They work for their owners, and render to them great profits, for every description of labour is high, and that which requires any degree of skill bears even a higher comparative value than the departments of which a knowledge is more easily attained. The best church and image painter of Pernambuco is a black man, who has good manners, and quite the air of a man of some importance, though he does not by any means assume too much. The negroes are excluded from the priesthood[211]; and from the offices which the mulattos may obtain through their evasion of the law, but which the decided and unequivocal colour of the negro entirely precludes him from aspiring to. In law all persons who are not white, and are born free, class equally; manumitted slaves are placed upon the same footing as persons born free. However, although the few exclusions which exist against the negroes are degrading, still in some instances they are befriended by them. They are unable, owing to their colour, to serve in the regiments of the line, or in any regiments excepting those which are exclusively their own; but by means of this regulation they escape the persecutions under which the other casts suffer during the time of recruiting. The officers and men of the Henrique regiments are so united to each other, that the privates and subalterns are less liable to be oppressed by any white man in office even than the soldiers of the mulatto regiments. Of these latter the officers, having a considerable tinge of white, sometimeslean towards the wishes of thecapitam-mor, or some other rich white officer, instead of protecting his soldiers.The men whose occupation it is to apprehend runaway negroes are, almost without exception, creole blacks; they are calledcapitaens-do-campo, captains of the field; and are subject to acapitam-mor do campowho resides in Recife, and they receive their commissions either from the governor or from this officer. By these they are authorised to apprehend and take to their owners any slaves who may be found absent from their homes without their master’s consent. Several of these men are to be found in every district, employing themselves in such pursuits as they think fit, when their services are not required in that calling which forms their particular duty. They are men of undaunted courage, and are usually followed by two or three dogs, which are trained to seek out, and if necessary to attack and bring to the ground those persons whose apprehension their masters are desirous of effecting. The men who bear these commissions can oblige any unauthorised person to give up to them an apprehended negro, for the purpose of being by them returned to his owner.It is scarcely necessary to name the mestizos, for they usually class with the mulattos; nor are they to be easily distinguished from some of the darker varieties of this cast. A dark coloured man of a disagreeable countenance and badly formed person is commonly called a mestizo, without any reference to his origin.Yet one race of human beings remain to be spoken of; but the individuals who compose it are not sufficiently numerous to permit them to take their place among the several great divisions of the human family which form the population of Brazil, and therefore I did not rank this among the others which are of more importance. Still theçiganos[212], for thus they are called, must not be forgotten. I frequently heard of these people, but never had an opportunity of seeing any of them. Parties ofçiganoswere in the habit of appearing formerlyonce every year at the village of Pasmado, and other places in that part of the country; but the late governor of the province was inimical to them, and some attempts having been made to apprehend some of them, their visits were discontinued. They are represented as being a people of a brownish cast, with features which resemble those of white persons, and as being tall and handsome. They wander from place to place in parties of men, women, and children; exchanging, buying, and selling horses, and gold and silver trinkets. The women travel on horseback, sitting between the panniers of the loaded horses, and the young ones are placed within the panniers among the baggage. The men are excellent horsemen, and although the pack-horses may be overburthened, these fellows will only accommodate matters by riding slowly upon their own horses, and never think of dividing the loads more equally; but they preserve themselves and the animals upon which they ride quite unencumbered. They are said to be unmindful of all religious observances; and never to hear Mass or confess their sins. It is likewise said that they never marry out of their own nation.There are now several British merchants established at Recife, and a consul likewise resides at that place; but at the time of my coming away, there was no protestant chapel, no clergyman, nor even a burial ground for our countrymen. An Act of Parliament has, I believe, provided for the establishment of these things, but no steps have been taken towards the accomplishment of the directions of the legislature. Without any outward appearance of religion, how are we to expect that the people of Brazil are to regard us as any thing better than what we were represented to them as being in former times?—as pagans, animals, and horses—pagoens,bichos, andcavallos, this is literally true; and although they are now aware that at any rate we have the forms of human beings, that we have the power of speech, and that we have our share of intellect in all the common transactions of the world, still how are we to look for respect from them towards a set of men, who have no appearance at least, of possessing any religious feelings? It should be recollected that we areliving among a people who are deeply rivetted to their own forms and ceremonies of worship, whose devotedness to their church establishment surpasses every other feeling. It is not thus that the British nation is to become respectable; we may have relations of trade with these people, but we must be content to be merely regarded according to our utility; there can be no respect for our general character as a body of men, none of that regard which would make us listened to in any great question, which would make our opinions and our assertions depended upon as coming from men of steadiness,—of religious habits. Nor can we be accounted as more than residents for a time, we cannot be considered as an established community, who are thus without any common bond of union, who have not any general place of meeting, who have not any one point to which all are directed; we have no appearance of belonging to one nation, as if we were brethren meeting in a foreign land. To these political reasons for the establishment of a place of worship are to be added those which are of far greater importance, those to which no Christian ought to be indifferent. I well know that it is not with the merchants that the evil arises;—but enough, I will go no farther, although I could tarry long upon this subject. I wish however that I could have avoided the mention of it altogether. I might have done so, if I had not felt that I was passing by unnoticed a subject upon which I have often spoken whilst I was upon the spot; and there my sentiments are well known to most of those persons with whom I associated.

CHAPTER XVII.AGRICULTURE.—COTTON.THIS most valuable plant has now become of more importance to Pernambuco even than the sugar-cane, owing to the great demand for the cotton of that province, and of those adjoining to it, in the British markets. New establishments are forming yearly for the cultivation of the cotton plant, notwithstanding the great inconveniences which must often be experienced in accomplishing this object. The districts which are chosen for the purpose, and universally allowed to be the best adapted to its growth, are far removed from the sea coast, arid and oftentimes very scantily supplied with fresh water. Absolute distress is felt from a want of water in some of these situations, at the time that other parts of the country are enjoying perfect ease in this respect. The opinion is very general that the cotton plant will not thrive in the neighbourhood of the coast[167], and that frequent changes of weather are injurriousto it. The dry and wet seasons are doubtless more regularly marked at a distance from the sea, and if any variation is felt in such situations, it is from a want of rain, and not from a superabundance of it. The cotton plant requires that a great portion of the year should be dry; for if much rain falls when the pod is open, the wool is lost; it becomes yellow, decays, and is rendered completely unfit for use. The soil which is preferred for its culture is a deep red earth, with veins of yellow occasionally running through it; this becomes extremely hard, after a long interval without rain. The cotton plantations are yearly receding farther into the interior, where-ever the Sertam plains do not prevent this recession. The plantations of this description which were formerly established nearer to the coast, are now employed in the rearing of other plants. The constant supply of new lands which the cotton plant requires, for it is judged necessary to allow the land to rest for several years before it undergoes cultivation a second time, may in some degree account for this. Perhaps too, the rapid increase of the population upon the coast may have had some effect in forcing back those who plant an article of trade, to give place to others who cultivate the necessary food for the inhabitants of the country. The cotton is often sold by the planter incaroço, that is, before it has been separated from the seed, to other persons whose livelihood is obtained in preparing it for the export market; but as the labour of conveyance is, of course, considerably increased whilst it is in this state, the dealers establish themselves near to the plantations; they recede as the planters recede. Some years ago a number of the machines for separating the cotton from the seed were to be seen within two leagues of Recife; a few years after they were removed to Goiana, and now the principal resorts of the dealers are Limoeiro and Bom Jardim; places, as will have been seen, which are several leagues distant from the coast.The lands are cleared for planting cotton in the usual manner,—by cutting down the trees and burning them; and the holes for the seeds are dug in quadrangular form at the distance of six feet from each other. Three seeds are usually put into each hole; in theBritish colonies, it is found necessary to make use of eight or ten seeds. The time for planting is in January, after theprimeiras aguasor first waters; or at any rate as soon in the year as any rain has fallen. Maize is usually planted among the cotton shrubs. Three crops and sometimes four are obtained from the same plants; but the second crop is that which generally produces the finest wool. The shrub has a pleasing appearance whilst it is in full leaf, and is covered with its most beautiful yellow blossoms; but when the pods begin to open and the leaves to wither, its thin and straggling branches are left uncovered, and the plant much resembles a large black currant bush, that has been left unpruned for a length of time. The cotton is gathered in nine or ten months. The machine for detaching it from the seed is simple, and might be rendered still more so. Two small rollers are placed horizontally in a frame, and nearly touching each other. At each end of these rollers there are grooves through which a cord runs, which is connected at the distance of a few yards with a large wheel, to which handles are fixed, and this is turned by two persons. The rollers are so formed as to turn in opposite directions, so that as the cotton is thrust against them with the hand, it is carried to the other side, but the seeds remain, for the opening between the rollers is not sufficiently broad to allow them to pass[168]. The machine which is used in the British colonies seems to be of the same construction in the main, but it is still more simple, for the rollers are made to turn by means of the feet of the person who holds the cotton to them[169]. After it has undergone the above process, some particles of seeds which have been accidentally broken still remain, and of other substances which must be removed. For this purpose a heap of cotton is made, and is beaten with large sticks; this is a most injurious operation, by which the fibre is broken; butas the value of the commodity to the manufacturer chiefly depends upon the length of the fibre, no trouble ought to be grudged to avoid this practice.The seeds adhere “firmly to each other in the pod.” Mr. Edwards speaks of this species in the British colonies, and gives to it the name of kidney cotton, saying that he believes it to be “the true cotton of Brazil[170].” The yellow or nankeen cotton is likewise to be found at Pernambuco; but it does not form an article of cultivation, being regarded rather as a curiosity. I have seen some species of wild cotton, of which however as I have neither note nor specimen, I cannot pretend to give a description.The profits which are obtained in favourable years by the planters of cotton, are enormous; but frequently disappointments are experienced. Oftentimes a whole crop is totally lost, and instead of large returns, the year proves entirely unproductive; or after a fair promise, the grub, the caterpillar, the rain or the excessive drought destroys all hope until the following season. The other great agricultural object,—the sugar-cane, is not subject to these numerous and ruinous reverses; for even if the year is unfavourable, at least enough to pay the expences may be expected. I have heard it urged that the market is very little affected by the supposed failure of a crop; but it must be remembered that in a country of such vast extent, one quarter may escape all mishap, whilst another is unfortunate.[171]The quality of the cotton which is produced in South America, either to the north or south of Pernambuco, is inferior to that of the province of which I am treating. The cotton of Seara is not sogood, and the cotton of Maranham is still coarser. Cotton is the staple commodity of both these ports. Proceeding from Pernambuco to the south, the cotton of Bahia is not so fine, and the small quantity which is produced at Rio de Janeiro is not so good as that of Bahia.In treating of sugar and cotton, I have stated the chief points in which the planters in the Columbian islands and those of Brazil principally differ. Those of my readers to whom this subject is particularly interesting may be referred to the well known work which I have consulted.[172]THE MANDIOC PLANTS.Themandioc requires good land, and the same spot will not produce two crops successively; it must be allowed to rest for one or two years or more. The operation of planting it is simple, and differs in no respect from that which was practised formerly by the Indians[173]. The flour which is made from this root is calledfarinha de pao, or stick flour[174]. There are several species of the mandiocplant, of which some are adapted to high lands, and others to low and moist situations; but when the plant is cultivated upon the latter, hillocks must be raised, else the root would decay. Cattle are fed upon the root and stalk: these are first prepared by being cut into small pieces and exposed to the sun for several hours; if this was not done, the food would be injurious to them. I have however seen some of the draught oxen that have become so habituated to it as to eat the root quite fresh, without receiving any apparent injury;—in the manner that the human body becomes callous to the most violent medicines by long custom.I had in my possession, whilst I resided at Jaguaribe, one of these animals, who generally once in the course of every week at least contrived to get out of the inclosure, and pass part of the night in some neighbouring mandioc ground. He was so dexterous in tearing up the stalk with the root attached to it, that the marks of his footsteps alone made us quite confident of the nature of the thief. Whilst I was at Itamaraca, I lost a sheep, which had drank of the juice of the mandioc. The negroes and other persons were makingfarinha, and a trough stood under the press for the purpose of receiving the juice. The sheep were attempting to come under the shed for the purpose of reaching some of the roots, of which they are extremely fond; one of them approached the trough, which was filled with the juice, and although it was almost immediately perceived and driven away, still the effect of the small quantity which had been taken began to shew itself in a very few minutes;—the animal tottered and fell, rising again, and again falling. Oil was poured down its throat in considerable quantities, but to no purpose.The body swelled to an enormous size, and the animal was dead in about ten minutes after it had drank of the juice.[175]The insect which is mentioned by Piso (quoted by Mr. Southey) under the name oftapuru, and is said to be generated by the juice of the mandioc, after it has become putrid, I have often seen. It is still known under the same name, which however is not peculiar to this worm, but it is likewise applied to maggots of every kind. The juice is not kept for any purpose, but it remains in the trough occasionally for some days, owing to the carelessness of the person under whose care these things are placed[176]. Of the deadly nature of this worm I never heard any mention. The species of mandioc which is calledmanipebais prohibited, owing to the greater activity of its poisonous juice, and it is now almost extirpated; it had the advantage of greater durability under ground. Those kinds which are usually planted decay if the stalk is broken off, but the stalks of themanipebamaybe cut away, and the root will still continue sound until, on the following year a new stalk springs up. I have heard it said, that in the dry soils of the Mata a few of the other varieties of this plant will allow of the same treatment. Although the mandioc plant requires a dry situation, still when the rains fail in January the crops fall short, for it is in this month, immediately after the first waters, that the principal plantations of it are made. The Brazilians have a peculiar name for each part of this plant; the root is calledmandioca, the stalkmaniva, the leavesmanisoba, and the juicemanipueira. There is one species of the plant, of which the juice is harmless; it bears the name ofmacaxeira. Its root never grows to a great size, and it is therefore rather planted as an article of luxury than as regular food. From this species less juice is extracted than from the roots of equal dimensions of any of the other kinds of mandioc[177]. The rind of those species of mandioc which are in general use is of a dark brown colour, but there is one kind of which the rind is white.The most expensive part of the process of making the flour of the mandioc, consists in disengaging the rind from the root; this is done with difficulty, by means of a piece of a broken blunt knife, a sharp pebble, or a small shell, with one of which each person is supplied; in this work a considerable number of persons must be occupied, to furnish employment to the wheel which grinds the root. This wheel is placed in a frame, and a handle is fixed to it on each side, by which it may be turned by two men, one of them working ateach of the handles. A trough stands under the wheel, and the wheel is cased in copper, which is made rough by means of holes punched in it, the sides of the holes are not filed smooth. The mandioc is thrust against the wheel whilst it is turned with great velocity, and being by this means ground it falls into the trough underneath. From hence the ground pulp is put into a press, that the juice may be extracted; and after it has undergone sufficient pressure this pulp or paste (maça) is removed on to a hot hearth, upon which a person is employed to keep it in continual motion, that it may not be burnt; when quite crisp it is taken off the hearth, and on being suffered to cool is in a state to be made use of.[178]There is another mode of preparing the mandioc for food; it is putinto water in a pannier or closed basket, and is allowed to remain there for some days, until the root becomes soft, from which the mandioc, when in this state, is calledmandioca molle. It is prepared in this manner for the purpose of making cakes, &c. but not generally, for food. I tried to introduce thefarinha, made from steeped mandioc, among the slaves whilst I resided at Jaguaribe; the flour which was made from it, was much finer than that which is obtained in the usual manner, but the negroes did not like it so well, and I did not think it wholesome for them on consideration, and therefore the old way was continued. The mandioc must have made a certain advance towards putrefaction before it becomes sufficiently soft to be bruised, and this cannot fail I should suppose to be injurious. The smell from themandioca molleis extremely offensive, and is one of the annoyances in walking the streets of Recife, in which it is sold. The smell is however entirely removed after thefarinhahas been for some minutes upon the oven.[179]THE COCO-TREE.Thesandy soils of the coast in which this plant seems to delight would, if they were not cultivated with it, remain almost useless; but from the produce which the coco-tree yields, they are rendered very valuable. The lands which are occupied by this plant alone yield a settled income to the owners of them without much labour; whilstthe cultivation of any other requires considerable toil; however the long period, of from five to seven years, which the tree requires before it bears fruit, cannot fail to be considered as a drawback upon the profits which it ultimately affords, and upon the great age to which it arrives. However perhaps there are few trees of equal size that yield fruit in so short a period. It is a most valuable production, of which every part is appropriated to some useful purpose. The Brazilians say, that it affords to them both food and shelter; of the trunk and of the leaves their huts are built; of its fibrous roots baskets are made, and cordage of the outward husk. Its fruit renders to them meat and drink, and an excellent oil is likewise to be obtained by skimming the juice which may be pressed from the pulp. The coco is in general use in cookery among all ranks of people, and it forms one of the chief articles of internal trade[180]. When a plantation of this tree is about to be established, the ripe cocos from which the plants are to be reared, are placed in the ground, about twelve inches below the surface, in long and almost united rows, for the convenience of being watered. They are frequently placed in this manner, under the eaves of houses, which saves much trouble, for by the accumulation of water from the house top, each shower of rain produces sufficient moisture, and the owner is relieved from any farther trouble in this respect. At the expiration of five months the shoots begin to make their appearance above ground, and at the end of twelve months from the time that the cocos were first put into theearth, the young plants may be removed[181]. They are then placed at the distance of eight or ten yards from each other, upon the land that has been cleared for the purpose of receiving them. As soon as they have once taken root, and by far the major part of them fail not so to do, very little care is necessary. They must however be preserved tolerably free from brushwood, at least during the first years; and indeed at all times the fruitfulness of the tree will be increased, if it is allowed its due space.[182]THE CARRAPATO OR CASTOR TREE.Thisplant may be, as well as the coco, reared in sandy soils, but it will flourish with more luxuriance, upon those that are of a richer kind. The oil, which is extracted from the seed, is in general use for lamps and other purposes, but neither is it eaten, nor known as a medicine; but it is administered as an outward application. It is given to animals that have drank the juice of the mandioc, and is sometimes successful in forcing the poison back from the stomach. The plant is much cultivated, but it is frequently to be seen growing spontaneously.[183]BRAZIL WOOD.Thewood from which is extracted the beautiful red dye, which is so much esteemed in Europe, is, I believe, generally supposed to be peculiar[184]to the country to which it has given a name[185]. It is often called in Pernambuco (from whence, I imagine, that it isexclusively exported)pao da Rainhaor Queen’s wood, owing to the circumstance of the trade in it being a government monopoly; and it is exported to Europe on account of the Crown. No care has been taken to prevent a scarcity of the wood, and indeed its ultimate extirpation; it is cut down unmercifully wherever it is met with by the officers who are appointed for this purpose, without any regard being paid to the size of the tree. No plantations have been formed of it, and consequently it is now rarely to be seen, within many leagues of the coast. The labour which is required in obtaining it is now considerable, for the weight of the wood renders its conveyance very difficult upon the backs of horses, and this is the only manner in which it can be carried. The pay which is given by the government to the carriers is below the usual rate for work equally laborious, and therefore a wide source of oppression is afforded. The carrier receives with his load a slip of paper, declaring the weight of the wood which he is conveying; this is to be presented by him at theIntendencia da Marinha, or dock-yard at Recife, and he must wait until the wood is again weighed and the paper countersigned, before he can return home. These men are delayed sometimes for several days, before they are permitted to return; and they find that it is their interest to make many presents to the inferior officers, that they may be quickly dispatched. Here the old system of indifference to what is just, still most glaringly continues. This account of the treatment of the men who convey the wood, I received from several who had been employed in the business.If the trade in the wood was to be laid open, it would only tend to its scarcity still more speedily than under the existing system; but as soon as it became scarce it would be rendered an object worthy of cultivation: however, as long as it is to be obtained in its wild state, and enormous profits can be made, the government will probably continue to supply the market on their own account. Every sugar plantation might cultivate a great number of thesetrees, without any additional land being required to be cleared for the purpose of planting them. The fences of theCercados, or fields, might be strengthened by the addition of the Brazil inserted at intervals; instead of other trees being used in this way.I never saw the plant, but I have heard it described in the following manner. It is not a lofty tree; and at a short distance from the ground, innumerable branches spring forth and extend in every direction in a straggling, irregular, and unpleasing manner. Practice is requisite to obtain a knowledge of the tree, for the valuable portion of it is the heart, and the outward coat of wood has not any peculiarity. The leaves are small, and never cover the branches luxuriantly.[186]The Tatajuba, orFustic.—This is a species of wood producing a yellow dye, which is well known in England. It is of spontaneous growth. A demand has lately been made for it, and destruction has followed wherever the plant can be met with.The FeijamorKidney Beanis planted in April and May with the mandioc. It is much used in the neighbourhood of the coast by the free part of the population, but is not produced in sufficient quantities to form a common food for the negroes. When it is cooked with the juice of the pulp of the coco-nut it makes a most excellent dish. In the cotton districts it forms one of the chief articles of the negroes’ food.Milho, orMaize, is planted with mandioc, and sometimes in the cane fields; but as the best crop is obtained by planting it with the mandioc in January, few persons sow it at any other time. In the inland districts it is sown with the cotton, and in such situations yields more plentifully than in the lands which border upon thecoast. Boiled maize is a common breakfast for the slaves in the cotton districts; the dish resembles thick peas’ soup, and is far from being unpalatable if sugar or treacle is added. The people call itangu de milho.The Banana Plantis too well known to take up much space here. There are in Pernambuco three species of it; thebanana curtaor short banana; this is a small fruit, not exceeding two inches in length;—thebanana compridaor long banana, which is the plantain;—and lately the third species has been introduced, and has obtained the strange name of thebanana de quatro vintemsor fourvintemsbanana, because the clusters of the fruit are so large that each cluster may be sold for fourvintems,—rather more than 5d.I do not think that as much utility is derived from the plant as it is capable of affording; it is not so generally used as a food by the negroes, as it ought to be. Thebanana curta, with dryfarinha, is a common breakfast among people of colour.[187]The Batatas.—Of these there are several species; but that which I had the most opportunities of seeing was thebatata roxaor purple potatoe, which is so called from the purple tinge of the pulp after it has been boiled; this is the best of the tribe. The taste is pleasant, and would be still more so if it was not rather sweet. Thebatatais a creeping plant, and is re-produced from the roots, or from the sprouts of the branches. If the branches of roots that have been pulled up remain upon the ground, and a shower of rain falls soon after they have been broken off, their vegetation will recommence. Thebatatasare at present planted more as a luxury for the planter’s house than as food for the negroes; but I do not think that there is any plant which is more capable, or even so capable, of affording assistance to the mandioc as this; and perhaps it might supply its place. The mandioc should be supplanted, if any thing else could be discovered to answer the purpose of a staple article of food; for it is uncertain in yielding its crops, and requires the best land. To neither of these disadvantages would, I rather think, thebatatabe found subject. The European potatoe has been planted, in several instances, at Pernambuco; the first crop is as well tasted as the roots from which it was produced, but the potatoes were small; a second crop, being obtained from the same family of roots, has been sweetish, and on advancing, the potatoes become still more similar to thebatataof the country[188]. Yet the plants appear to be totally different from each other, for the Brazilbatataor potatoe is produced from a creeper.Tobaccois planted upon almost all the sugar-plantations, and by a majority of persons of the lower classes, for their own use. A considerable quantity is imported from the southern provinces of Brazil into Pernambuco. The ants do not molest the plant, but inthe parts of the country which are much infested by these insects, the peasants mix the seed of the tobacco with wood ashes before they strew with it the ground which they are about to sow. The ants have an antipathy to the ashes, and thus the seed is preserved.Riceis very little cultivated in Pernambuco; but at Maranham it forms the second object of trade. The use of it in Pernambuco is inconsiderable, from the idea that it is unwholesome for the negroes; and indeed I never met with any of the Africans who preferred it to other kinds of food.CoffeeandCacaoare yet planted as experiments, for their introduction into Pernambuco is recent.[189]Ipecacuanha.—Although this is at present only to be found in a wild state, I have inserted it here, for it must shortly take its place among cultivated plants. The small quantity exported is procured by the Indians and other persons of the same rank and habits of life, in the thickest woods. It thrives most in the shade. The plant is destroyed also by many of the larger kinds of game, to which it serves as food. There are two species of it which are distinguished by the names of white and black Ipecacuanha; the latter is that which is used for medicinal purposes in Europe[190]. The white is used by the Brazilians in colds and coughs, and is taken to purify the blood after a fever.Gingeris indigenous, but is now rarely to be found in a wild state[191]. The white ginger is that which is in general use.Malagueta Pepperis a small shrub which is to be seen under the eaves of almost every cottage. The pods are of a bright scarlet colour, of about one inch in length, and one quarter in breadth. It is a hardy plant; for although it droops under excessive drought, it is seldom destroyed by it. Often are to be seen at the same time, and upon the same bush, the blossoms, and the green and the ripe scarlet pods. Wherever this shrub springs up care is taken of it; for the people of all ranks are from habit almost unable to eat their food without themalagueta. The pods are bruised when about to be used, and either form an ingredient in every dish, or they are served up in all the sauces[192]. Thepimenta de cheiro, or scented pepper, is likewise common, but it requires more care in rearing, and is a smaller shrub than themalagueta. The pods are of a bright red in general, but sometimes they are, naturally, of a pale yellow colour; they are round, and about the size of a crab apple.Teais stated to be indigenous in Brazil[193]. A priest of considerablereputation as a botanist, told me that he had discovered this plant in the neighbourhood of Olinda; but afterwards again he informed me that he was afraid he had been too sanguine.[194]Horticulturehas of late years been rapidly improving, and the markets of Recife are now well supplied with vegetables and roots. The gardeners are chiefly Portugueze, from the provinces of the mother country, or from the Azores. Peas[195], cabbages, and several other kinds of European vegetables and roots are to be purchased, besides others which are peculiar to the country, such asmandubimsand yams. The European onion produces a small root of an oblong form[196], which is known in Pernambuco under the name ofcebolinho, as the diminutive ofcebola, an onion. The vine is to be seen in many of the gardens in the neighbourhood of Recife and of Olinda; and formerly there were a great many at Conception upon the island of Itamaraca, but few now remain. No wine is made. The fruit trees are some of those which are common to the southern parts of Europe, such as the orange[197], the fig, and others, but no olives; besides these, there are the manga, the jack, and a numerous list, some of which have been mentioned incidentally in the course of this volume; but I have tarried already too long upon this branch of my subject, and must now proceed to something else.i415A Planter and his Wife on a Journey.

AGRICULTURE.—COTTON.

THIS most valuable plant has now become of more importance to Pernambuco even than the sugar-cane, owing to the great demand for the cotton of that province, and of those adjoining to it, in the British markets. New establishments are forming yearly for the cultivation of the cotton plant, notwithstanding the great inconveniences which must often be experienced in accomplishing this object. The districts which are chosen for the purpose, and universally allowed to be the best adapted to its growth, are far removed from the sea coast, arid and oftentimes very scantily supplied with fresh water. Absolute distress is felt from a want of water in some of these situations, at the time that other parts of the country are enjoying perfect ease in this respect. The opinion is very general that the cotton plant will not thrive in the neighbourhood of the coast[167], and that frequent changes of weather are injurriousto it. The dry and wet seasons are doubtless more regularly marked at a distance from the sea, and if any variation is felt in such situations, it is from a want of rain, and not from a superabundance of it. The cotton plant requires that a great portion of the year should be dry; for if much rain falls when the pod is open, the wool is lost; it becomes yellow, decays, and is rendered completely unfit for use. The soil which is preferred for its culture is a deep red earth, with veins of yellow occasionally running through it; this becomes extremely hard, after a long interval without rain. The cotton plantations are yearly receding farther into the interior, where-ever the Sertam plains do not prevent this recession. The plantations of this description which were formerly established nearer to the coast, are now employed in the rearing of other plants. The constant supply of new lands which the cotton plant requires, for it is judged necessary to allow the land to rest for several years before it undergoes cultivation a second time, may in some degree account for this. Perhaps too, the rapid increase of the population upon the coast may have had some effect in forcing back those who plant an article of trade, to give place to others who cultivate the necessary food for the inhabitants of the country. The cotton is often sold by the planter incaroço, that is, before it has been separated from the seed, to other persons whose livelihood is obtained in preparing it for the export market; but as the labour of conveyance is, of course, considerably increased whilst it is in this state, the dealers establish themselves near to the plantations; they recede as the planters recede. Some years ago a number of the machines for separating the cotton from the seed were to be seen within two leagues of Recife; a few years after they were removed to Goiana, and now the principal resorts of the dealers are Limoeiro and Bom Jardim; places, as will have been seen, which are several leagues distant from the coast.

The lands are cleared for planting cotton in the usual manner,—by cutting down the trees and burning them; and the holes for the seeds are dug in quadrangular form at the distance of six feet from each other. Three seeds are usually put into each hole; in theBritish colonies, it is found necessary to make use of eight or ten seeds. The time for planting is in January, after theprimeiras aguasor first waters; or at any rate as soon in the year as any rain has fallen. Maize is usually planted among the cotton shrubs. Three crops and sometimes four are obtained from the same plants; but the second crop is that which generally produces the finest wool. The shrub has a pleasing appearance whilst it is in full leaf, and is covered with its most beautiful yellow blossoms; but when the pods begin to open and the leaves to wither, its thin and straggling branches are left uncovered, and the plant much resembles a large black currant bush, that has been left unpruned for a length of time. The cotton is gathered in nine or ten months. The machine for detaching it from the seed is simple, and might be rendered still more so. Two small rollers are placed horizontally in a frame, and nearly touching each other. At each end of these rollers there are grooves through which a cord runs, which is connected at the distance of a few yards with a large wheel, to which handles are fixed, and this is turned by two persons. The rollers are so formed as to turn in opposite directions, so that as the cotton is thrust against them with the hand, it is carried to the other side, but the seeds remain, for the opening between the rollers is not sufficiently broad to allow them to pass[168]. The machine which is used in the British colonies seems to be of the same construction in the main, but it is still more simple, for the rollers are made to turn by means of the feet of the person who holds the cotton to them[169]. After it has undergone the above process, some particles of seeds which have been accidentally broken still remain, and of other substances which must be removed. For this purpose a heap of cotton is made, and is beaten with large sticks; this is a most injurious operation, by which the fibre is broken; butas the value of the commodity to the manufacturer chiefly depends upon the length of the fibre, no trouble ought to be grudged to avoid this practice.

The seeds adhere “firmly to each other in the pod.” Mr. Edwards speaks of this species in the British colonies, and gives to it the name of kidney cotton, saying that he believes it to be “the true cotton of Brazil[170].” The yellow or nankeen cotton is likewise to be found at Pernambuco; but it does not form an article of cultivation, being regarded rather as a curiosity. I have seen some species of wild cotton, of which however as I have neither note nor specimen, I cannot pretend to give a description.

The profits which are obtained in favourable years by the planters of cotton, are enormous; but frequently disappointments are experienced. Oftentimes a whole crop is totally lost, and instead of large returns, the year proves entirely unproductive; or after a fair promise, the grub, the caterpillar, the rain or the excessive drought destroys all hope until the following season. The other great agricultural object,—the sugar-cane, is not subject to these numerous and ruinous reverses; for even if the year is unfavourable, at least enough to pay the expences may be expected. I have heard it urged that the market is very little affected by the supposed failure of a crop; but it must be remembered that in a country of such vast extent, one quarter may escape all mishap, whilst another is unfortunate.[171]

The quality of the cotton which is produced in South America, either to the north or south of Pernambuco, is inferior to that of the province of which I am treating. The cotton of Seara is not sogood, and the cotton of Maranham is still coarser. Cotton is the staple commodity of both these ports. Proceeding from Pernambuco to the south, the cotton of Bahia is not so fine, and the small quantity which is produced at Rio de Janeiro is not so good as that of Bahia.

In treating of sugar and cotton, I have stated the chief points in which the planters in the Columbian islands and those of Brazil principally differ. Those of my readers to whom this subject is particularly interesting may be referred to the well known work which I have consulted.[172]

Themandioc requires good land, and the same spot will not produce two crops successively; it must be allowed to rest for one or two years or more. The operation of planting it is simple, and differs in no respect from that which was practised formerly by the Indians[173]. The flour which is made from this root is calledfarinha de pao, or stick flour[174]. There are several species of the mandiocplant, of which some are adapted to high lands, and others to low and moist situations; but when the plant is cultivated upon the latter, hillocks must be raised, else the root would decay. Cattle are fed upon the root and stalk: these are first prepared by being cut into small pieces and exposed to the sun for several hours; if this was not done, the food would be injurious to them. I have however seen some of the draught oxen that have become so habituated to it as to eat the root quite fresh, without receiving any apparent injury;—in the manner that the human body becomes callous to the most violent medicines by long custom.

I had in my possession, whilst I resided at Jaguaribe, one of these animals, who generally once in the course of every week at least contrived to get out of the inclosure, and pass part of the night in some neighbouring mandioc ground. He was so dexterous in tearing up the stalk with the root attached to it, that the marks of his footsteps alone made us quite confident of the nature of the thief. Whilst I was at Itamaraca, I lost a sheep, which had drank of the juice of the mandioc. The negroes and other persons were makingfarinha, and a trough stood under the press for the purpose of receiving the juice. The sheep were attempting to come under the shed for the purpose of reaching some of the roots, of which they are extremely fond; one of them approached the trough, which was filled with the juice, and although it was almost immediately perceived and driven away, still the effect of the small quantity which had been taken began to shew itself in a very few minutes;—the animal tottered and fell, rising again, and again falling. Oil was poured down its throat in considerable quantities, but to no purpose.The body swelled to an enormous size, and the animal was dead in about ten minutes after it had drank of the juice.[175]

The insect which is mentioned by Piso (quoted by Mr. Southey) under the name oftapuru, and is said to be generated by the juice of the mandioc, after it has become putrid, I have often seen. It is still known under the same name, which however is not peculiar to this worm, but it is likewise applied to maggots of every kind. The juice is not kept for any purpose, but it remains in the trough occasionally for some days, owing to the carelessness of the person under whose care these things are placed[176]. Of the deadly nature of this worm I never heard any mention. The species of mandioc which is calledmanipebais prohibited, owing to the greater activity of its poisonous juice, and it is now almost extirpated; it had the advantage of greater durability under ground. Those kinds which are usually planted decay if the stalk is broken off, but the stalks of themanipebamaybe cut away, and the root will still continue sound until, on the following year a new stalk springs up. I have heard it said, that in the dry soils of the Mata a few of the other varieties of this plant will allow of the same treatment. Although the mandioc plant requires a dry situation, still when the rains fail in January the crops fall short, for it is in this month, immediately after the first waters, that the principal plantations of it are made. The Brazilians have a peculiar name for each part of this plant; the root is calledmandioca, the stalkmaniva, the leavesmanisoba, and the juicemanipueira. There is one species of the plant, of which the juice is harmless; it bears the name ofmacaxeira. Its root never grows to a great size, and it is therefore rather planted as an article of luxury than as regular food. From this species less juice is extracted than from the roots of equal dimensions of any of the other kinds of mandioc[177]. The rind of those species of mandioc which are in general use is of a dark brown colour, but there is one kind of which the rind is white.

The most expensive part of the process of making the flour of the mandioc, consists in disengaging the rind from the root; this is done with difficulty, by means of a piece of a broken blunt knife, a sharp pebble, or a small shell, with one of which each person is supplied; in this work a considerable number of persons must be occupied, to furnish employment to the wheel which grinds the root. This wheel is placed in a frame, and a handle is fixed to it on each side, by which it may be turned by two men, one of them working ateach of the handles. A trough stands under the wheel, and the wheel is cased in copper, which is made rough by means of holes punched in it, the sides of the holes are not filed smooth. The mandioc is thrust against the wheel whilst it is turned with great velocity, and being by this means ground it falls into the trough underneath. From hence the ground pulp is put into a press, that the juice may be extracted; and after it has undergone sufficient pressure this pulp or paste (maça) is removed on to a hot hearth, upon which a person is employed to keep it in continual motion, that it may not be burnt; when quite crisp it is taken off the hearth, and on being suffered to cool is in a state to be made use of.[178]

There is another mode of preparing the mandioc for food; it is putinto water in a pannier or closed basket, and is allowed to remain there for some days, until the root becomes soft, from which the mandioc, when in this state, is calledmandioca molle. It is prepared in this manner for the purpose of making cakes, &c. but not generally, for food. I tried to introduce thefarinha, made from steeped mandioc, among the slaves whilst I resided at Jaguaribe; the flour which was made from it, was much finer than that which is obtained in the usual manner, but the negroes did not like it so well, and I did not think it wholesome for them on consideration, and therefore the old way was continued. The mandioc must have made a certain advance towards putrefaction before it becomes sufficiently soft to be bruised, and this cannot fail I should suppose to be injurious. The smell from themandioca molleis extremely offensive, and is one of the annoyances in walking the streets of Recife, in which it is sold. The smell is however entirely removed after thefarinhahas been for some minutes upon the oven.[179]

Thesandy soils of the coast in which this plant seems to delight would, if they were not cultivated with it, remain almost useless; but from the produce which the coco-tree yields, they are rendered very valuable. The lands which are occupied by this plant alone yield a settled income to the owners of them without much labour; whilstthe cultivation of any other requires considerable toil; however the long period, of from five to seven years, which the tree requires before it bears fruit, cannot fail to be considered as a drawback upon the profits which it ultimately affords, and upon the great age to which it arrives. However perhaps there are few trees of equal size that yield fruit in so short a period. It is a most valuable production, of which every part is appropriated to some useful purpose. The Brazilians say, that it affords to them both food and shelter; of the trunk and of the leaves their huts are built; of its fibrous roots baskets are made, and cordage of the outward husk. Its fruit renders to them meat and drink, and an excellent oil is likewise to be obtained by skimming the juice which may be pressed from the pulp. The coco is in general use in cookery among all ranks of people, and it forms one of the chief articles of internal trade[180]. When a plantation of this tree is about to be established, the ripe cocos from which the plants are to be reared, are placed in the ground, about twelve inches below the surface, in long and almost united rows, for the convenience of being watered. They are frequently placed in this manner, under the eaves of houses, which saves much trouble, for by the accumulation of water from the house top, each shower of rain produces sufficient moisture, and the owner is relieved from any farther trouble in this respect. At the expiration of five months the shoots begin to make their appearance above ground, and at the end of twelve months from the time that the cocos were first put into theearth, the young plants may be removed[181]. They are then placed at the distance of eight or ten yards from each other, upon the land that has been cleared for the purpose of receiving them. As soon as they have once taken root, and by far the major part of them fail not so to do, very little care is necessary. They must however be preserved tolerably free from brushwood, at least during the first years; and indeed at all times the fruitfulness of the tree will be increased, if it is allowed its due space.[182]

Thisplant may be, as well as the coco, reared in sandy soils, but it will flourish with more luxuriance, upon those that are of a richer kind. The oil, which is extracted from the seed, is in general use for lamps and other purposes, but neither is it eaten, nor known as a medicine; but it is administered as an outward application. It is given to animals that have drank the juice of the mandioc, and is sometimes successful in forcing the poison back from the stomach. The plant is much cultivated, but it is frequently to be seen growing spontaneously.[183]

Thewood from which is extracted the beautiful red dye, which is so much esteemed in Europe, is, I believe, generally supposed to be peculiar[184]to the country to which it has given a name[185]. It is often called in Pernambuco (from whence, I imagine, that it isexclusively exported)pao da Rainhaor Queen’s wood, owing to the circumstance of the trade in it being a government monopoly; and it is exported to Europe on account of the Crown. No care has been taken to prevent a scarcity of the wood, and indeed its ultimate extirpation; it is cut down unmercifully wherever it is met with by the officers who are appointed for this purpose, without any regard being paid to the size of the tree. No plantations have been formed of it, and consequently it is now rarely to be seen, within many leagues of the coast. The labour which is required in obtaining it is now considerable, for the weight of the wood renders its conveyance very difficult upon the backs of horses, and this is the only manner in which it can be carried. The pay which is given by the government to the carriers is below the usual rate for work equally laborious, and therefore a wide source of oppression is afforded. The carrier receives with his load a slip of paper, declaring the weight of the wood which he is conveying; this is to be presented by him at theIntendencia da Marinha, or dock-yard at Recife, and he must wait until the wood is again weighed and the paper countersigned, before he can return home. These men are delayed sometimes for several days, before they are permitted to return; and they find that it is their interest to make many presents to the inferior officers, that they may be quickly dispatched. Here the old system of indifference to what is just, still most glaringly continues. This account of the treatment of the men who convey the wood, I received from several who had been employed in the business.

If the trade in the wood was to be laid open, it would only tend to its scarcity still more speedily than under the existing system; but as soon as it became scarce it would be rendered an object worthy of cultivation: however, as long as it is to be obtained in its wild state, and enormous profits can be made, the government will probably continue to supply the market on their own account. Every sugar plantation might cultivate a great number of thesetrees, without any additional land being required to be cleared for the purpose of planting them. The fences of theCercados, or fields, might be strengthened by the addition of the Brazil inserted at intervals; instead of other trees being used in this way.

I never saw the plant, but I have heard it described in the following manner. It is not a lofty tree; and at a short distance from the ground, innumerable branches spring forth and extend in every direction in a straggling, irregular, and unpleasing manner. Practice is requisite to obtain a knowledge of the tree, for the valuable portion of it is the heart, and the outward coat of wood has not any peculiarity. The leaves are small, and never cover the branches luxuriantly.[186]

The Tatajuba, orFustic.—This is a species of wood producing a yellow dye, which is well known in England. It is of spontaneous growth. A demand has lately been made for it, and destruction has followed wherever the plant can be met with.

The FeijamorKidney Beanis planted in April and May with the mandioc. It is much used in the neighbourhood of the coast by the free part of the population, but is not produced in sufficient quantities to form a common food for the negroes. When it is cooked with the juice of the pulp of the coco-nut it makes a most excellent dish. In the cotton districts it forms one of the chief articles of the negroes’ food.

Milho, orMaize, is planted with mandioc, and sometimes in the cane fields; but as the best crop is obtained by planting it with the mandioc in January, few persons sow it at any other time. In the inland districts it is sown with the cotton, and in such situations yields more plentifully than in the lands which border upon thecoast. Boiled maize is a common breakfast for the slaves in the cotton districts; the dish resembles thick peas’ soup, and is far from being unpalatable if sugar or treacle is added. The people call itangu de milho.

The Banana Plantis too well known to take up much space here. There are in Pernambuco three species of it; thebanana curtaor short banana; this is a small fruit, not exceeding two inches in length;—thebanana compridaor long banana, which is the plantain;—and lately the third species has been introduced, and has obtained the strange name of thebanana de quatro vintemsor fourvintemsbanana, because the clusters of the fruit are so large that each cluster may be sold for fourvintems,—rather more than 5d.I do not think that as much utility is derived from the plant as it is capable of affording; it is not so generally used as a food by the negroes, as it ought to be. Thebanana curta, with dryfarinha, is a common breakfast among people of colour.[187]

The Batatas.—Of these there are several species; but that which I had the most opportunities of seeing was thebatata roxaor purple potatoe, which is so called from the purple tinge of the pulp after it has been boiled; this is the best of the tribe. The taste is pleasant, and would be still more so if it was not rather sweet. Thebatatais a creeping plant, and is re-produced from the roots, or from the sprouts of the branches. If the branches of roots that have been pulled up remain upon the ground, and a shower of rain falls soon after they have been broken off, their vegetation will recommence. Thebatatasare at present planted more as a luxury for the planter’s house than as food for the negroes; but I do not think that there is any plant which is more capable, or even so capable, of affording assistance to the mandioc as this; and perhaps it might supply its place. The mandioc should be supplanted, if any thing else could be discovered to answer the purpose of a staple article of food; for it is uncertain in yielding its crops, and requires the best land. To neither of these disadvantages would, I rather think, thebatatabe found subject. The European potatoe has been planted, in several instances, at Pernambuco; the first crop is as well tasted as the roots from which it was produced, but the potatoes were small; a second crop, being obtained from the same family of roots, has been sweetish, and on advancing, the potatoes become still more similar to thebatataof the country[188]. Yet the plants appear to be totally different from each other, for the Brazilbatataor potatoe is produced from a creeper.

Tobaccois planted upon almost all the sugar-plantations, and by a majority of persons of the lower classes, for their own use. A considerable quantity is imported from the southern provinces of Brazil into Pernambuco. The ants do not molest the plant, but inthe parts of the country which are much infested by these insects, the peasants mix the seed of the tobacco with wood ashes before they strew with it the ground which they are about to sow. The ants have an antipathy to the ashes, and thus the seed is preserved.

Riceis very little cultivated in Pernambuco; but at Maranham it forms the second object of trade. The use of it in Pernambuco is inconsiderable, from the idea that it is unwholesome for the negroes; and indeed I never met with any of the Africans who preferred it to other kinds of food.

CoffeeandCacaoare yet planted as experiments, for their introduction into Pernambuco is recent.[189]

Ipecacuanha.—Although this is at present only to be found in a wild state, I have inserted it here, for it must shortly take its place among cultivated plants. The small quantity exported is procured by the Indians and other persons of the same rank and habits of life, in the thickest woods. It thrives most in the shade. The plant is destroyed also by many of the larger kinds of game, to which it serves as food. There are two species of it which are distinguished by the names of white and black Ipecacuanha; the latter is that which is used for medicinal purposes in Europe[190]. The white is used by the Brazilians in colds and coughs, and is taken to purify the blood after a fever.

Gingeris indigenous, but is now rarely to be found in a wild state[191]. The white ginger is that which is in general use.

Malagueta Pepperis a small shrub which is to be seen under the eaves of almost every cottage. The pods are of a bright scarlet colour, of about one inch in length, and one quarter in breadth. It is a hardy plant; for although it droops under excessive drought, it is seldom destroyed by it. Often are to be seen at the same time, and upon the same bush, the blossoms, and the green and the ripe scarlet pods. Wherever this shrub springs up care is taken of it; for the people of all ranks are from habit almost unable to eat their food without themalagueta. The pods are bruised when about to be used, and either form an ingredient in every dish, or they are served up in all the sauces[192]. Thepimenta de cheiro, or scented pepper, is likewise common, but it requires more care in rearing, and is a smaller shrub than themalagueta. The pods are of a bright red in general, but sometimes they are, naturally, of a pale yellow colour; they are round, and about the size of a crab apple.

Teais stated to be indigenous in Brazil[193]. A priest of considerablereputation as a botanist, told me that he had discovered this plant in the neighbourhood of Olinda; but afterwards again he informed me that he was afraid he had been too sanguine.[194]

Horticulturehas of late years been rapidly improving, and the markets of Recife are now well supplied with vegetables and roots. The gardeners are chiefly Portugueze, from the provinces of the mother country, or from the Azores. Peas[195], cabbages, and several other kinds of European vegetables and roots are to be purchased, besides others which are peculiar to the country, such asmandubimsand yams. The European onion produces a small root of an oblong form[196], which is known in Pernambuco under the name ofcebolinho, as the diminutive ofcebola, an onion. The vine is to be seen in many of the gardens in the neighbourhood of Recife and of Olinda; and formerly there were a great many at Conception upon the island of Itamaraca, but few now remain. No wine is made. The fruit trees are some of those which are common to the southern parts of Europe, such as the orange[197], the fig, and others, but no olives; besides these, there are the manga, the jack, and a numerous list, some of which have been mentioned incidentally in the course of this volume; but I have tarried already too long upon this branch of my subject, and must now proceed to something else.

i415

A Planter and his Wife on a Journey.

A Planter and his Wife on a Journey.

A Planter and his Wife on a Journey.

CHAPTER XVIII.THE FREE POPULATION.THE insufficiency of the population of Portugal to the almost unbounded plans of the rulers of that kingdom, has, in all probability, saved her South American possessions from the dreadful contests which are to be apprehended in the neighbouring Spanish colonies, between the Creole white inhabitants and those of colour. The struggle yet rages with exterminating violence between the descendants of Europeans, born in South America, and the natives of Old Spain; but when this is at an end, another equally, if not more destructive, is to be looked for between the former and their countrymen of mixed casts. The appeal which the creole whites have made to the people, and the declarations which they have publicly set forth, of directing their proceedings by their voice; the exposure of those abstract principles of government which are so delightful in theory, but so difficult of execution, will, most probably, bring down upon their heads the destruction which has thus been courted. In the Portugueze South American dominions, circumstances have directed that there should be no division of casts, and very few of those degrading and most galling distinctions which have been made by all other nations in the management of their colonies. That this was not intended by the mother country, but was rather submitted to from necessity, is to be discovered in some few regulations, which plainly shew, that if Portugal could have preservedthe superiority of the whites, she would, as well as her neighbours, have established laws for this purpose. The rulers of Portugal wished to colonize to an unlimited extent; but their country did not possess a population sufficiently numerous for their magnificent plans. Adventurers left their own country to settle in the New World, who were literally adventurers; for they had not any settled plans of life, and they were without families. Persons of established habits, who had the wish to follow any of the ordinary means of gaining a livelihood, found employment at home; neither could Portugal spare them, nor did they wish to leave their native soil. There was no superabundance of population, and therefore every man might find occupation at home, if he had steadiness to look for it; there was no division in political or religious opinion; there was no necessity for emigration, save that which was urged by crimes. Thus the generality of the men who embarked in the expeditions which were fitted out for Brazil, were unaccompanied by females, and therefore, naturally, on their arrival in that country, they married, or irregularly connected themselves with Indian women, and subsequently with those of Africa. It is true that orphan girls were sent out by the government of Portugal[198], but these were necessarily few in number. In the course of another generation, the colonists married the women of mixed casts, owing to the impossibility of obtaining those of their own colour; and the frequency of the custom, and the silence of the laws upon the subject, removed all idea of degradation, in thus connecting themselves. Still the European notions of superiority were not entirely laid aside, and these caused the passing of some regulations, by which white persons were to enjoy certain privileges. Thus, although the form of trial for all casts is the same, in certain places only can capital punishments be inflicted upon the favoured race; the people of colour are not eligible tosome of the chief offices of government, nor can they become members of the priesthood.From the mildness of the laws, however, the mixed casts have gained ground considerably; the regulations which exist against them are evaded, or rather they have become obsolete. Perhaps the heroic conduct of Camaram and Henrique Dias, the Indian and negro chieftains, in the famous and most interesting contest between the Pernambucans and the Dutch, and the honours subsequently granted by the crown of Portugal to both of them, may have led to the exaltation of the general character of the much-injured varieties of the human species of which they were members. Familiarity between the chieftains of the several corps must be the consequence of their embarkation in the same cause, when the war is one of skirmishes, of ambuscades, of continual alarm, of assistance constantly afforded to each other; a patriotic war, against a foreign invader, in which difference of religion exists, and each party mortally hates the other. On these occasions all men are equal, or he only is superior whose strength and whose activity surpasses that of others. The amalgamation of casts which is caused by this consciousness of equality could not have had a fairer field for its full accomplishment, than the war to which I have alluded; and the friendships which were formed under these circumstances would not easily be broken off. Although the parties who had been so united might have been, in their situations in life very far removed from each other, still the participation of equal danger must render dear the companions in peril, and make the feelings which had been roused on these occasions of long duration; they would continue to act, long after the cessation of the series of occurrences which had called them forth.The free population of Brazil at the present time consists of Europeans; Brazilians, that is, white persons born in Brazil; mulattos, that is, the mixed cast between the whites and blacks, and all the varieties into which it can branch; mamalucos, that is, the mixed cast between the whites and Indians, and all its varieties;Indians in a domesticated state, who are called generally Caboclos; and those who still remain in a savage state, and are called generally Tapuyas; negroes born in Brazil, and manumitted Africans; lastly, Mestizos, that is, the mixed cast between the Indians and negroes. Of slaves, I shall speak by and by more at large; these are Africans, creole negroes, mulattos, and mestizos. The maxim of the civil law,partus sequitur ventrem, is in force here as well as in the colonies of other nations.[199]These several mixtures of the human race have their shades of difference of character as well as of colour. First we must treat of the whites. The Europeans who are not in office, or who are not military men, are, generally speaking, adventurers who have arrived in that country with little or no capital. These men commence their career in low situations of life, but by parsimony and continual exertion directed to one end, that of amassing money, they often attain their object, and pass the evening of their lives in opulence. These habits fail not, oftentimes, to give a bias to their dispositions, which is unallied to generosity and liberality. They look down upon the Brazilians, or rather they wish to consider themselves superior to them; and until lately the government took no pains to remove the jealousy which existed between the two descriptions of white persons; and even now, not so much attention is paid to the subject as its great importance seems to require.[200]The Brazilian white man of large property, who draws his descent from the first Donatory of a province, or whose family has for some generations enjoyed distinction, entertains a high opinion of his own importance, which may sometimes appear ridiculous; but which much oftener leads him to acts of generosity,—to the adoption of liberal ideas,—to honourable conduct. If he has been well educated, and has had the good fortune to have been instructed by a priest whose ideas are enlightened, who gives a proper latitude for difference of opinion, who tolerates as he is tolerated, then the character of a young Brazilian exhibits much to admire. Surrounded by numerous relatives, and by his immediate dependants, living in a vast and half-civilized country, he is endued with much independence of language and behaviour, which are softened by the subordination which has been imbibed during his course of education. That this is general, I pretend not to say; few persons are instructed in a proper manner, and again, few are those who profit by the education which they have received; but more numerous are the individuals who now undergo necessary tuition, for powerful motives have arisen to urge the attainment of knowledge.I have heard it often observed, and I cannot help saying that I think some truth is to be attached to the remark, in the country of which I am treating, that women are usually less lenient to their slaves than men, but this doubtless proceeds from the ignorant state in which they are brought up; they scarcely receive any education, and have not the advantages of obtaining instruction from communication with persons who are unconnected with their own way of life; of imbibing new ideas from general conversation. They are born, bred, and continue surrounded by slaves without receiving any check, with high notions of superiority, without any thought that what they do is wrong. Bring these women forwards, educate them, treat them as rational, as equal beings, and they will be in no respect inferior to their countrymen; the fault is not with the sex, but in the state of the human being. As soon as a child begins to crawl, a slave of about its own age and of the same sex is given to it as aplayfellow, or rather as a plaything; they grow up together, and the slave is made the stock upon which the young owner gives vent to passion; the slave is sent upon all errands, and receives the blame of all unfortunate accidents;—in fact, the white child is thus encouraged to be overbearing, owing to the false fondness of its parents. Upon the boys the effect is less visible in after-life, because the world curbs and checks them, but the girls do not stir from home, and therefore have no opportunities of wearing off these pernicious habits. It is only surprising that so many excellent women should be found among them, and by no means strange that the disposition of some of them should be injured by this unfortunate direction of their infant years.As vegetation rapidly advances in such climates, so the animal sooner arrives at maturity than in those of less genial warmth; and here again education is rendered doubly necessary to lead the mind to new ideas, to curb the passions, to give a sense of honour, and to instil feelings of that species of pride which is so necessary to a becoming line of conduct. The state of society, the climate, and the celibacy of the numerous priesthood, cause the number of illegitimate children to be very great; but here theroda dos engeitados, and a custom which shews the natural goodness of the people, prevent the frequent occurrence of infanticide, or rather render it almost unknown. An infant is frequently during the night laid at the door of a rich person, and on being discovered in the morning is taken in, and is almost invariably allowed to remain; it is brought up with the children of the house (if its colour is not too dark to admit of this,) certainly as a dependant, but not as a servant; however a considerable tinge of colour will not prevent it from being reared with the white children. Theseengeitadosor rejected ones, as individuals who are so circumstanced are called, are frequently to be met with, and I heard of few exceptions to the general kindness with which they are treated. Public feeling is much against the refusing to accept and rear anengeitado; the owner of a house, who is in easy circumstances, and yet sends the infant from his own door to the publicinstitution which is provided for its reception, is generally spoken of in terms of indignation. Sometimes a poor man will find one of these presents at his door, and he will generally place it at the landholder’s threshold on the following night; this is accounted excusable and even meritorious, for at the Great House the child has nearly a certainty of being well taken care of.I have observed that, generally speaking, Europeans are less indulgent to their slaves than Brazilians; the former feed them well, but they require from the poor wretches more labour than they can perform, whilst the latter allow the affairs of their estates to continue in the way in which it has been accustomed to be directed. This difference between the two descriptions of owners is easily accounted for; the European has probably purchased part of his slaves on credit, and has during the whole course of his life made the accumulation of riches his chief object. The Brazilian inherits his estate, and as nothing urges him to the necessity of obtaining large profits, he continues the course that has been pointed out to him by the former possessors. His habits of quietude and indolence have led him to be easy and indifferent, and although he may not provide for the maintenance of his slaves with so much care as the European, still they find more time to seek for food themselves. That avaricious spirit which deliberately works a man or a brute animal[201]until it is unfit for farther service, without any regard to the well-being of the creature, which is thus treated as a mere machine, as if it was formed of wood or iron, is however seldom to be met with in those parts of the country which I visited. Instances of cruelty occur (as has been, and will yet be seen,) but these proceed from individual depravity, and not from systematic, cold-blooded, calculating indifference to the means by which a desired end is to be compassed.Notwithstanding the relationship of the mulattos on one side to the black race, they consider themselves superior to the mamalucos; they lean to the whites, and from the light in which the Indians areheld, pride themselves upon being totally unconnected with them. Still the mulattos are conscious of their connection with men who are in a state of slavery, and that many persons even of their own colour are under these degraded circumstances; they have therefore always a feeling of inferiority in the company of white men, if these white men are wealthy and powerful. This inferiority of rank is not so much felt by white persons in the lower walks of life, and these are more easily led to become familiar with individuals of their own colour who are in wealthy circumstances. Still the inferiority which the mulatto feels is more that which is produced by poverty than that which his colour has caused, for he will be equally respectful to a person of his own cast, who may happen to be rich[202]. The degraded state of the people of colour in the British colonies is most lamentable[203]. In Brazil, even the trifling regulations which exist against them remain unattended to. A mulatto enters into holy orders or is appointed a magistrate, his papers stating him to be a white man, but his appearance plainly denoting the contrary. In conversing on one occasion with a man of colour who was in my service, I asked him if a certainCapitam-morwas not a mulatto man; he answered, “he was, but is not now[204].” I begged him to explain, when he added, “Can aCapitam-morbe a mulatto man[205]?” I was intimately acquainted with a priest, whose complexion and hair plainly denoted from whence he drew his origin; I liked him much, he was a well educated and intelligent man. Besides this individual instance, I met with several others of the same description.The regiments of militia which are called mulatto regiments, are so named from all the officers and men being of mixed casts; norcan white persons be admitted into them. The principal officers are men of property, and the colonel, like the commander of any other regiment, is only amenable to the governor of the province. In the white militia regiments, the officers ought to be by law white men; but in practice they are rather reputed white men, for very little pains are taken to prove that there is no mixture of blood. Great numbers of the soldiers belonging to the regiments which are officered by white men, are mulattos, and other persons of colour. The regiments of the line, likewise, (as I have elsewhere said) admit into the ranks all persons excepting negroes and Indians; but the officers of these must prove nobility of birth; however, as certain degrees of nobility have been conferred upon persons in whose families there is much mixture of blood, this proof cannot be regarded as being required against the mulatto or mamaluco part of the population. Thus an European adventurer could not obtain a commission in these regiments, whilst a Brazilian, whose family has distinguished itself in the province in former times, will prove his eligibility without regard to the blood which runs in his veins. He is noble, let that flow from whence it may.[206]The late colonel of the mulatto regiment of Recife, by name Nogueira, went to Lisbon, and returned to Pernambuco with the Order of Christ, which the Queen had conferred upon him[207]. A chief person of one of the provinces is the son of a white man and a woman of colour; he has received an excellent education, is of a generous disposition, and entertains most liberal views upon all subjects. He has been made a colonel, and a degree ofnobility has been conferred upon him; likewise the Regent is sponsor to one of his children. Many other instances might be mentioned. Thus has Portugal, of late years from policy, continued that system into which she was led by her peculiar circumstances in former times. Some of the wealthy planters of Pernambuco, and of the rich inhabitants of Recife are men of colour. The major part of the best mechanics are also of mixed blood.It is said that mulattos make bad masters; and this holds good oftentimes with persons of this description, who have been in a state of slavery, and become possessed of slaves of their own, or are employed as managers upon estates. The change of situation would lead to the same consequences in any race of human beings, and cannot be accounted peculiar to the mixed casts. I have seen mulattos of free birth as kind, as lenient, and as forbearing to their slaves and other dependants as any white man.Marriages between white men and women of colour are by no means rare, though they are sufficiently so to cause the circumstance to be mentioned when speaking of an individual who has connected himself in this manner; but this is not said with the intent of lowering him in the estimation of others. Indeed the remark is only made if the person is a planter of any importance, and the woman is decidedly of dark colour, for even a considerable tinge will pass for white; if the white man belongs to the lower orders, the woman is not accounted as being unequal to him in rank, unless she is nearly black. The European adventurers often marry in this manner, which generally occurs when the woman has a dower. The rich mulatto families are often glad to dispose of their daughters to these men, although the person who has been fixed upon may be in indifferent circumstances; for the colour of the children of their daughters is bettered, and from the well-known prudence and regularity of this set of men, a large fortune may be hoped for even from very small beginnings. Whilst I was at Jaguaribe, I was in the frequent habit of seeing a handsome young man, who was a native of the island of St. Michael’s. This person happened to be withme on one occasion when the commandant from the Sertam was staying at my house. The commandant asked him if he could read and write, and being answered in the negative, said, “then you will not do,” and turning to me, added, “I have a commission from a friend of mine to take with me back to the Sertam a good-looking young Portugueze of regular habits, who can read and write, for the purpose of marrying him to his daughter.” These kind of commissions (encommendas) are not unusual.Still the Brazilians of high birth and large property do not like to intermarry with persons whose mixture of blood isveryapparent, and hence arise peculiar circumstances. A man of this description becomes attached to a woman of colour, connects himself with her, and takes her to his home, where she is in a short time even visited by married women; she governs his household affairs, acts and considers herself as his wife, and frequently after the birth of several children, when they are neither of them young, he marries her. In connections of this nature, the parties are more truly attached than in marriages between persons who belong to two families of the first rank; for the latter are entered into from convenience rather than from affection; indeed the parties, on some occasions, do not see each other until a few days before the ceremony takes place. It often occurs, that inclination, necessity, or convenience induce or oblige a man to separate from the person with whom he has thus been connected; in this case, he gives her a portion, and she marries a man of her own rank, who regards her rather as a widow than as one whose conduct has been incorrect. Instances of infidelity in these women are rare; they become attached to the men with whom they cohabit, and they direct the affairs of the houses over which they are placed with the same zeal that they would display if they had the right of command over them. It is greatly to the credit of the people of that country that so much fidelity should be shewn on one side, and that this should so frequently as it is, be rewarded by the other party, in the advancement of those who have behaved thus faithfully, to a respectable and acknowledged situationin society. It should be recollected too that the merit of moral feelings must be judged of by the standard of the country, and not by our own institutions. I have only spoken above of what occurs among the planters; for in large towns man is pretty much the same every where.The Mamalucos are more frequently to be seen in the Sertam than upon the coast. They are handsomer than the mulattos; and the women of this cast particularly surpass in beauty all others of the country; they have the brown tint of mulattos, but their features are less blunt, and their hair is not curled. I do not think that the men can be said to possess more courage than the mulattos; but whether from the knowledge which they have of being of free birth on both sides, or from residing in the interior of the country where government is more loose, they appear to have more independence of character, and to pay less deference to a white man than the mulattos. When women relate any deed of danger that has been surmounted or undertaken, they generally state that the chief actor in it was a large mamaluco,mamalucam; as if they thought this description of men to be superior to all others. Mamalucos may enter into the mulatto regiments, and are pressed into the regiments of the line as being men of colour, without any regard to the sources from which their blood proceeds.Of the domesticated Indians I have already elsewhere given what accounts I could collect, and what I had opportunities of observing. The wild Indians are now only to be met with at a great distance from the coast of Pernambuco; and although they are very near to Maranham, and are dreaded neighbours, I had no means of seeing any of them.I now proceed to mention that numerous and valuable race of men, the creole negroes; a tree of African growth, which has thus been transplanted, cultivated, and much improved by its removal to the New World. The Creole negroes stand alone and unconnected with every other race of men, and this circumstance alone would be sufficient, and indeed contributes much to the effect of uniting themto each other. The mulattos, and all other persons of mixed blood wish to lean towards the whites, if they can possibly lay any claim to relationship. Even the mestizo tries to pass for a mulatto, and to persuade himself and others that his veins contain some portion of white blood, although that with which they are filled proceeds from Indian and negro sources. Those only who can have no pretensions to a mixture of blood, call themselves negroes, which renders the individuals who do pass under this denomination, much attached to each other, from the impossibility of being mistaken for members of any other cast. They are of handsome persons, brave and hardy, obedient to the whites, and willing to please; but they are easily affronted, and the least allusion to their colour being made by a person of a lighter tint, enrages them to a great degree; though they will sometimes say, “a negro I am, but always upright”[208]. They are again distinct from their brethren in slavery, owing to their superior situation as free men.The free creole negroes have their exclusive regiments, as well as the mulattos, of which every officer and soldier must be perfectly black. There are two of these regiments for the province of Pernambuco, which consist of indefinite numbers of men, who are dispersed all over the country. These regiments are distinguished from each other by the names of Old Henriques and New Henriques[209]. The name of Henriques is derived from the famous chieftain, Henrique Diaz, in the time of the Dutch war. I have heard some of the most intelligent of those with whom I have conversed, speak in enthusiastic terms of the aid which he gave to the whites in that struggle. I have seen some portion of one of these regiments, in Recife, accompanying the procession of our Lady of the Rosary, the patroness of negroes. They were dressed in white cloth uniforms turned up with scarlet, and they looked very soldier-like.They were in tolerable discipline, and seemed to wish to go through the duty of the day in the best manner that they were able; they acted with an appearance of zeal and the desire of excelling. Those of which I speak formed a finer body of men than any other soldiers which I had an opportunity of seeing in that country. On gala days the superior black officers in their white uniforms, pay their respects to the governor, exactly in the same manner that the persons of any other cast, holding commissions of equal rank are expected to go through this form. These men receive no pay, so that their neat appearance on such occasions bespeaks a certain degree of wealth among them; neither are the privates nor any other persons belonging to these regiments paid for their services. Some of the whites rather ridicule the black officers, but not in their presence; and the laugh which is raised against them is caused perhaps by a lurking wish to prevent this insulted race from the display of those distinctions which the government has wisely conceded to them, but which hurt the European ideas of superiority. The old regiment of Henriques was, at the time that I resided in Pernambuco, without a colonel, and I heard much discussion on several occasions among the Creole negroes, about the fittest person to be appointed to the vacant situation.[210]The creole negroes of Recife are, generally speaking, mechanics of all descriptions; but they have not yet reached the higher ranks of life, as gentlemen, as planters, and as merchants. Some of them have accumulated considerable sums of money, and possess many slaves, to whom they teach their own trade, or these slaves are taught other mechanical employments by which they may become useful.They work for their owners, and render to them great profits, for every description of labour is high, and that which requires any degree of skill bears even a higher comparative value than the departments of which a knowledge is more easily attained. The best church and image painter of Pernambuco is a black man, who has good manners, and quite the air of a man of some importance, though he does not by any means assume too much. The negroes are excluded from the priesthood[211]; and from the offices which the mulattos may obtain through their evasion of the law, but which the decided and unequivocal colour of the negro entirely precludes him from aspiring to. In law all persons who are not white, and are born free, class equally; manumitted slaves are placed upon the same footing as persons born free. However, although the few exclusions which exist against the negroes are degrading, still in some instances they are befriended by them. They are unable, owing to their colour, to serve in the regiments of the line, or in any regiments excepting those which are exclusively their own; but by means of this regulation they escape the persecutions under which the other casts suffer during the time of recruiting. The officers and men of the Henrique regiments are so united to each other, that the privates and subalterns are less liable to be oppressed by any white man in office even than the soldiers of the mulatto regiments. Of these latter the officers, having a considerable tinge of white, sometimeslean towards the wishes of thecapitam-mor, or some other rich white officer, instead of protecting his soldiers.The men whose occupation it is to apprehend runaway negroes are, almost without exception, creole blacks; they are calledcapitaens-do-campo, captains of the field; and are subject to acapitam-mor do campowho resides in Recife, and they receive their commissions either from the governor or from this officer. By these they are authorised to apprehend and take to their owners any slaves who may be found absent from their homes without their master’s consent. Several of these men are to be found in every district, employing themselves in such pursuits as they think fit, when their services are not required in that calling which forms their particular duty. They are men of undaunted courage, and are usually followed by two or three dogs, which are trained to seek out, and if necessary to attack and bring to the ground those persons whose apprehension their masters are desirous of effecting. The men who bear these commissions can oblige any unauthorised person to give up to them an apprehended negro, for the purpose of being by them returned to his owner.It is scarcely necessary to name the mestizos, for they usually class with the mulattos; nor are they to be easily distinguished from some of the darker varieties of this cast. A dark coloured man of a disagreeable countenance and badly formed person is commonly called a mestizo, without any reference to his origin.Yet one race of human beings remain to be spoken of; but the individuals who compose it are not sufficiently numerous to permit them to take their place among the several great divisions of the human family which form the population of Brazil, and therefore I did not rank this among the others which are of more importance. Still theçiganos[212], for thus they are called, must not be forgotten. I frequently heard of these people, but never had an opportunity of seeing any of them. Parties ofçiganoswere in the habit of appearing formerlyonce every year at the village of Pasmado, and other places in that part of the country; but the late governor of the province was inimical to them, and some attempts having been made to apprehend some of them, their visits were discontinued. They are represented as being a people of a brownish cast, with features which resemble those of white persons, and as being tall and handsome. They wander from place to place in parties of men, women, and children; exchanging, buying, and selling horses, and gold and silver trinkets. The women travel on horseback, sitting between the panniers of the loaded horses, and the young ones are placed within the panniers among the baggage. The men are excellent horsemen, and although the pack-horses may be overburthened, these fellows will only accommodate matters by riding slowly upon their own horses, and never think of dividing the loads more equally; but they preserve themselves and the animals upon which they ride quite unencumbered. They are said to be unmindful of all religious observances; and never to hear Mass or confess their sins. It is likewise said that they never marry out of their own nation.There are now several British merchants established at Recife, and a consul likewise resides at that place; but at the time of my coming away, there was no protestant chapel, no clergyman, nor even a burial ground for our countrymen. An Act of Parliament has, I believe, provided for the establishment of these things, but no steps have been taken towards the accomplishment of the directions of the legislature. Without any outward appearance of religion, how are we to expect that the people of Brazil are to regard us as any thing better than what we were represented to them as being in former times?—as pagans, animals, and horses—pagoens,bichos, andcavallos, this is literally true; and although they are now aware that at any rate we have the forms of human beings, that we have the power of speech, and that we have our share of intellect in all the common transactions of the world, still how are we to look for respect from them towards a set of men, who have no appearance at least, of possessing any religious feelings? It should be recollected that we areliving among a people who are deeply rivetted to their own forms and ceremonies of worship, whose devotedness to their church establishment surpasses every other feeling. It is not thus that the British nation is to become respectable; we may have relations of trade with these people, but we must be content to be merely regarded according to our utility; there can be no respect for our general character as a body of men, none of that regard which would make us listened to in any great question, which would make our opinions and our assertions depended upon as coming from men of steadiness,—of religious habits. Nor can we be accounted as more than residents for a time, we cannot be considered as an established community, who are thus without any common bond of union, who have not any general place of meeting, who have not any one point to which all are directed; we have no appearance of belonging to one nation, as if we were brethren meeting in a foreign land. To these political reasons for the establishment of a place of worship are to be added those which are of far greater importance, those to which no Christian ought to be indifferent. I well know that it is not with the merchants that the evil arises;—but enough, I will go no farther, although I could tarry long upon this subject. I wish however that I could have avoided the mention of it altogether. I might have done so, if I had not felt that I was passing by unnoticed a subject upon which I have often spoken whilst I was upon the spot; and there my sentiments are well known to most of those persons with whom I associated.

THE FREE POPULATION.

THE insufficiency of the population of Portugal to the almost unbounded plans of the rulers of that kingdom, has, in all probability, saved her South American possessions from the dreadful contests which are to be apprehended in the neighbouring Spanish colonies, between the Creole white inhabitants and those of colour. The struggle yet rages with exterminating violence between the descendants of Europeans, born in South America, and the natives of Old Spain; but when this is at an end, another equally, if not more destructive, is to be looked for between the former and their countrymen of mixed casts. The appeal which the creole whites have made to the people, and the declarations which they have publicly set forth, of directing their proceedings by their voice; the exposure of those abstract principles of government which are so delightful in theory, but so difficult of execution, will, most probably, bring down upon their heads the destruction which has thus been courted. In the Portugueze South American dominions, circumstances have directed that there should be no division of casts, and very few of those degrading and most galling distinctions which have been made by all other nations in the management of their colonies. That this was not intended by the mother country, but was rather submitted to from necessity, is to be discovered in some few regulations, which plainly shew, that if Portugal could have preservedthe superiority of the whites, she would, as well as her neighbours, have established laws for this purpose. The rulers of Portugal wished to colonize to an unlimited extent; but their country did not possess a population sufficiently numerous for their magnificent plans. Adventurers left their own country to settle in the New World, who were literally adventurers; for they had not any settled plans of life, and they were without families. Persons of established habits, who had the wish to follow any of the ordinary means of gaining a livelihood, found employment at home; neither could Portugal spare them, nor did they wish to leave their native soil. There was no superabundance of population, and therefore every man might find occupation at home, if he had steadiness to look for it; there was no division in political or religious opinion; there was no necessity for emigration, save that which was urged by crimes. Thus the generality of the men who embarked in the expeditions which were fitted out for Brazil, were unaccompanied by females, and therefore, naturally, on their arrival in that country, they married, or irregularly connected themselves with Indian women, and subsequently with those of Africa. It is true that orphan girls were sent out by the government of Portugal[198], but these were necessarily few in number. In the course of another generation, the colonists married the women of mixed casts, owing to the impossibility of obtaining those of their own colour; and the frequency of the custom, and the silence of the laws upon the subject, removed all idea of degradation, in thus connecting themselves. Still the European notions of superiority were not entirely laid aside, and these caused the passing of some regulations, by which white persons were to enjoy certain privileges. Thus, although the form of trial for all casts is the same, in certain places only can capital punishments be inflicted upon the favoured race; the people of colour are not eligible tosome of the chief offices of government, nor can they become members of the priesthood.

From the mildness of the laws, however, the mixed casts have gained ground considerably; the regulations which exist against them are evaded, or rather they have become obsolete. Perhaps the heroic conduct of Camaram and Henrique Dias, the Indian and negro chieftains, in the famous and most interesting contest between the Pernambucans and the Dutch, and the honours subsequently granted by the crown of Portugal to both of them, may have led to the exaltation of the general character of the much-injured varieties of the human species of which they were members. Familiarity between the chieftains of the several corps must be the consequence of their embarkation in the same cause, when the war is one of skirmishes, of ambuscades, of continual alarm, of assistance constantly afforded to each other; a patriotic war, against a foreign invader, in which difference of religion exists, and each party mortally hates the other. On these occasions all men are equal, or he only is superior whose strength and whose activity surpasses that of others. The amalgamation of casts which is caused by this consciousness of equality could not have had a fairer field for its full accomplishment, than the war to which I have alluded; and the friendships which were formed under these circumstances would not easily be broken off. Although the parties who had been so united might have been, in their situations in life very far removed from each other, still the participation of equal danger must render dear the companions in peril, and make the feelings which had been roused on these occasions of long duration; they would continue to act, long after the cessation of the series of occurrences which had called them forth.

The free population of Brazil at the present time consists of Europeans; Brazilians, that is, white persons born in Brazil; mulattos, that is, the mixed cast between the whites and blacks, and all the varieties into which it can branch; mamalucos, that is, the mixed cast between the whites and Indians, and all its varieties;Indians in a domesticated state, who are called generally Caboclos; and those who still remain in a savage state, and are called generally Tapuyas; negroes born in Brazil, and manumitted Africans; lastly, Mestizos, that is, the mixed cast between the Indians and negroes. Of slaves, I shall speak by and by more at large; these are Africans, creole negroes, mulattos, and mestizos. The maxim of the civil law,partus sequitur ventrem, is in force here as well as in the colonies of other nations.[199]

These several mixtures of the human race have their shades of difference of character as well as of colour. First we must treat of the whites. The Europeans who are not in office, or who are not military men, are, generally speaking, adventurers who have arrived in that country with little or no capital. These men commence their career in low situations of life, but by parsimony and continual exertion directed to one end, that of amassing money, they often attain their object, and pass the evening of their lives in opulence. These habits fail not, oftentimes, to give a bias to their dispositions, which is unallied to generosity and liberality. They look down upon the Brazilians, or rather they wish to consider themselves superior to them; and until lately the government took no pains to remove the jealousy which existed between the two descriptions of white persons; and even now, not so much attention is paid to the subject as its great importance seems to require.[200]

The Brazilian white man of large property, who draws his descent from the first Donatory of a province, or whose family has for some generations enjoyed distinction, entertains a high opinion of his own importance, which may sometimes appear ridiculous; but which much oftener leads him to acts of generosity,—to the adoption of liberal ideas,—to honourable conduct. If he has been well educated, and has had the good fortune to have been instructed by a priest whose ideas are enlightened, who gives a proper latitude for difference of opinion, who tolerates as he is tolerated, then the character of a young Brazilian exhibits much to admire. Surrounded by numerous relatives, and by his immediate dependants, living in a vast and half-civilized country, he is endued with much independence of language and behaviour, which are softened by the subordination which has been imbibed during his course of education. That this is general, I pretend not to say; few persons are instructed in a proper manner, and again, few are those who profit by the education which they have received; but more numerous are the individuals who now undergo necessary tuition, for powerful motives have arisen to urge the attainment of knowledge.

I have heard it often observed, and I cannot help saying that I think some truth is to be attached to the remark, in the country of which I am treating, that women are usually less lenient to their slaves than men, but this doubtless proceeds from the ignorant state in which they are brought up; they scarcely receive any education, and have not the advantages of obtaining instruction from communication with persons who are unconnected with their own way of life; of imbibing new ideas from general conversation. They are born, bred, and continue surrounded by slaves without receiving any check, with high notions of superiority, without any thought that what they do is wrong. Bring these women forwards, educate them, treat them as rational, as equal beings, and they will be in no respect inferior to their countrymen; the fault is not with the sex, but in the state of the human being. As soon as a child begins to crawl, a slave of about its own age and of the same sex is given to it as aplayfellow, or rather as a plaything; they grow up together, and the slave is made the stock upon which the young owner gives vent to passion; the slave is sent upon all errands, and receives the blame of all unfortunate accidents;—in fact, the white child is thus encouraged to be overbearing, owing to the false fondness of its parents. Upon the boys the effect is less visible in after-life, because the world curbs and checks them, but the girls do not stir from home, and therefore have no opportunities of wearing off these pernicious habits. It is only surprising that so many excellent women should be found among them, and by no means strange that the disposition of some of them should be injured by this unfortunate direction of their infant years.

As vegetation rapidly advances in such climates, so the animal sooner arrives at maturity than in those of less genial warmth; and here again education is rendered doubly necessary to lead the mind to new ideas, to curb the passions, to give a sense of honour, and to instil feelings of that species of pride which is so necessary to a becoming line of conduct. The state of society, the climate, and the celibacy of the numerous priesthood, cause the number of illegitimate children to be very great; but here theroda dos engeitados, and a custom which shews the natural goodness of the people, prevent the frequent occurrence of infanticide, or rather render it almost unknown. An infant is frequently during the night laid at the door of a rich person, and on being discovered in the morning is taken in, and is almost invariably allowed to remain; it is brought up with the children of the house (if its colour is not too dark to admit of this,) certainly as a dependant, but not as a servant; however a considerable tinge of colour will not prevent it from being reared with the white children. Theseengeitadosor rejected ones, as individuals who are so circumstanced are called, are frequently to be met with, and I heard of few exceptions to the general kindness with which they are treated. Public feeling is much against the refusing to accept and rear anengeitado; the owner of a house, who is in easy circumstances, and yet sends the infant from his own door to the publicinstitution which is provided for its reception, is generally spoken of in terms of indignation. Sometimes a poor man will find one of these presents at his door, and he will generally place it at the landholder’s threshold on the following night; this is accounted excusable and even meritorious, for at the Great House the child has nearly a certainty of being well taken care of.

I have observed that, generally speaking, Europeans are less indulgent to their slaves than Brazilians; the former feed them well, but they require from the poor wretches more labour than they can perform, whilst the latter allow the affairs of their estates to continue in the way in which it has been accustomed to be directed. This difference between the two descriptions of owners is easily accounted for; the European has probably purchased part of his slaves on credit, and has during the whole course of his life made the accumulation of riches his chief object. The Brazilian inherits his estate, and as nothing urges him to the necessity of obtaining large profits, he continues the course that has been pointed out to him by the former possessors. His habits of quietude and indolence have led him to be easy and indifferent, and although he may not provide for the maintenance of his slaves with so much care as the European, still they find more time to seek for food themselves. That avaricious spirit which deliberately works a man or a brute animal[201]until it is unfit for farther service, without any regard to the well-being of the creature, which is thus treated as a mere machine, as if it was formed of wood or iron, is however seldom to be met with in those parts of the country which I visited. Instances of cruelty occur (as has been, and will yet be seen,) but these proceed from individual depravity, and not from systematic, cold-blooded, calculating indifference to the means by which a desired end is to be compassed.

Notwithstanding the relationship of the mulattos on one side to the black race, they consider themselves superior to the mamalucos; they lean to the whites, and from the light in which the Indians areheld, pride themselves upon being totally unconnected with them. Still the mulattos are conscious of their connection with men who are in a state of slavery, and that many persons even of their own colour are under these degraded circumstances; they have therefore always a feeling of inferiority in the company of white men, if these white men are wealthy and powerful. This inferiority of rank is not so much felt by white persons in the lower walks of life, and these are more easily led to become familiar with individuals of their own colour who are in wealthy circumstances. Still the inferiority which the mulatto feels is more that which is produced by poverty than that which his colour has caused, for he will be equally respectful to a person of his own cast, who may happen to be rich[202]. The degraded state of the people of colour in the British colonies is most lamentable[203]. In Brazil, even the trifling regulations which exist against them remain unattended to. A mulatto enters into holy orders or is appointed a magistrate, his papers stating him to be a white man, but his appearance plainly denoting the contrary. In conversing on one occasion with a man of colour who was in my service, I asked him if a certainCapitam-morwas not a mulatto man; he answered, “he was, but is not now[204].” I begged him to explain, when he added, “Can aCapitam-morbe a mulatto man[205]?” I was intimately acquainted with a priest, whose complexion and hair plainly denoted from whence he drew his origin; I liked him much, he was a well educated and intelligent man. Besides this individual instance, I met with several others of the same description.

The regiments of militia which are called mulatto regiments, are so named from all the officers and men being of mixed casts; norcan white persons be admitted into them. The principal officers are men of property, and the colonel, like the commander of any other regiment, is only amenable to the governor of the province. In the white militia regiments, the officers ought to be by law white men; but in practice they are rather reputed white men, for very little pains are taken to prove that there is no mixture of blood. Great numbers of the soldiers belonging to the regiments which are officered by white men, are mulattos, and other persons of colour. The regiments of the line, likewise, (as I have elsewhere said) admit into the ranks all persons excepting negroes and Indians; but the officers of these must prove nobility of birth; however, as certain degrees of nobility have been conferred upon persons in whose families there is much mixture of blood, this proof cannot be regarded as being required against the mulatto or mamaluco part of the population. Thus an European adventurer could not obtain a commission in these regiments, whilst a Brazilian, whose family has distinguished itself in the province in former times, will prove his eligibility without regard to the blood which runs in his veins. He is noble, let that flow from whence it may.[206]

The late colonel of the mulatto regiment of Recife, by name Nogueira, went to Lisbon, and returned to Pernambuco with the Order of Christ, which the Queen had conferred upon him[207]. A chief person of one of the provinces is the son of a white man and a woman of colour; he has received an excellent education, is of a generous disposition, and entertains most liberal views upon all subjects. He has been made a colonel, and a degree ofnobility has been conferred upon him; likewise the Regent is sponsor to one of his children. Many other instances might be mentioned. Thus has Portugal, of late years from policy, continued that system into which she was led by her peculiar circumstances in former times. Some of the wealthy planters of Pernambuco, and of the rich inhabitants of Recife are men of colour. The major part of the best mechanics are also of mixed blood.

It is said that mulattos make bad masters; and this holds good oftentimes with persons of this description, who have been in a state of slavery, and become possessed of slaves of their own, or are employed as managers upon estates. The change of situation would lead to the same consequences in any race of human beings, and cannot be accounted peculiar to the mixed casts. I have seen mulattos of free birth as kind, as lenient, and as forbearing to their slaves and other dependants as any white man.

Marriages between white men and women of colour are by no means rare, though they are sufficiently so to cause the circumstance to be mentioned when speaking of an individual who has connected himself in this manner; but this is not said with the intent of lowering him in the estimation of others. Indeed the remark is only made if the person is a planter of any importance, and the woman is decidedly of dark colour, for even a considerable tinge will pass for white; if the white man belongs to the lower orders, the woman is not accounted as being unequal to him in rank, unless she is nearly black. The European adventurers often marry in this manner, which generally occurs when the woman has a dower. The rich mulatto families are often glad to dispose of their daughters to these men, although the person who has been fixed upon may be in indifferent circumstances; for the colour of the children of their daughters is bettered, and from the well-known prudence and regularity of this set of men, a large fortune may be hoped for even from very small beginnings. Whilst I was at Jaguaribe, I was in the frequent habit of seeing a handsome young man, who was a native of the island of St. Michael’s. This person happened to be withme on one occasion when the commandant from the Sertam was staying at my house. The commandant asked him if he could read and write, and being answered in the negative, said, “then you will not do,” and turning to me, added, “I have a commission from a friend of mine to take with me back to the Sertam a good-looking young Portugueze of regular habits, who can read and write, for the purpose of marrying him to his daughter.” These kind of commissions (encommendas) are not unusual.

Still the Brazilians of high birth and large property do not like to intermarry with persons whose mixture of blood isveryapparent, and hence arise peculiar circumstances. A man of this description becomes attached to a woman of colour, connects himself with her, and takes her to his home, where she is in a short time even visited by married women; she governs his household affairs, acts and considers herself as his wife, and frequently after the birth of several children, when they are neither of them young, he marries her. In connections of this nature, the parties are more truly attached than in marriages between persons who belong to two families of the first rank; for the latter are entered into from convenience rather than from affection; indeed the parties, on some occasions, do not see each other until a few days before the ceremony takes place. It often occurs, that inclination, necessity, or convenience induce or oblige a man to separate from the person with whom he has thus been connected; in this case, he gives her a portion, and she marries a man of her own rank, who regards her rather as a widow than as one whose conduct has been incorrect. Instances of infidelity in these women are rare; they become attached to the men with whom they cohabit, and they direct the affairs of the houses over which they are placed with the same zeal that they would display if they had the right of command over them. It is greatly to the credit of the people of that country that so much fidelity should be shewn on one side, and that this should so frequently as it is, be rewarded by the other party, in the advancement of those who have behaved thus faithfully, to a respectable and acknowledged situationin society. It should be recollected too that the merit of moral feelings must be judged of by the standard of the country, and not by our own institutions. I have only spoken above of what occurs among the planters; for in large towns man is pretty much the same every where.

The Mamalucos are more frequently to be seen in the Sertam than upon the coast. They are handsomer than the mulattos; and the women of this cast particularly surpass in beauty all others of the country; they have the brown tint of mulattos, but their features are less blunt, and their hair is not curled. I do not think that the men can be said to possess more courage than the mulattos; but whether from the knowledge which they have of being of free birth on both sides, or from residing in the interior of the country where government is more loose, they appear to have more independence of character, and to pay less deference to a white man than the mulattos. When women relate any deed of danger that has been surmounted or undertaken, they generally state that the chief actor in it was a large mamaluco,mamalucam; as if they thought this description of men to be superior to all others. Mamalucos may enter into the mulatto regiments, and are pressed into the regiments of the line as being men of colour, without any regard to the sources from which their blood proceeds.

Of the domesticated Indians I have already elsewhere given what accounts I could collect, and what I had opportunities of observing. The wild Indians are now only to be met with at a great distance from the coast of Pernambuco; and although they are very near to Maranham, and are dreaded neighbours, I had no means of seeing any of them.

I now proceed to mention that numerous and valuable race of men, the creole negroes; a tree of African growth, which has thus been transplanted, cultivated, and much improved by its removal to the New World. The Creole negroes stand alone and unconnected with every other race of men, and this circumstance alone would be sufficient, and indeed contributes much to the effect of uniting themto each other. The mulattos, and all other persons of mixed blood wish to lean towards the whites, if they can possibly lay any claim to relationship. Even the mestizo tries to pass for a mulatto, and to persuade himself and others that his veins contain some portion of white blood, although that with which they are filled proceeds from Indian and negro sources. Those only who can have no pretensions to a mixture of blood, call themselves negroes, which renders the individuals who do pass under this denomination, much attached to each other, from the impossibility of being mistaken for members of any other cast. They are of handsome persons, brave and hardy, obedient to the whites, and willing to please; but they are easily affronted, and the least allusion to their colour being made by a person of a lighter tint, enrages them to a great degree; though they will sometimes say, “a negro I am, but always upright”[208]. They are again distinct from their brethren in slavery, owing to their superior situation as free men.

The free creole negroes have their exclusive regiments, as well as the mulattos, of which every officer and soldier must be perfectly black. There are two of these regiments for the province of Pernambuco, which consist of indefinite numbers of men, who are dispersed all over the country. These regiments are distinguished from each other by the names of Old Henriques and New Henriques[209]. The name of Henriques is derived from the famous chieftain, Henrique Diaz, in the time of the Dutch war. I have heard some of the most intelligent of those with whom I have conversed, speak in enthusiastic terms of the aid which he gave to the whites in that struggle. I have seen some portion of one of these regiments, in Recife, accompanying the procession of our Lady of the Rosary, the patroness of negroes. They were dressed in white cloth uniforms turned up with scarlet, and they looked very soldier-like.They were in tolerable discipline, and seemed to wish to go through the duty of the day in the best manner that they were able; they acted with an appearance of zeal and the desire of excelling. Those of which I speak formed a finer body of men than any other soldiers which I had an opportunity of seeing in that country. On gala days the superior black officers in their white uniforms, pay their respects to the governor, exactly in the same manner that the persons of any other cast, holding commissions of equal rank are expected to go through this form. These men receive no pay, so that their neat appearance on such occasions bespeaks a certain degree of wealth among them; neither are the privates nor any other persons belonging to these regiments paid for their services. Some of the whites rather ridicule the black officers, but not in their presence; and the laugh which is raised against them is caused perhaps by a lurking wish to prevent this insulted race from the display of those distinctions which the government has wisely conceded to them, but which hurt the European ideas of superiority. The old regiment of Henriques was, at the time that I resided in Pernambuco, without a colonel, and I heard much discussion on several occasions among the Creole negroes, about the fittest person to be appointed to the vacant situation.[210]

The creole negroes of Recife are, generally speaking, mechanics of all descriptions; but they have not yet reached the higher ranks of life, as gentlemen, as planters, and as merchants. Some of them have accumulated considerable sums of money, and possess many slaves, to whom they teach their own trade, or these slaves are taught other mechanical employments by which they may become useful.They work for their owners, and render to them great profits, for every description of labour is high, and that which requires any degree of skill bears even a higher comparative value than the departments of which a knowledge is more easily attained. The best church and image painter of Pernambuco is a black man, who has good manners, and quite the air of a man of some importance, though he does not by any means assume too much. The negroes are excluded from the priesthood[211]; and from the offices which the mulattos may obtain through their evasion of the law, but which the decided and unequivocal colour of the negro entirely precludes him from aspiring to. In law all persons who are not white, and are born free, class equally; manumitted slaves are placed upon the same footing as persons born free. However, although the few exclusions which exist against the negroes are degrading, still in some instances they are befriended by them. They are unable, owing to their colour, to serve in the regiments of the line, or in any regiments excepting those which are exclusively their own; but by means of this regulation they escape the persecutions under which the other casts suffer during the time of recruiting. The officers and men of the Henrique regiments are so united to each other, that the privates and subalterns are less liable to be oppressed by any white man in office even than the soldiers of the mulatto regiments. Of these latter the officers, having a considerable tinge of white, sometimeslean towards the wishes of thecapitam-mor, or some other rich white officer, instead of protecting his soldiers.

The men whose occupation it is to apprehend runaway negroes are, almost without exception, creole blacks; they are calledcapitaens-do-campo, captains of the field; and are subject to acapitam-mor do campowho resides in Recife, and they receive their commissions either from the governor or from this officer. By these they are authorised to apprehend and take to their owners any slaves who may be found absent from their homes without their master’s consent. Several of these men are to be found in every district, employing themselves in such pursuits as they think fit, when their services are not required in that calling which forms their particular duty. They are men of undaunted courage, and are usually followed by two or three dogs, which are trained to seek out, and if necessary to attack and bring to the ground those persons whose apprehension their masters are desirous of effecting. The men who bear these commissions can oblige any unauthorised person to give up to them an apprehended negro, for the purpose of being by them returned to his owner.

It is scarcely necessary to name the mestizos, for they usually class with the mulattos; nor are they to be easily distinguished from some of the darker varieties of this cast. A dark coloured man of a disagreeable countenance and badly formed person is commonly called a mestizo, without any reference to his origin.

Yet one race of human beings remain to be spoken of; but the individuals who compose it are not sufficiently numerous to permit them to take their place among the several great divisions of the human family which form the population of Brazil, and therefore I did not rank this among the others which are of more importance. Still theçiganos[212], for thus they are called, must not be forgotten. I frequently heard of these people, but never had an opportunity of seeing any of them. Parties ofçiganoswere in the habit of appearing formerlyonce every year at the village of Pasmado, and other places in that part of the country; but the late governor of the province was inimical to them, and some attempts having been made to apprehend some of them, their visits were discontinued. They are represented as being a people of a brownish cast, with features which resemble those of white persons, and as being tall and handsome. They wander from place to place in parties of men, women, and children; exchanging, buying, and selling horses, and gold and silver trinkets. The women travel on horseback, sitting between the panniers of the loaded horses, and the young ones are placed within the panniers among the baggage. The men are excellent horsemen, and although the pack-horses may be overburthened, these fellows will only accommodate matters by riding slowly upon their own horses, and never think of dividing the loads more equally; but they preserve themselves and the animals upon which they ride quite unencumbered. They are said to be unmindful of all religious observances; and never to hear Mass or confess their sins. It is likewise said that they never marry out of their own nation.

There are now several British merchants established at Recife, and a consul likewise resides at that place; but at the time of my coming away, there was no protestant chapel, no clergyman, nor even a burial ground for our countrymen. An Act of Parliament has, I believe, provided for the establishment of these things, but no steps have been taken towards the accomplishment of the directions of the legislature. Without any outward appearance of religion, how are we to expect that the people of Brazil are to regard us as any thing better than what we were represented to them as being in former times?—as pagans, animals, and horses—pagoens,bichos, andcavallos, this is literally true; and although they are now aware that at any rate we have the forms of human beings, that we have the power of speech, and that we have our share of intellect in all the common transactions of the world, still how are we to look for respect from them towards a set of men, who have no appearance at least, of possessing any religious feelings? It should be recollected that we areliving among a people who are deeply rivetted to their own forms and ceremonies of worship, whose devotedness to their church establishment surpasses every other feeling. It is not thus that the British nation is to become respectable; we may have relations of trade with these people, but we must be content to be merely regarded according to our utility; there can be no respect for our general character as a body of men, none of that regard which would make us listened to in any great question, which would make our opinions and our assertions depended upon as coming from men of steadiness,—of religious habits. Nor can we be accounted as more than residents for a time, we cannot be considered as an established community, who are thus without any common bond of union, who have not any general place of meeting, who have not any one point to which all are directed; we have no appearance of belonging to one nation, as if we were brethren meeting in a foreign land. To these political reasons for the establishment of a place of worship are to be added those which are of far greater importance, those to which no Christian ought to be indifferent. I well know that it is not with the merchants that the evil arises;—but enough, I will go no farther, although I could tarry long upon this subject. I wish however that I could have avoided the mention of it altogether. I might have done so, if I had not felt that I was passing by unnoticed a subject upon which I have often spoken whilst I was upon the spot; and there my sentiments are well known to most of those persons with whom I associated.

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