This sheikh possesses several very excellent horses, broken for hunting the giraffe, and almost all those beautiful animals sent to Europe and America are caught by him. At the time I speak of, he had twenty-four sons and daughters living.
Before undertaking a journey into Kordofan, it is essential to understand properly the characters of the various nations inhabiting this country, to study their dispositions well, and treat them accordingly;for that which is to be effected with the one by rigour and intimidation, can only be obtained from the other by friendly and conciliating treatment. In the contrary case, the worst must be feared. The negroes, especially, should be treated with lenity and kindness; whereas, with the Arabs and Dongolavi, severity and intimidation are necessary. In my travels, during nineteen months in the various countries, I had to suffer more (consequently had more experience) than those travellers who hurried through the country, accompanied by a military escort, a number of Ghawa’zee,[37]servants, and others, whereas I had but one single servant, and, during the latter part of my travels, was not even attended by him. I was often forced to suffer the greatest torments of hunger and thirst, and was, for a short time, obliged to rest contented with locusts and putrid camels’ flesh,—bread was quite out of the question; I even held out once for thirty-six hours without water. As far as my eye could reach, I saw nothing but sand and sky,—not a worm even enlivened the dismal scene; the skeletons of men and camels lay strewn about the plains, as fitting monuments of the surrounding misery; a hot wind raised the burning sand, so as to darken the sun, and I expected with every step to find my grave. One of our camel-drivers sank under the fatigue; and the sand of the desert which rode upon the winds soon covered his bones. On my flight fromKordofan to Sennaar, sleep, during which so many cares and troubles are forgotten, frequently failed me; and what did I not suffer on my return home through the frightful desert, from Abouhamed to Krusko, on the Nile! I had not the means to purchase a second camel. My solitary beast was laden with my luggage and water-bags; it was, indeed, overloaded, I could not, therefore, mount it, and I was thus under the painful necessity of following the caravan, during two tedious days on foot, enduring a march of twenty-one hours daily on the sand, under a scorching sun. Man overcomes many difficulties, and will bear more than is generally believed. In eight days I reached Krusko, where I met Mr. Kotschy, the naturalist; he alone can tell how worn out I was with fatigue, hunger, and thirst, when I arrived at his tent, where he entertained me during three days, for he had just arrived from Grand Cairo.[38]I may, therefore, say that I have been put to many trials, endured innumerable hardships, and had many hair-breadth escapes with my life. It is not very probable that a traveller, furnished with a passport, would now meet with any misadventure in the interior of the country, for thegovernment is very strict; on the borders, on the other hand, especially towards Darfour and Takale, he may dread the worst; for who would make enquiries after a single stranger, if he were robbed and murdered by these nomadic tribes? should he even be missed, it would be a very extraordinary thing if any one could come upon the track of a single individual; for no one native would ever betray the other. It is, therefore, very essential to study well the character of these people, and to avoid coming into collision with them. I will mention a single instance in illustration, which happened on the borders of the Shilluk’s country, on the White Nile, and nearly cost me and my servant our lives. With my knowledge of the character of the people, and by humouring them, and thus gaining on their weak points, I was alone able to help myself out of this embarrassment. I pitched my tent, namely, on the shore of the Nile, and sent my servant out in search of the wood requisite for our consumption during the night; for it is necessary in these regions, when encamped in the open air on the banks of the river, to keep up a fire all night long, partly on account of the crocodiles, which swarm in these localities and are very dangerous, partly on account of the hippopotami; for, although the latter never do any injury, yet they are by no means an agreeable acquaintance. Lions, moreover, and other beasts of prey, might pay a very disagreeable visit in the dark, and they are only to be kept at arespectful distance by maintaining a fire throughout the night. Just as my servant was about to sally forth in quest of fuel, a boat, laden with wood, and rowed by a negro, crossed the river, and landed near my tent. My servant immediately walked up to the negro, and demanded a quantity of wood, as he could find none in the neighbourhood. The good-tempered black instantly gave him the half of his store; but, as soon as I had turned my back, my avaricious servant asked for more, which the negro flatly refused; the former, hereupon, became abusive, and his opponent by no means remained mute, until from words they fell to blows, and, finally, began to fight in real earnest. The negro, who was the better man of the two, gave my servant a sound beating, and did not cease, until he roared out most lustily for mercy. I observed the scuffle from the distance; but, unacquainted with what had transpired, and merely seeing that my servant was getting the worst of the affray, I took my double-barrelled gun, presented it at the negro, and commanded him to desist. He instantly sprang on his feet, seized his spear, and threw it at me, before I was even aware of his intention; the missile, fortunately, only grazed my wide papooshes. He was now disarmed, and I again presented at him. The negro remained perfectly cool, and merely said: “Shoot on! I die; and what of that!” I now saw that nothing was to be effected by intimidation, laid my gun aside, and, walking up to him, enquired into allhe circumstances of the case, which he faithfully related. Convinced of the injustice of my servant, I endeavoured to pacify the negro, and assured him that I would punish the former. All my persuasion was, however, in vain; he foamed with rage, and replied, that we should both suffer for this act. Seeing that he was too weak to offer battle to us both, he ran away in an instant, loudly uttering his war-cry of “Lu, lu, lu!”[39]This was an ill omen for us, and put us both in no slight degree of fear. Flight was out of the question, we had no chance of thus escaping. I, therefore, set my wits to work to devise a remedy, to avert at least the first outbreak of our enemies rage. I bound my servant hand and foot with a cord, and taking up the branch of a tree which lay near me pretended to beat him most unmercifully; he played his part remarkably well, and screamed as if he were being impaled, whenever I made the slightest movement with my hand; for we already descried a crowd of natives at the distance, running towards us, their lances glittering in the evening sun, and the shouts of the women, who followed in the wake of the men, boded us no good; but the nearer they approached the better we played our parts; and my servant continued his screams until he was fairly out ofbreath. Those of our enemies, who were nearest, called out to me to desist; and when I obeyed, my servant rolled himself about in the sand like a madman. The negro who had been the cause of the whole scene now walked up to me, took my hand, and said, “Have no fear, you shall not be hurt, because you have acknowledged the injury your servant has done me, and have punished him for it.” An old man now untied the cord which bound the hands and feet of the culprit, and approached me, to be informed of the whole affair. They proved to be Bakkara.[40]I invited the old man and the negro, of whom I have before spoken into my tent, where I entertained them with coffee, and gave them my pipe to smoke. Harmony was immediately restored, and every one conciliated. They asked me whence I came, and where I was travelling to, and then the conversation turned on other topics. When the night closed in, they all gradually retired, with the exception of five men, who remained with me all night as a guard, emptied several pots of merissa together, and kept up the fire, thus consuming the whole of the wood which had been thebelli teterrima causa. When they took their leave of me in the morning, they presented me with a young gazelle, as provision for my further journey.
I cannot sufficiently praise the kind, and even cordialbehaviour of the natives of Kordofan. I received many proofs of kindness at their hands, and I could not have expected better treatment in my own country from my nearest relations. This was especially the case when I had the misfortune to fall sick in the desert, where I lay helpless on the sands, as I was too weak to keep my seat on my camel. In this state of exhaustion I was obliged to remain, until I could receive assistance from the neighbouring village, which was, fortunately, only half an hours march distant from the spot. A good-natured inhabitant carried me home, and I passed thirty days in his hut, stretched upon a bed of sickness. I cannot describe the interest these kind people appeared to take in my sufferings; the one vied with the other to be of service to me. Some women and girls sat alternately by the side of my bed, by day and night, the one keeping off the flies, the other cooling me with a fan of ostrich feathers, for the heat was frequently at 40° Reaumur (122° Fahrenheit) in my hut, as there was no current of air through it. A young and beautiful slave, Agami was her name, evinced so much sympathy, that she frequently shed tears when she observed my sufferings. All the medicines with which I had taken the precaution to provide myself, proved ineffective; I lay in a continued fever, and was already, on the fifth day, so weak that I could not move, and the good women were obliged to lift me on and off the bed; for my own part, I had quitemade up my mind that my days were drawing to a close.
When no amelioration was observed to take place, they bound amulets round my arms, and placed charms beneath my head, endeavouring in this way to overcome the disease. I submitted to all these proceedings in order not to avoid hurting the feelings of the good people; but as my illness still continued to rage, they sent for a celebrated fortune-teller from a neighbouring village, who casting her shells upon the sand, prophesied that the Frank would not yet die. As soon as the prophetess had taken her departure, the women lifted me out of bed, seated me down on a bundle of straw, with my back to the door, took off my shirt, and as I was too weak to sit in an upright position, held me up by passing their arms under my axillae. I suddenly felt a shock through my whole frame, which deprived me of breath for a few moments, for they had poured a whole basket full of cold spring water over my feverish body. Hundreds of others would have instantly expired, but my sound constitution enabled me to survive this douche. I was immediately dried, returned to bed, and covered with empty sacks and sheep-skins. I felt somewhat relieved and fell asleep; a refreshment I had not enjoyed for a long time. On waking, the women told me that I had perspired but very slightly, and that the douche must be repeated to put me into a thorough sweat. I allowed this hazardous proceeding to be repeatedbecause I had no other choice. The operation was performed in the same manner as on the former occasion, but it did not produce so violent a shock, because I was prepared for it. After this bath I perspired so freely that, on waking, I believed myself to be in a second bath. This proceeding, however, broke through the chain of morbid symptoms, and I felt so much relieved, that I was able to rise from my bed, and walk about for a short time in the shade of the palm-trees. As soon as the rumour spread in the village that I was recovering, the inhabitants all flocked around to greet me, and to congratulate me on my convalescence. A fire was lighted before my hut at night, round which the people danced to evince their delight at my recovery; I regaled them with merissa, and all were happy and merry. My convalescence proceeded now very rapidly, and I was in a short time able to resume my journey; but I shall never forget the debt of gratitude I owe to these good people, who, from pure and disinterested charity and feeling for the sufferings of a fellow creature, took so much care of me whilst in this lamentable condition.
Thereexists, perhaps, no country in which the inhabitants are so various, and diametrically opposed to each other in character as in Kordofan; for, after half a day’s journey from one district to the other, the traveller is almost tempted to believe that he has arrived in a different country, subject to quite a different government, and professing a different religion. A shade of variation in the race of the people quite alters their characters. There are, properly speaking, three distinct races of men abruptly differing from each other in the province: namely the negroes, properly so called, or Aborigines; then the Arabs or free people, to which class the Bakkara belong; and, lastly, those who have emigrated from Dongola. The negroes who, with the exception of many slaves, profess the faith of Islam, are to be met with distributed over all the five districts, and occupy themselves chiefly with agriculture. Their wants are, therefore, fewer than those of the trading population, who on their travels have become acquainted with many comforts, which havebecome additional necessaries imperative to them. These negroes, the greater part of which are Noubas, are of very amiable disposition, extremely hospitable, exceedingly fond of their children, and possess the most honourable feelings. In their dealings they are particularly upright, and there is no fear of being overreached in transacting business with them; I will even go so far as to say there is less to be feared in their dwellings than in many European towns which appear far more safe. They are sincere friends, and assist each other in all difficulties; are endowed with a strong attachment to their native country; and only the most tyrannical oppression, such as existed under the government of the Defturdar, could force a few villages to leave their native land. When they are, however, enraged, they utterly disregard life for the opportunity of revenging themselves. Anger, however, is of exceedingly rare occurrence with their good tempers; and when a negro is observed to be carried away by passion, a few kind words are only required to pacify him; but harshness must by no means be resorted to. It is, in fact, necessary to treat them like children; for their mental faculties are very limited, and they may, indeed, be said to be on the lowest scale. There is, moreover, not the slightest probability of their ever making any progress in the cultivation of their minds, for they manage everything at the present day as it was done a hundred years ago. Their dwellings and domestic utensils,in short everything is the same as it was in the time of their forefathers. By the manner in which they perform their work, it is easy to perceive that they follow the plan adopted in former centuries, and the idea never enters their heads of improving upon any object, or of making a new invention. This apathy to all progressive improvement is the more astonishing, as these negroes are for the greater part agriculturists, and have fixed places of residence, and consequently enjoy the opportunity of gradually perfecting themselves, as many other nations have done before them, who formerly stood at the same low degree of civilization. Amongst these people, however, civilization is in a state of permanent stagnation. A few individuals may indeed be met with who can read and write a little, but that is not worth mentioning, and thus everything is enveloped in the densest obscurity. The climate contributes in no small degree to this obtuseness of mind, and it is a well-proved fact, that Europeans who have passed several years in these parts suffer a diminution in their capacity of mind, and in time forget a great part of their former acquirements. Apathy and phlegma are congenital with the negroes: it is, therefore, not probable that they will ever rise in the scale of civilization. The west of Africa may, perhaps, form an exception to this rule.
These people are very candid and confiding, when they are acquainted with a person; they then seldom or never make a secret of their actions,—never, indeed, unless they believe their personal or the public interest to be endangered by the communication. The people of a similar race in the neighbouring countries are of the same character: an observation, the slaves brought from these parts afford ample opportunity of making. These slaves are for the most part heathens, and this is the chief reason why they, and the tribes allied to them, are rather harshly treated. If, in the course of time, they adopt the faith of Islam, they are at least treated more like one of the family, although not liberated. The fate of these unfortunate beings is, on the whole, dreadful; for deprived of the greatest blessing, their liberty, they are forced to perform hard labour, and indeed in fetters, in which they are bound to prevent them from running away to their native hills, frequently in sight of their place of captivity. These fetters, unlike the irons with which convicts are laden in Europe, consist of rings round both ankles, kept asunder by an iron bar, attached to the rings round the ankles by two smaller rings. Thus the slave can make but one pace at a time, and never approximate his two feet. The large rings open on one side sufficiently to admit the ankle, and in adjusting them they are welded together with a large stone, in lieu of a hammer. The slave, on these occasions, is laid upon the ground, and a stone is pushed under his foot to serve the purpose of an anvil. Every precaution is, indeed, taken in putting on the irons,but the unfortunate being feels severe pain with every blow. Some few fetters may be met with furnished with locks, which, however, are very rare luxuries. To prevent the rings from excoriating the ankles, rags are interposed between the iron and the skin. If the operation of putting on the irons be attended with pain, the slaves suffer infinitely more when they are taken off. On the latter occasion one side of the ring is firmly attached to a tree, the slave lays himself down on his back, and about eight people pull in the direction opposite to the tree, at a cord attached to the ring, until it is sufficiently opened to allow the ankle to be disengaged. A quarter of an hour is sometimes spent in efforts to remove the trammels.
The negroes are, generally, at the commencement of their slavery, morose, and speak very little, unless spoken to. Their thoughts are continually directed to their homes, or at work inventing all manner of means of escape, for the prevention of which they are bound in irons. They are all powerful men, and are put to agricultural labour, very few of this race being sent to Egypt. Many of them are aware that urine will, in time, corrode iron, and this knowledge enables them, occasionally, to succeed in gradually ridding themselves of their fetters, when they, of course, immediately decamp. A negro who had liberated himself in this manner told me he had resorted to this process himself. His flight, however, unfortunately failed, for hewas soon caught and brought back again. Fourteen whole months were required to soften the iron, before he could complete his work of breaking it through with a stone. There are many slaves who do not wear irons, especially such as have lived many years with one master, who has become thoroughly acquainted with their character; but even these men are frequently, after many years, attacked with nostalgia, and then take to flight. During my residence in the country, a slave, who had lived seven years in one house, where he had walked about unfettered, suddenly ran away, without any appreciable cause. Another captive, who wore irons, volunteered to bring the deserter back, if his master would allow him, henceforth, to lay aside his fetters, assuring him, at the same time, that he would remain his slave for life, and did not wish for liberty. The master was, certainly, at first, rather undecided, but ultimately ventured to allow him to sally forth on this expedition, and furnished him, moreover, with a camel. He returned, in a short time, bringing the fugitive back with him. The master kept his word, took the fetters off, and bought him a female slave as a wife, whereas the deserter was put in chains,—probably for life. The girls walk about at liberty, because there is not so much fear of their running away. They would soon be brought back, are, moreover, very timid, and would be readily recognised in the next village; but they sometimes also effect theirescape, as I had myself once the opportunity of observing.
A slave merchant at Lobeid kept eight girls, destined for Grand Cairo, together in one house, and locked them up carefully in a room without windows; to be yet more secure, he placed his angareb at night before the door and slept there. How great was his astonishment, however, in the morning, to find that all the girls had disappeared out of the room! He ran about, as if mad, to all his neighbours, begging them to assist him in his search; but all endeavours to find the fugitives were in vain, and the man firmly believed the Shitan[41]had spirited them away. In making a closer investigation of the wall of the room, however, a light was soon thrown upon the subject, for an immense hole was found through which the girls had crept and covered it carefully with a straw mat. It appeared that they had thrown water against the wall of clay, a few days before they had effected their escape, and were thus enabled to make the breach with facility, for these houses melt like sugar when water is poured upon them. Not one of these girls ever again made her appearance.
The natives of Kordofan treat their slaves with much humanity; the Turks, on the other hand, (and I am sorry to say, within the last few years, two Europeans also,) are guilty of the greatest cruelty, and are not deterred by qualms of conscience fromstaining their hands with the blood of these unfortunate beings. Thus, an Italian doctor bound a rope round the neck of his slave and strangled him with his own hands; another medical man, a renegade, castrated his slave with his own razor, for some trifling offence he had been guilty of. The man died of the effects of the operation. Mohammed Bey also, the governor of Kordofan, whom Mehemed Ali deposed towards the close of the year 1838, and not without good cause, treated his slaves most barbarously, as the following fact will illustrate. A female slave belonging to his haárem was guilty of some slight offence, which, however, enraged him to such an extent that he ordered her to be thrown into a distant well and drowned. One of the servants, happening to pass the well on the following day, found the girl still living, reported the circumstance to the governor, and asked whether he should liberate her, as the water only reached her arms; the tyrant, however, felt no pity for the poor wretch, and ordered the well to be filled up with sand, thus burying his victim alive.
The Arabs, or free people, to which the Bakkara and other nomadic tribes belong, differ totally from the aborigines; they breed camels and other cattle, and engage but little in agricultural pursuits. The largest tribes of Bakkara are, el Giomme Hababin under Sheikh Abdel Machmud, Elhawasma under Sheikh Moosa, el Messeria under Sheikh Labaeid,el Nassarie, Hababin, el Hommer, etc.; beside these, the Kubbabeesh under Sheikh Salé must be mentioned. These Arabs, as they call themselves, are, like the negroes, black; one tribe of Bakkara, (Hababin,) however, is copper-coloured, although they live under the same zone and lead the same kind of life. I very much doubt the tradition, that all these tribes wandered out of Arabia into Africa, during the great migration of nations in the seventh century. I know of no tribe in all Araby of black colour, and the climate of Africa could not have made them as dark as they are at present, even in a thousand years. If this discoloration be the effect of climate, why have not the red Bakkara, as they are here called, become black? for the copper-coloured nations more readily change to black than those of white complexion. Their features, moreover, bear no resemblance to those of the Arabs; they are, also, unlike the negroes; they have not the prominent cheek-bones and the thick everted lips; their hair is rather smooth than curling, and they wear a number of plaits. This race is, in part, of pure blood, and yet they speak very bad Arabic, whereas other Arab tribes, who live at a much greater distance from the parent country, as several tribes of Bedouins, have preserved the native purity of their language. It is far more probable, then, that these Arabs have been inhabitants of Africa, on the borders of the Red Sea and in the neighbouring deserts,since thousands of years, and that the red Bakkara, as they are termed, formerly inhabited a country under the tropics, for in their profiles, and in the manner in which they wear their hair, they correspond exactly with those figures observed on monuments in Upper Egypt and Nubia. In disposition they differ entirely from the negroes, for they are stupid, proud, and very suspicious, despise every one who is not of their caste, and endeavour, moreover, to overreach every person with whom they may have dealings. The traveller cannot be too well on his guard against them. In concluding a bargain with them it is necessary that some one be present who does not belong to their tribe, or the stranger may make sure of being imposed upon. The chastity of their wives and daughters is very praiseworthy.
The Dongolavi, a race of people distributed, under different denominations, over a great part of Africa, are men of athletic build, on whom little fat is seen, but the more muscle and sinew. They have well formed features, but deeply set and very sparkling eyes; their beards are weak, and they mostly only wear a moustache, less frequently an additional tuft on the under lip. They do not show age, except they are very old and the beard has become grey. They vary in colour from bronze to jet black; this difference is owing to the circumstance of their having mixed much with other nations, and intermarried. Their language resembles that of the Nuba in its etymology. The Dongolaviare the most opulent inhabitants of Kordofan, and nearly the whole of the export trade by caravan is in their hands. They, also, carry on the less important home trade with the negroes in the hills, with whom they barter for slaves, ivory, etc. They have immigrated from Dongola into Kordofan, and are to be met with in other negro states, where they have become residents chiefly for the sake of the trade. The Dongolavi have frequently, also, been obliged to fly and settle in different places, on account of debt or other offences; they are of very cheerful disposition, but shun all manner of work. They are the greatest liars on the face of the earth, for truth never proceeds from their mouths; they will, indeed, rather allow themselves to be murdered than speak the truth, especially if their interests be concerned. In trading with them, they should never be trusted with cash, which would be irrecoverably lost, for they will part with their wives and children rather than with money. They know no gratitude, and understand merely how to flatter. If a person accept anything of them, he may rest assured that they will demand, at least, twice as much as it is worth, on the following day. Their women are very frivolous. Servants of this tribe should be carefully avoided; and I advise, indeed, every European about to travel in Kordofan to hire his servant at Cairo.
Thereare several large and small tribes of this nomadic people in the country who have no fixed places of residence, but change them frequently in the same year. They inhabit the districts situated towards the south, south-east, and south-west of Lobeid. Each tribe, whether large or small, is governed by its sheikh, who may be regarded almost as an absolute monarch; as all the rest of the tribe, with the exception of a few under-sheikhs, are totally dependent upon him, and may, indeed, be considered as his serfs. They pay tribute to Kordofan, consisting of about twelve thousand oxen, a little gold, and a few slaves; but the contribution must generally be collected by force. They are not reckoned among the other inhabitants of the five districts; but when the time for levying the tribute arrives, they are hunted out, tribe by tribe, and—plundered. They do not cultivate agriculture, excepting on the lake of Arrat, where a little rice, of an inferior quality, is grown. Their occupation consists otherwise in breeding hornedcattle, and, besides herds of kine, they possess a few horses and camels. The sheikhs are all wealthy, and carry on a considerable trade in cattle, butter, and slaves, the latter of which they steal from the bordering countries. They are a very warlike and depredatory race, and live in a continual state of warfare, not only with their neighbours, but even among themselves; for if two Bakkara tribes meet, or are merely encamped near each other, there is sure to be bloodshed; nor does the conflict terminate until the weaker tribe succumbs, or is driven away. With the commencement of the hot season, they wander into distant regions, unknown to the governor of Kordofan, into which he dare not venture to penetrate to levy the taxes, as this measure would be attended with great danger to his troops. It is, indeed, impossible for the government to send a large force, as it would meet with many obstacles, and a small detachment would not answer the purpose, for it might be easily intercepted, and totally cut up. Thus this people enjoy exemption from all contributions during the dry season. The government, however, suffers no loss thereby, for it knows full well that they will, in a short time, be forced to leave the safe districts beyond the boundaries of Kordofan, and thus return spontaneously into the hands of their oppressors. There is, perhaps, no people who have so many and such dangerous enemies. All the negro tribes, without exception, persecute the Bakkara from oneregion to the other, on account of the slaves they have kidnapped, and endeavour, by all possible means, to revenge themselves on them. The government does all in its power to torment this people in the most piteous manner; and, lastly, add the quarrels of the tribes among themselves. Annoyances of this description would be sufficient in themselves to force the Bakkari to change their residences continually.
But their greatest plague is a little animal, calledYohara[42]—a fly which makes its appearance in great numbers, in many regions in central Africa, in the rainy season, and proves very destructive. Its bite is harmless to man, but the more dangerous to cattle, and instances are on record, in several regions, of whole herds having been destroyed by these vermin in a very short time. The camels, who cannot defend themselves with their short tails against their encroachments, and must, therefore, of course perish, suffer chiefly. In Shilluk, Shabun, Runga, Kulla, etc., no camels are, consequently, to be met with; these countries, therefore, can only be visited in the dry season. The Djelabi are frequently prevented from entering on their march home from these countries betimes, and have, on these occasions, lost all their camels by the sting of this fly. This insect is also the chief cause of the Bakkari leaving these parts of the country, which are otherwise so safe for them, and so advantageous for their cattle;it forces them, in fact, to deliver themselves into the hands of the Turks. Their habits are very simple, and they occupy themselves with attending to the cattle, and occasionally with warlike exercises.
I passed some time among one of the Bakkara tribes, on the lake of Arrat, and had ample time and opportunity for making myself thoroughly acquainted with the people, and their habits and customs, for they kept nothing secret from me, and, as they knew for certain that I was no Turk, they received me with extraordinary hospitality. I would, however, not advise an European to entrust himself to their care, or to venture too near to their encampment, without having previously secured the friendship of their sheikhs; for his life would be exposed to all manner of dangers, as they do not even know the word European, or Frank, as we are otherwise termed, but look upon every person of white colour as a Turk, consequently as their enemy. But their acquaintance being once made, the traveller may be certain of receiving the most unequivocal proofs of hospitality, and may place the greatest confidence in them. Their food consists of meat alone, and milk; of the latter there is such an abundance among them, that they give it to their horses as drink, and it seems to agree excellently with them. All the horses I saw, whilst sojourning among them, were of very superior breed. The Bakkari eat very little bread, which is reckoned a luxury, and merely enjoyed by their sheikhs. Theirdwellings consist of tents covered with ox hides. They pitch them in separate divisions, and then enclose the whole camp, together with the space of ground into which they drive the cattle, with a fence of thorns. In the centre of the encampment, and generally on a slight elevation, the chief guard-house is situated, which is inhabited by a certain number of armed men, who are daily relieved. The guard is armed with from three to six light javelins, and shields, and the men are provided with their dar’book’keh (drum), in order to be able to alarm the whole camp with the slightest danger. A fire is also kept up all night at this guard-house. They generally dance half the night long to keep themselves awake, are always prepared for an attack, and cannot easily be surprised. The women and girls pass the time of the watch with their husbands, or brothers, at the chief guard-house, and join in the dances. Their dance differs entirely from that of the other natives of Kordofan; it is very fantastic, and has really something imposing about it. A large fire is frequently lighted at each of the four corners of the space, where the drummers, singers, and those who beat time, are located. The dancers range themselves in two rows in the centre, the one being formed of women, the opposite of men, armed with their spears, with which they frequently strike the ground, in time, during the dance. At first their movements are slow, but they are soon hurried away by excitement; and the men swing theirlances with a fearful cry, as if they were about to throw them at the women, who represent the enemy. The latter now assume a more humble deportment, and evince their submission to the attacking party. This dance must be seen, in order to form a proper conception of it; and I can assure my readers, that nothing can be more picturesque than to see this group of dancers on a dark night, the scene lighted up by four blazing fires, when the stillness of the night is only interrupted by the simple scream of a night-bird, the distant roar of a lion, or the howl of a hyæna. The expressive countenances of the dancers form an admirable picture, which well accords with the wildness of the whole scene.
The women and girls are very talkative and friendly with those they know; they all shook hands with me, and made repeated enquiries about my health, and frequently asked me what I wished to eat or drink. Nor are they by any means shy; for I even had the opportunity of being present at the toilette of a sheikh’s wife. The lady sat on an angareb (bedstead), surrounded by a number of young and beautiful negro girls, upon each of which a particular duty was incumbent. The one fanned away the flies with a handful of the most beautiful ostrich feathers, whilst the others arranged her hair, an occupation requiring several hours for its performance; for it is no easy task to open all the various matted curls with a single pointed woodenpeg. A third slave washed her feet, a fourth ground sulphur to a fine powder between two stones. Another slave held a gourd, filled with merissa, in her hand, to offer her mistress a cooling draught whenever she might demand it; while another girl held a cup, containing more than one pound of melted butter, which was poured over the lady’s head as soon as the hair was undone. All the butter that dropped off her hair on to her back was rubbed in over her whole body by an additional attendant. In conclusion, her head was powdered with the fine flower of sulphur, which was strewn by handfulls over her greasy hair, where every single grain remained adherent. A massive golden ring was now inserted in her nostrils, and two bracelets of ivory, about two inches in breadth, were put upon her arms. On her forehead three pieces of amber, about the size of a gold coin, were hung, and round her neck, several strings of beads, formed of Bohemian glass. A piece of cotton stuff was wound round her loins, the one end of which was thrown gracefully over her right shoulder, and thus the toilette of this black princess was completed. She now admired herself once more in the mirror, represented by half a gourd filled with water. It must not be imagined that these women in any way offend against the dictates of delicacy; for although, like the other inhabitants of this hot climate, they are totally naked, with the exception of a piece of cotton, or a leathern apron (rahat), round their loins,they never transgress the rules of the most rigid propriety. The women are, without exception, handsome, and are treated very well by their husbands. Their occupation consists in cooking, and attending to other domestic duties; but when the men go into battle, they by no means remain idle spectators, but encourage them with their shouts, and assist them in every way in offering the most resolute resistance.
The men attend to the cattle, and make depredatory excursions for stealing slaves, on which occasions their few, but exceedingly beautiful and hardy horses render them essential service. When a tribe of Bakkara is encamped in the vicinity of the hills of the negroes, the horsemen are sent out to kidnap boys or girls. They have not yet had the courage to carry on this business on the same extensive scale as Mehemed Ali. The mode of proceeding is the following:—The Bakkari repair to places in which it is likely that these children will congregate,—for example, in the vicinity of separate droves of cattle, or to wells,—where they lie in ambush, and as soon as one of the children is within reach, they seize it, mount their horses, and ride away with their prize at full gallop. Although the scene of this robbery may be in the neighbourhood of a village, or of a tribe of negroes, and it even create a disturbance, yet they are certain of their prey, for their fleet steeds soon carry them beyond the reach of their pursuers, who, moreover, possess no horses.They live very contentedly among themselves, and are very happy, as I was assured by one of their sheikhs, who added,—“We have beautiful horses, handsome wives, good fare, suffer no want, and might even call ourselves rich; but our enemies, who surround us on all sides, and especially the flies, so dangerous to our cattle, embitter our lives; for, in order to escape the latter plague, we are forced to leave the safe parts of the country. In the neighbourhood of the negroes we cannot remain, as they would rise in mass against us, and destroy us all, in revenge for their kidnapped children; thus we are forced to choose the least of these many evils, and to deliver ourselves into the hands of the Turks, who treat us with great harshness and cruelty, and take away by force what we will not give them willingly,—butAllah Kerim(as God will)!”
The government of Kordofan treats this people, indeed, with every species of cruelty; for as soon as they are necessitated to fly from the more distant regions, and make their appearance in the neighbourhood of Kordofan, troops are immediately despatched to demand the tribute of them. I was myself an eye-witness of this scene, and saw nothing but unmerciful extortion and barbarous brutality used, which is, unfortunately, the ordinary proceeding of that government. A major, with three subaltern officers, and two hundred men, rank and file, of infantry, attended by a few Bedouin horsemen, and fifty menof irregular troops, received orders to proceed from Lobeid to levy the annual tribute, consisting of one thousand heads of oxen, from the nearest Bakkara. The tribe, acquainted with the approach of their enemies, did all in their power to entertain them to the best of their means. On their arrival, several oxen and sheep were daily slaughtered, merissa was served in abundance, all kinds of amusements were introduced, in short, nothing was neglected that might render the sojourn agreeable to their tormentors. The officers and soldiers felt exceedingly comfortable with this kind of life during four days, enjoyed their Keyf,[43]and everything went off very peaceably and all were happy. On the fifth day, however, the scene suddenly changed: for the major had a sheikh summoned into his presence, and greeting him with all the customary terms of abuse, said, in a harsh tone,—“Do you remember that you gave me last year the worst and leanest cattle, the greater part of which died on the road, and that I had to make good the loss to Mehemed Ali from my own purse! That I may not suffer a similar loss this year, I draw your attention to this circumstance, and shall immediately take care to impress it also on your memory.” He hereupon ordered thesheikh to lay himself on the ground. Entreaties, prayers, and promises, were all in vain. Two corporals seized the condemned man, threw him forcibly to the ground, and stood in readiness to inflict the punishment the major might think fit to order, with the whips of hippopotamus’ hide they held in their hands. The delinquent again endeavoured to conciliate the major with entreaties, and, begging for mercy, assured him that he would not only give him very good cattle this time, but, moreover, make him a present, as a compensation for the loss he had sustained the preceding year. This was what the extortioner wanted; but to intimidate the sheikh the more, and to force him to increase his liberality, he pretended to be inflexible; at last, however, he allowed the supplicant to rise, and go home to fetch the promised presents. The sheikh hastened immediately to fulfil his promise, and brought the major four large nose-rings of massive gold, and two slaves for each officer. Thus harmony was once more restored; the number of oxen required, and, indeed, from the best herd, were selected, and the march was ordered back to Lobeid.
On every occasion of levying tribute, the commanding officer, after having collected the government dues, allows himself all kinds of cruelties and oppressive means to extort a present for himself and his men. A sheikh of the Bakkara told me,—and the soldiers subsequently corroborated his statement,—that two years ago a major, who had alreadycollected the tribute from a small Bakkara tribe, and had besides received considerable presents for himself and his officers, not contented with the booty, resorted to a singularly cruel plan for forcing them to greater liberality.
A sergeant, who was in the secret, feigning drunkenness, went into a tent in which the sheikh’s wives were kept, and there conducted himself with so much impropriety, that the women ordered him to leave the place. He refused to obey; and seized upon a woman, who, not knowing how to free herself from his importunities, began to scream. On hearing the cry, several Bakkara, who happened to be near, entered the tent, and one of them, witnessing the sergeant’s indecorous behaviour, dealt him a blow. This was what the soldier expected; he immediately made a great noise, ushered himself instantly into the presence of the commanding officer, and complained that a Bakkara had dared to strike one of Mehemed Ali’s soldiers. For this offence, the commanding officer demanded a most enormous fine, and ordered his troops to take possession of all the sheikh’s women and girls, and to keep them as hostages. The sheikh himself was now summoned, and told to bring instantly an addition of two hundred oxen, as a compensation for the offence offered to a soldier in the service of the government. To give additional weight to these orders, and to intimidate the chief the more, the barbarian had one of the sheikh’s wives and two ofhis female slaves hewn to pieces by a corporal, in his presence, informing him, at the same time, that a similar fate awaited all his wives and female slaves, if the two hundred oxen demanded were not instantly forthcoming. The sheikh, terrified to the utmost by these proceedings, promised to satisfy their demands, and in a few hours the number of oxen required were delivered to the extortioner. The cattle was of course shared by those who were privy to the secret.
As the delivery of cattle to Egypt is at present put an end to by order of the Viceroy, the Bakkara have no longer to suffer these torments; but they are, no doubt, tortured in some other way. The southern provinces, as Dongola, Sennaar, and Kordofan, have, for several years past, been forced to tender twelve thousand oxen annually for Egypt alone; eight or nine thousand heads being the stipulated portion required from Kordofan. More than one half of these animals perished on the road on account of the bad management with which the transport was conducted, and thus the government suffered a great loss. Sheds where grass or chaff was kept for the transport were, indeed, erected between Deppa and Cairo, at a distance of each day’s march; but these shunes, as they are here termed, were under very bad direction; for the inspectors sold the greater part of the forage, and thus the cattle were but sparingly fed, and the exhausted beasts were deprived of the opportunity ofrecruiting their strength. A second error was also prevalent, namely, that of not allowing tired or sick beasts to rest on the road, for they were driven on with the rest of the drove until they dropped. Thus by bad management one half the cattle was annually lost, although they might easily have been preserved by more careful treatment, and would have been of invaluable assistance to the northern part of Egypt, where the consumption of beasts is considerable.
Thissmall nomadic tribe inhabits the country to the east of the Bahr Abiad (White Nile), and allied tribes are to be met with in the province of Dongola. They differ somewhat in their habits from the Bakkara, remain stationary throughout the year in Kordofan, merely changing their pastures frequently. They scarcely follow any agricultural pursuits, and breed but very little cattle. Their actual occupation consists merely in effecting the transports which the government sends to Dongola and Sennaar, and in supplying the caravans of the Djelabi proceeding in all directions over Africa with the camels necessary for their purpose. They themselves breed very few of these animals, but buy the greater quantity in the country. Their accurate acquaintance with the roads in every direction across the desert is truly wonderful. They readily shape their course by the heavens by day or night, know exactly where they are, and can tell to a nicety the exact distance from the position in which they may happen to be to any other place. Their senses bothof sight and hearing are so acute and quick, that they can distinguish, at the greatest distance, objects which an European could only see with the aid of a telescope; they can even at night-time perceive camels at long distances, seldom deceiving themselves in the estimation of their numbers; they are, therefore, invaluable to the government in the transport of the various products of the country, and to the caravans passing through the country, in general, they are almost indispensable. Their sheikhs, who, I may say, are lords and masters, consider their subjects as their serfs, and treat them accordingly. This race of men is already much contaminated by mixing with negro women. The sheikhs make a considerable profit by furnishing travellers with camels; the more so as their expenses on the road may be considered a mere trifle, for they find the food for their camels on the road-side, and the drivers receive only a little flour for bread, (which, however, they do not bake daily,) or dockn, a small quantity of which they boil in water and call belilleh. With a small bag of these hard pills they undertake the longest journeys, and will bear hunger and thirst for an astonishing length of time. Locusts they consider a delicacy. The head, wings, and first joints of the hind-legs of the insect are torn off, and the body, spitted on a wooden skewer, is roasted over the coals. At first I could not make up my mind to taste these insects, but two woful days, many of which may be passed in Africa, atlast compelled me to eat them. The hard pills, or belilleh, were too dry for me, and would not pass down my throat; I therefore made the best of a bad case, and resorted to locusts. At first, as I before mentioned, I felt a slight degree of disgust, and I could not relish them, but I subsequently consoled myself with John the Baptist and Allah Kerim. When the Kubbabeesh meet with a sick camel, which the caravans are frequently obliged to leave behind them, they immediately cut its throat, and make a hearty meal; the rest of the meat is laden on their own camels, and eaten even when covered with maggots. They use no doga in making their bread, but bake it after the fashion of many of the negro tribes; that is to say, they lay several stones close together in form of a circle, selecting pebbles, if they can find them, as the small stones become more quickly heated, and light a large fire upon them. As soon as the wood is consumed, they remove the charcoal from the stones, and spread a paste of dockn flour, of the thickness of three fingers, on them, covering it carefully over with the coal. The bread is baked in a very short time, or, to speak more accurately, the upper and lower crust is burnt whilst the paste remains unbaked in the interior. They are not paid any wages, but, at the feast of the great Baëram, a present is made them of a piece of cotton and a dollar.
On journeys it is as well to behave with kindness towards these children of the desert, for although lifemay never be endangered by them, they injure those who treat them with harshness in a manner which is most severely felt. Their mode of revenging themselves generally consists in making an almost imperceptible incision with their lances into the leather bags containing the water, which is thus wasted, and does not last over the expected time. They call themselves sultans of the desert, and the stranger is indeed entirely at their mercy, for they can themselves bear thirst well for one day or longer, but travellers are dreadfully tortured by this proceeding; hence it is much better not to injure these poor people in any way, as they are by no means officious, but readily perform all the services required of them for a mere trifle.
Merchandize and goods entrusted to them are well taken care of, for their sheikh, with whom an agreement touching the delivery of the goods is made, is answerable for their safe arrival. Anything that may be stolen by his people, or destroyed through their neglect, he is forced to make good; he consequently only receives one half of the stipulated payment in advance. On my journey to Kordofan I met with seventeen camel-loads of gum and hides, near the ravine of Semmeria, which the Kubbabeesh, for some reason with which I am not acquainted, left lying in the road, having themselves decamped with their camels. Neither the gum nor the hides had suffered any damage, andthe whole cargo was subsequently safely delivered at Dongola. The Divan of Lobeid, however, made a demand of thirty thousand piasters as an indemnification for the loss said to be sustained by the damage done to the goods. The sheikh was forced to pay this sum to the very farthing, although the goods had not cost the government more than about one thousand piasters; for the government pays one ox-hide with three piasters, and a cantaro of gum with fifteen piasters. The government, moreover, had not even lost anything in interest for the capital laid out, as the occurrence took place during the dry season. But this is the system pursued by this tyrannical administration for extorting money from this tribe, which is otherwise not highly taxed, and thus it again deprives them of their hard-earned wages, a pittance literally gained by the sweat of their brow, as their pay is always most narrowly calculated; and so much is, moreover, deducted from the sum agreed upon, that barely enough remains to keep them from starving.
It has been proved, by accurate calculation, that the Kubbabeesh must make considerable sums by the thousands of camel-loads which the government and the many Djelabi, transport, especially as their own expenses are but trifling. In order, therefore, to lessen these profits, as far as this is possible, for the benefit of their employers, all manner of ruses and subterfuges are resorted to, to enable the government to sue the sheikhs for acompensation for damage sustained. The gum is forwarded immediately after it has been collected from the trees, when four cantari constitute a camel-load. The distance from Kordofan to Dongola, is twenty days’ journey. Wind and heat will dry gum, and it of course decreases in bulk and weight; much is, moreover, lost on the road, in consequence of the slovenly manner in which it is packed. Arrived at Dongola, it is left several days lying in the sun before it is weighed, the natural consequence of this exposure is, that each load suffers a considerable reduction in weight. All this loss the sheikh has to make good, and in effecting the arrangement, the gum is calculated at the price at which the government sells it in Alexandria to the Europeans; thus the sheikh frequently only receives a quarter of the sum agreed upon for the freight, and not even this pittance in ready money, for he is finally compelled to accept cotton-stuff, manufactured at Dongola, in lieu of payment, taking the piece sold by the government in the same place for twelve piasters, at a value of twenty piasters. Goaded to the utmost by oppressions of this description, the subjects of a small sheikh determined, in the year 1838, to leave Kordofan, and settle in Darfour. The poor people, however, gained nothing by this movement, but fell, as the proverb has it, out of the frying-pan into the fire; for on their arrival at Darfour, where they intended to place themselves under the protectionof the Sultan Mohammed Fadel, he seized nearly all their camels, with the exception only of some few beasts, laden with bread and water, and had the emigrants hunted over the borders, thus they were forced to deliver themselves again into the hands of their former tormentors in Kordofan. When Mehemed Ali, on his last journey, heard this, he summoned, on his arrival at Khartoom, Salé, the great sheikh of the Kubbabeesh, into his presence, and flattered him in every possible manner, in order to win him over; he even did him the extraordinary honour of allowing him to sit on his right hand, and after having convinced himself of the injustice under which his people groaned, promised to take the measures necessary for their relief. The Viceroy immediately raised the rate of freightage of a camel-load from forty-five to eighty piasters, and thus Sheikh Salé was conciliated. On the same occasion, Mehemed Ali asked the chief the reason why he, so young a man, had already a grey beard? This question he impressively answered by saying,—“Your Turks are the cause of my beard turning grey; for they oppress and torment me in every possible way, and make me grow old before my time!” Mehemed Ali consoled him, and took leave of him with that flattering language so peculiar to him on these occasions. The government, in fact, well understands the necessity of keeping on good terms with these good people; for the services they perform are invaluable, and nothing is, moreover,to be effected by force with this tribe; for if they had the slightest idea that coercive measures were to be employed against them, they would soon disappear out of Kordofan. To emigrate into Darfour would certainly be too hazardous an experiment; to the south and south-east the murderous fly, so destructive to the camels, is to be met with, and helps materially to compel them to remain in the country. Notwithstanding these impediments, however, they know very well how to secure themselves when force is employed against them, for the following facts were related to me by an officer, who was himself an eye-witness of the affair. The government was about to expedite several hundred camel-loads of goods, and sent couriers to the Kubbabeesh with orders to furnish the necessary quantity of camels, and bring them to Lobeid; the latter, however, refused to obey. A considerable military detachment was now sent to force them to submission, but the government was very much deceived in its expectations of the result; for the Kubbabeesh, acquainted with their intentions, collected all their camels, and fled to the desert, where it was impossible to overtake them. They always kept half a day’s march in advance of the troops, could even frequently be descried at a distance, but all attempts to overtake them were in vain; for, thoroughly acquainted with all the roads and various localities, they were enabled easily to deceive their pursuers, and thus to effect their escape.Arrived on the third day at a spring, they watered their camels, supplied themselves with the quantity of water they required, filled up the well, and continued their march. The soldiers, in their turn, arriving with their camels at the well, found it destroyed, and were forced, for want of water, to return, and give up the chase of the victorious Kubbabeesh. Thus the government was obliged to wait patiently until they returned of their own accord.
Their dress consists of a piece of cotton-stuff which they wind round their bodies, and very few of them only wear shirts. Their heads are uncovered, but on journeys they wear a sheep or goatskin, after the fashion of the leathern apron of the miners of Germany, to enable them to sit down, a position which would otherwise be impracticable, considering the burning heat of the sand. They always carry a few spears and a shield. Foreigners visiting these countries cannot travel more economically than by engaging the Kubbabeesh; in Dongola, the Dongolas indeed keep camels, but I advise every one to give the preference to the former, for although the government pays eighty piasters from Lobeid to Debba, or Dolip, on the Nile, (in the province of Dongola,) whereas the Djelabi only pay sixty piasters, sometimes even only forty-five, for the same distance, and thirty piasters from Lobeid to Khartoom, the Kubbabeesh always give the preferenceto an engagement with the latter because the payment, although less, is effected in ready money, whereas the government make great deductions, and force them moreover to accept of goods in lieu of cash.
Thispeople immigrated several years ago from Darfour into Kordofan; a large branch of the same tribe, however, is yet to be found in the former country. Their occupation consists in rearing camels and in agriculture. They are possessed of the finest “ships of the desert” in Kordofan; they do not, however, undertake transports like the Kubbabeesh, but merely trade in these animals, which they sell to the Djelabi, Kubbabeesh, and neighbouring tribes. They are obliged to furnish the government with the quantity of camels necessary for the slave-hunts or other grand expeditions, and to bring them to Cairo. They also form the guard of the borders towards Darfour, several thousands of men armed with shield and spear, and in part with large double-edged swords being always in readiness to prevent an invasion from that quarter. No incursion has ever yet taken place, but many a depredatory excursion has been undertaken by the Dar-Hammer themselves into the neighbouring villages ofDarfour; and the Egyptian government not only tolerates these marauding invasions, but lends the Dar-Hammer every possible assistance, furnishing them even with a few Bedouin horsemen on these occasions. These expeditions are, in fact, virtually undertaken for the government, for the number of camels they demand as tribute from the tribe is too great for the sheikh to be able to furnish, and he is therefore forced to steal the deficiency in Darfour.
When the sheikh, a few years ago, complained at the divan in Lobeid, that it was not in his power to return the number of animals required of him, and that he must make an incursion into Darfour for the purpose of stealing camels to be able to satisfy their claims; they not only approved of the measure, but agreed to assist the sheikh in the execution of this useful project by lending him a number of Bedouin horsemen. Thus, if there be a lack of camels, an incursion is made without further question into the nearest villages, to steal them. It is only astonishing that Darfour puts up with this depredation without making any reprisals.
The residence of the sheikh of the Dar-Hammer is situated at a distance of twelve hours’ march from Lobeid. I made his acquaintance in the town, and subsequently paid him a visit at his quarters. He received me most hospitably, and I had the opportunity of being present at a divan which he held in his spacious tukkoli. The sheikh’s seat was on an angareb opposite the door, and by his side sat oneof his four wives; he changes them, indeed, daily, and the great lady must honour the divan with her presence. By his side lay his sword of justice, with a massive silver hilt and silver head of the size of a hen’s egg. The plaintiffs and defendants had arranged themselves in the form of a half circle on the floor. A large earthen pot filled with merissa was placed at the feet of the chief’s wife, from which she offered both parties frequently a cup during the transaction of the business. But this was done with a certain degree of ceremony, in order to prove that the sheikh, as arbitrator, knew no partiality, and that both parties were, in fact, equal in his eyes. The decision of the arbitrator is always short and decisive; is regarded as peremptory, and strictly acted upon, for these good people go upon the principle that their head can never be deceived.
The Dar-hammer do not differ in their domestic habits from the other inhabitants of Kordofan, and are on the whole one of the most amiable class of people in this province. They make a noise with their tongues to express “yes or no,” like the other natives of Kordofan; and this sound must have been frequently heard before it is possible to distinguish between the negative and affirmative tone.
During my whole residence in Kordofan I never heard of their having ill-treated or robbed any stranger, much less of their having committed murder; always excepting their excursions into Darfour, which they do not regard as wrong, as theyare undertaken with the sanction or, more properly speaking, at the command of the government.
The chief sheikh, a very handsome man, is only to be distinguished from the rest of his tribe by his silver hilted sword. He is generally beloved by his subjects, and all his orders are executed with a punctuality on which but few governments can pride themselves. When out of doors he is always mounted, and his horse might have been the boast of the stud of an European court; for during all my travels I never saw a more beautiful animal, or one of such pure breed.
The Dar-Hammer are very hospitable, and it requires but little trouble to win the affection of these simple children of nature, for they know but few wants, and are always satisfied with a trifle. The women are not handsome, but of very amiable disposition; they attend to the household affairs, and to the children, and occupy their leisure hours, of which there are certainly many, with their simple adornment. Their dress resembles that of the other tribes; not even their sheikh wears a covering to his head, nor do they indeed require it, for their bushy hair is so thick that the rays of the sun could not easily penetrate through it.
It is an axiom that where there is no water neither man nor animals can live. A great tract of the Dar-Hammer forms, however, an exception to this rule. This appears indeed incredible, but it is, nevertheless, true; for when the rain-water whichcollects in the small ponds, called by the Dar-Hammer Fula, has evaporated, not a drop of drinkable water is, commonly speaking, to be found in the various districts they inhabit during three months of the year; and there are no wells or cisterns in the country, with the exception of the Nedjer wells. The villages, therefore, situated at a distance from these springs, are obliged to send their women, children, old and infirm men, their goats, sheep, and part of their camels, to the above-mentioned wells, and to Ketshmar, during three months of the year. Only the men, and a few camels, remain behind. To furnish a substitute for water they resort to the following plan: they cultivate large fields of water-melons, which ripen about the time at which the scarcity of water begins to be felt. The ripe fruit is daily gathered, and the juice expressed is not drunk, but used for merissa, or boiling the assida and woika: they escape one inconvenience which would result from a lack of water elsewhere, for they have no linen to wash, and those who wear so luxurious an article of dress as a shirt never wash it, even when there is abundance of water. The camels remaining with them receive two fresh melon husks daily. This allowance supplies them with the quantity of fluid necessary for them, and they do not suffer in the slightest degree from thirst; for, as a rule, camels are only watered every two or three days.