In October 1858 a fluvial convention was signed between Brazil and Peru, establishing the free navigation of theAmazons, under certain restrictions; and in February 1860 the Brazilian steamer 'Tabatinga' arrived at Laguna on the Peruvian river Huallaga, upwards of 3000 miles from the mouth of the Amazons. Meanwhile the Peruvian Government have ordered steamers to be constructed to work on the upper waters of the Amazons, in conjunction with the Brazilian line; and roads are to be made connecting inland towns with the nearest navigable points on the tributaries of the Amazons. In June 1860 a party of sixty men left the town of Huanuco to explore the wide forest-covered plains known as the "Pampas del Sacramento" to the eastward; and in July a road had already been commenced, which is to connect Huanuco with a navigable part of the river Ucayali, a distance of 150 miles. A small colony of Germans has been established on the river Pozuzu. Other measures of a similar nature are in contemplation, and it is impossible to estimate the rapid and certain increase of wealth which will accrue to this hitherto neglected region, when steam communication has thus brought one of the richest regions in the world within reach of a market. Para, at the mouth of the Amazons, already exceeds, in the number of its staple commodities of export, all indigenous to the regions of which it forms the outlet, almost any other port on the surface of the globe. My space will not allow me to dilate further on this most interesting subject; but it is assuredly one which well deserves the attention of commercial men in England.
The most remarkable source of Peruvian wealth, and one which has caused effects on her financial system which are perhaps unique in the history of any country, is the guano on the desert islands off the coast. When the South American Republics were thrown open to the trade of Europe, the value of guano as a manure was soon discovered, the demand rapidly increased, and the Peruvian Government were not long in availing themselves of this, as they believed, inexhaustible source of riches.[360]The three Chincha islands, in the bay of Pisco, contained a total of 12,376,100 tons of guano in 1853, and, as since that time 2,837,365 tons have been exported up to 1860, there were 9,538,735 tons remaining in 1861.[361]In 1860 as many as 433 vessels, with a tonnage of 348,554, loaded at the Chincha islands; so that, at the above rate, the guano will last for twenty-three years, until 1883. The guano monopoly brings in a revenue to the State of 14,850,000 dollars.
In Peru even the arid deserts are the sources of enormous wealth; for while the desolate Chinchas pour millions into the treasury, the pampa of Tamarugal, in the Tarapaca province, contributes its nitrate of soda (salitre) and borate of lime to swell the riches of this favoured land. It is calculated that the nitrate of soda grounds in this district cover fifty square leagues, and, allowing one hundred pounds weight of nitrate for each square yard, this will give 63,000,000 tons, which, at the present rate of consumption, will last for 1393years.[362]In 1860 the export of nitrate of soda from the port of Iquique amounted to 1,370,248 cwts., and a good deal of borax is also exported, though its shipment is prohibited by the Government.
The extensive use of mineral substances, such as guano and nitrate of soda, as a top-dressing for corn-crops, is a discovery of modern times, and these manures were not generally appreciated in England until a period between 1824 and 1829. I believe that farmers consider guano and nitrate of soda to be about equally efficacious as a top-dressing for corn; and it is now a matter of pressing interest to the agricultural community in England to reduce their prices, which are as high as twelve and sixteen pounds a ton respectively. But, with this view, a careful search for deposits of guano in other parts of the world has only led to the discovery of those at Ichaboe, on the coast of Africa, in 1843, and of those on the Arabian Kooria Mooria islands more recently. The deposit at Ichaboe was all carried off by the end of 1845, while that on Jibleea, one of the Kooria Moorias, is still being worked; but it is very inferior to the guano of the Peruvian islands.[363]
On the whole these attempts to find other deposits of guano, which would tend to bring down the price in England, have failed of success; and the Peruvians may consider themselves secure of their strange source of revenue for some twenty years to come. And a stranger means of defraying nearly the whole expenditure of the state was never before heard of. In 1859 the disbursements amounted to 20,387,756 dollars, of which sum three-fourths were raised by shovelling heaps of dirt off a desolate island on the coast!
A prudent Government would have looked upon the guano monopoly as an extraordinary item in the receipts, and would have reserved it for paying off the internal and foreign debt, for public works, and improvements; but the heads of the Peruvians appear to have been turned by this wonderful increase of their revenue, and they have squandered it with ruinous and dishonest recklessness. It is true that the interest of the foreign debt has been paid,[364]but otherwise the large receipts have either been embezzled, as in General Echenique's time, or spent on immense and unnecessary armaments, and in jobbing salaries and pensions. Thousands of families now live on the public money, and, when the guano receipts fail, the ruin and suffering will be severe and widely spread. Onthe strength of the guano monopoly almost all the taxes have been abolished, the tribute of the Indians amongst them, and the revenue is composed mainly of three items—guano, customs, and stamps. A biennial budget, containing the receipts and disbursements, is laid before Congress every session. I have these budgets before me for several years back; but that for 1859 will suffice to show the extraordinary nature of the revenue, and the still more extraordinary way in which it is spent:—
Receipts.Disbursements.Dollars.Dollars.Guano15,875,352Pay, &c., to members of Congress211,084Customs, &c.5,079,439Army and navy, with pensions9,746,432Surplus from 1858938,389Civil expenses, with pensions2,129,904Payments to ecclesiastics63,296Public works718,124Education and charitable institutions332,471Police92,807Compensation for slaves and internal debt1,576,004Redemption of Bonds3,218,700Miscellaneous107,146Interest of all kinds2,191,77720,387,745Surplus1,505,43521,893,18021,893,180
The foreign debt is 24,205,400 dollars, and the internal debt and compensation for slaves amount to a still larger sum. But the great drag upon the public treasury is the enormous army of 15,000 men for a population under two million, with upwards of 2000 officers, those who are unattached being still retained on full pay. This will give some idea of the number of families who are living in luxury and idleness on the public money, and of the distress that will follow the sudden stoppage of their incomes, which is inevitable when the guano comes to an end. It will be an embarrassing and difficult question for some future Government to decide upon the proper measures for the disposal of an unwieldy army and a crowd of hungry beggared officers. The best suggestion onthis subject has come from the late General Miller, who, when governing Cuzco in 1836, proposed to establish military colonies in the forests to the eastward of the Andes, and thus convert a mischievous and dangerous tool for treason and faction into a means of enriching the country.
The administration of justice in Peru, though the laws are excellent, and have been codified and ably edited, is so corrupt that it is better to pass over the subject with a hope that things may be better in a future generation; and the police administration, especially round Lima, is disgraceful.
Much indeed will be required, and much I trust is to be hoped, from the rising generation of young men who are now about to enter upon public life. Many of them have been educated in Europe, a large proportion are well-informed, polished by travel and extensive reading, and ardently desirous of distinguishing themselves in the service of the State. In literature they have already displayed considerable industry and ability. The 'Revista de Lima,' a bi-monthly periodical, contains archæological, biographical, historical, and financial articles and reviews, generally very ably written, in an enlightened and liberal spirit, and by men who evidently take an earnest view of life. The contributors, among whom are the Señores Lavalle, Ulloa, Pardo, Flores, Masias, and the painter Laso, are all young men with a career before them. It is a good sign, too, that effective steps have been taken to edit and reprint historical materials which have long remained in manuscript, or in scarce old editions. Thus Don Manuel A. Fuentes has recently brought out six most interesting volumes containing reports of the administrations of several of the Spanish viceroys of Peru,[365]and a new edition of the 'Mercurio Peruano.' His 'Estadistica de Lima' is also a work which displays considerable merit: and Don SebastianLorente's well-known learning, and habit of careful research, promise that his history of Peru, now on the point of being published in Paris, will be a work of great value.
This hasty glance at the present state of Peru, as regards its government, material resources, and literature, will, I trust, have shown that the people of these South American states are not altogether the hopelessly degraded race that they are often represented; and that there are grounds for believing that there is yet a happier future in store for them. For, be it remembered, that Peru is far from being the best specimen of these republics, and that the Chilians have displayed tenfold the ability, both in governing, in commercial and agricultural pursuits, and in literature. I think there can be no doubt that a hasty conclusion respecting the South American races, founded on their history since the independence, is likely to be erroneous and unfair; and that, under more favourable circumstances, they are in every way capable of better things.
I cannot better conclude this chapter than by quoting the words of that noble old warrior General Miller, written only a few months before his death, in November 1861. This most excellent of men fought all the battles of independence from 1817 to 1824; he was covered with wounds and riddled with bullets[366]while striving for South American freedom; he had watched with sorrowful attention the subsequent anarchy and civil wars, and his words carry great weight with them. It will be seen that he does not despond, but looks forward with hope to the future.
He says, "South America, with good reason, must feel for ever proud of Camilo Henriquez, Vigil, and Mariategui, Olmedo and Felipe Pardo, San Martin and O'Higgins, and many others of her illustrious sons. And what may not beexpected from the rising and future generations, now that there are such universities as that of Santiago de Chile, and such men as Bello to direct and foster them! Who can be blind to the genius and great natural abilities of the Peruvian youth, now shooting forth, notwithstanding the great disadvantages under which Peru at present labours, with regard to the state of her colleges? With her immense resources, a good government, and tranquillity, what may not be expected! But every nation has its beginning, an inevitable and perhaps necessarily rough ordeal to undergo, and South America must not expect to make a leap that no other country has been able to do."
Map to illustrateMR. SPRUCE'S REPORTSon the"RED BARK" REGION OF ECUADOR.
Map to illustrateMR. SPRUCE'S REPORTSon the"RED BARK" REGION OF ECUADOR.
Mr. Spruce's expedition to procure plants and seeds of the "red bark" orC. succirubra—Mr. Pritchett in the Huanuco region, and the "grey barks"—Mr. Cross's proceedings at Loxa, and collection of seeds ofC. Condaminea.
Mr. Spruce's expedition to procure plants and seeds of the "red bark" orC. succirubra—Mr. Pritchett in the Huanuco region, and the "grey barks"—Mr. Cross's proceedings at Loxa, and collection of seeds ofC. Condaminea.
Ina previous chapter I have given an account of the arrangements which I made for procuring the various species of Chinchonæ in districts other than that of the Calisaya, and it now remains for me to record the labours of those whom I employed on this service, and the successful results with which those labours were rewarded. And first, both in importance and success, stands the expedition of Mr. Spruce, to collect the seeds and plants of the "red-bark" tree orC. succirubra, of whose services it would be impossible to speak too highly. I may mention, at starting, that he received my first letter, requesting him to undertake the work, on July 2nd, 1859, and such was his zeal that on the 22nd of the same month he was on his way to the chinchona forests, at his own expense, to ascertain the best locality for collecting the plants and seeds.
The species of chinchona, known as the "red-bark" tree, yields a larger per-centage of febrifugal alkaloid than any other, and must therefore be considered as the most important.[367]Its native forests are on the western slopes of the famous mountain of Chimborazo, in the Republic of Ecuador, and for a great many years it has not been found beyond 2° 36´ S. lat., but Mr. Spruce thinks it probable that in former times the tree grew all along the roots of the Andes of Cuenca and Loxa to the limits of the Peruvian desertin 5° S. To the north it scarcely passes the latitude of 1° S.; and these precious trees are thus confined within a very narrow latitudinal zone.[368]Within the ascertained limits of the true "red-bark" tree, it exists in all the valleys of the Andes which debouch on the plain of Guayaquil; but great havoc has been made amongst the trees of late years by the bark-collectors. In the valleys of Alausi, Pallatanga, and Chillanes (see map) all the large trees have already been cut down. At the bases of the ridges of Angas and San Antonio, the localities originally mentioned by Pavon, and where "red-bark" trees once grew in abundance, the same destructive system has been adopted; and now the "red-bark" grounds are confined to the ravine of the river Chasuan, and its tributaries, which rise on the northern slopes of Chimborazo, and fall into the river of Guayaquil.
On the 22nd of July 1859 Mr. Spruce set out from the pleasant town of Ambato, in the Quitenian Andes, where he was then residing, and, passing through Alausi, arrived at the banks of the river Chanchan, and established himself at a place called Lucmas, which is conveniently near the "red-bark" chinchona forests. Lucmas is a sugar-cane farm, between 5000 and 6000 feet above the sea; there are forest-trees in the valleys and on the hills, while the steep slopes are often covered with scrub and grass. From Lucmas Mr. Spruce went to the forests on the banks of the river Pumachaca, which rises in the mountain of Asuay, and falls into the Chanchan, at an elevation of 4000 feet. One circumstance, among many, will give an idea of the difficulties which he had to encounter. On reaching the Pumachaca he found that the ford had been destroyed by the falling of acliff, and that in its place there was a deep whirlpool; so, with the driftwood along the banks, a bridge had to be made where the river was narrowed between two rocks, by which his party crossed with the baggage. Then, after a long search, he found a place where the horses could swim across, and, by rolling down masses of earth and stones, a way was made for them to ascend on the other side. Once across, a hut was made among vegetable-ivory palms, thatched with the palm-fronds, and Mr. Spruce commenced the examination of the forest.
After a long search, during which he passed several felled trunks of chinchona-trees, he at length came upon a root-shoot about twenty feet high. It is very rare to find these root-shoots, because the bark is stripped from the roots as well as from the trunk. Mr. Spruce, from his observations in the Pumachaca forest, came to the conclusion that the "red-bark" trees grow best on stony declivities, where there is, however, a good depth of humus, at an elevation of from 3000 to 5000 feet above the sea. The temperature was very like that of a summer day in London, but with cold mists towards evening, and from January to May unceasing rain. He found the chinchona-trees, in this part of the country, almost entirely extirpated, and, after a short stay at Lucmas, he proceeded to examine the region of the "hill barks" orcascarillas serranas, which is at an elevation of 8500 to 9000 feet, on both sides of the river Chanchan. In the forest of Llalla, at the foot of the mountain of Asuay, he found two kinds called by the nativescuchi-cara(pig-skin) andpata de gallinazo;[369]and on a stony hill-side there were twenty large trees of the former, from 40 to 50 feet high.
By this excursion in the summer of 1859 Mr. Spruce ascertained the districts where he should not go to, a veryimportant point; and he finally determined to carry on his collecting operations, in the season of 1860, at a place called Limon, at the junction of a stream of that name with the river Chasuan, which falls into the river of Ventanas at a place called Aguacatal. (See map.) The forests are all private property, and, after much negotiation with the owners, Señor Cordovez of Ambato, and Dr. Neyra of Guaranda, an agreement was made by which, on payment of 400 dollars, Mr. Spruce was allowed to take as many seeds and plants as he liked, on condition that he did not touch the bark.
Mr. Spruce had made arrangements for Dr. Taylor of Riobamba to proceed to Loxa, and collect seeds of theC. Condamineaspecies; but a severe rheumatic and nervous attack, almost amounting to paralysis, induced him to resign the duty of collecting the "red bark" to Dr. Taylor, and it was only at the last moment that he was strong enough to undertake the journey in company with his friend. During the whole time that Mr. Spruce was at work he was suffering severely from illness; the benefit derived from the milder climate of the forests was neutralized by the fogs and damp; and, to use his own words, "although upheld by a determination to execute to the best of my ability the task I had undertaken, I was but too often in that state of prostration when to lie down quietly and die would have seemed a relief." Leaving the town of Ambato on the 11th of June, Mr. Spruce and Dr. Taylor reached Guaranda on the 13th, and continued their journey towards the forests on the 17th. At a very little below 4000 feet above the sea they reached the small farms at Limon. Their abode stood on a narrow ridge sloping gradually to the river Chasuan. It was merely a long low shed, two-thirds of which was occupied by the rude machinery of a sugar-cane mill; the remaining third had an upper story with a flooring of bamboo-planks, half of it open at the sides, and the other half with a bamboo wallabout six feet high, not coming up to the roof in any part of it. This was their dormitory, and it was reached by a ladder, merely a trunk of a tree with rude notches for steps. On the ground-floor was the kitchen, with a wall of rough planks of raft wood, not touching each other; so that the whole fabric was abundantly ventilated, and only too often filled with fog, causing coughs, aching limbs, and mouldy clothes.
This was their head-quarters during the time that they were collecting seeds and plants; and the severe hardships, miserable lodging, and acute sufferings from illness must increase our admiration for Mr. Spruce's zeal and resolution in performing this great public service.
Mr. Cross, the gardener whom I had engaged to assist Mr. Spruce, conveyed the fifteen Wardian cases, which I had previously sent to Guayaquil, up the river as far as Ventanas, and reached Limon on the 27th of July.
In the mean while Mr. Spruce had carefully examined the chinchona forests, and visited all the bark-trees known to exist within reach of Limon. He found a good crop of capsules on many of them, which had already nearly reached their full size on the finest trees; on others, however, there were only very young capsules, and even a good many flowers, and not one of the late-flowering panicles produced ripe capsules. On the tree which bore most capsules they began to turn mouldy, the mould being not fungi, but rudimentary lichens, which, whilst it proved that the capsules were still alive and growing, proved also that they were exposed to an atmosphere almost constantly saturated with moisture.
Themanchonor clump of "red-bark" trees at Limon lies nearly west from the peak of Chimborazo, and the river Chasuan rises on the northern shoulder of that mountain. The view from Limon takes in a vast extent of country, and the whole is unbroken forest, save towards the source of the Chasuan, where a lofty ridge rises above the region ofarborescent vegetation, and is crowned by a small breadth of grassyparamo. The waters of the Chasuan run over a black or dull blue, shining, and very compact trachyte, over which, in the bottom of the valleys at Limon, there is a fine-grained ferruginous sandstone of a deep brown colour, in thick strata. The soil is a deep loamy alluvial deposit. The ridges on which the "red-bark" trees grow all deviate a little from an easterly and westerly direction, and the chinchonæ are far more abundant on the northern than on the southern slopes. The northern and eastern sides of the trees, too, had borne most fruit, and scarcely a capsule ripened on their southern and western sides. This is explained by the trees receiving most sun from the east and north, the mornings being generally clear and sunny in the summer, whilst the afternoons are foggy, and the sun's declination is northerly. Mr. Spruce also observed that the trees standing in open ground were far healthier and more luxuriant than those growing in the forest, where they are hemmed in and partially shaded by other trees; and he concludes, from this circumstance, that, though the "red-bark" tree may need shade whilst young and tender, it really requires (like most trees) plenty of air, light, and room wherein to develop its proportions.
The lowest site of the "red-bark" tree at Limon is at an elevation of 2450 feet above the sea, and its highest limit is at an elevation of about 5000 feet. The trees nearest the plain are generally the largest, but those higher up have much thicker bark in proportion to their diameter.
The havoc committed by the bark-collectors on these trees within the last twenty years has been very great. The entire quantity of "red bark" collected in 1859 did not reach to 5000 lbs., and in 1860 no "red bark" at all was got out, so that the trade is nearly extinct. In the valleys of the Chasuan and Limon Mr. Spruce saw about 200 of these trees standing, but only two or three were saplings which had notbeen disturbed; all the rest grew from old stools, whose circumference averaged from 4 to 5 feet. He was unable to find a single young plant under the trees, although many of the latter bore signs of having flowered in previous years; and this was explained by the flowering trees invariably growing in open places, where the ground was either weeded, or trodden down by cattle.
Mr. Spruce describes theC. succirubraor "red-bark" tree as very handsome, and he declares that, in looking out over the forest, he could never find any other tree at all comparable to it for beauty. It is fifty feet high, branching from about one-third of its height, with large, broadly ovate, deep green, and shining leaves, mixed with decaying ones of a blood-red colour, which give it a most striking appearance.
TheCascarilla magnifolia, a very handsome tree, with a fragrant white flower, grows abundantly with the "red bark," and attains a height of 80 feet.
After the arrival of Mr. Cross at Limon the work of collecting commenced in earnest. A piece of ground was fenced in, and Mr. Cross made a pit and prepared the soil to receive cuttings, of which he put in above a thousand on the 1st of August and following days; and he afterwards went round to all the old stools and put in as many layers from them as possible. "But," as Mr. Spruce most truly observes, "only those who have attempted to do anything in the forest, possessing scarcely any of the necessary appliances, can have any idea of the difficulties, and Mr. Cross's unremitting watchfulness alone enabled him to surmount them."
Towards the end of July, in a few sunny days, the fruit of the "red-bark" trees made visible advances towards maturity; and in the middle of August the capsules began to burst at the base, and appeared ripe. An Indian was then sent up the trees, and, breaking the panicles gently off, letthem fall on sheets spread on the ground to receive them, so that the few loose seeds shaken out by the fall were not lost. The capsules were afterwards spread out to dry for some days on the same sheets. In September Mr. Spruce went across to the valley of the San Antonio, to the southward, in order to secure additional seeds from "red-bark" trees there, leaving Mr. Cross to watch over the rooting of the cuttings at Limon. Between the 14th and 19th he gathered 500 well-grown capsules at San Antonio, in addition to 2000 already collected at Limon. Good capsules contain forty seeds each, so that at least 100,000 well-ripened and well-dried seeds were now gathered; and on the 28th of September Mr. Spruce started for Guayaquil.[370]In November he proceeded up the river again, and purchased one of the rafts at Ventanas, which are used for conveying cacao to Guayaquil. It was composed of twelve trunks of raft-wood, sixty-three to sixty-six feet long and one foot in diameter, kept in their places by shorter pieces tied transversely, and covered with bamboo planking, fenced round with rails to a height of three feet, and roofed over. The rope used for binding the parts of the raft together was the twining stem of aBignonia. The Wardian cases were got ready on the raft at Ventanas, and Mr. Cross arrived with the plants from Limon on the 13th of December, and established them in the cases to the number of 637.
After encountering several dangers and mishaps in navigating the river, the raft with its precious freight reached Guayaquil on the 27th of December; and the plants weresafely embarked on board the steamer, in charge of Mr. Cross, on the 2nd of January, 1861.
Thus skilfully and successfully did Mr. Spruce, and his able colleagues, perform this most difficult and important service. Mr. Spruce, during the whole time that he was in the chinchona forests, made most careful meteorological observations. From June 19th to December 8th the results of observations of the thermometer were as follows:—
Mean minimum61½°Mean maximum72⅓Mean temperature at 6½P.M.67¾Highest temperature observed80½on July 27th.Lowest temperature observed57on July 11th.Entire range23½Mean daily variation10½
On the western side of the Quitenian Andes, south of the Equator, the summer or dry season lasts from June to December, the remaining five months constituting the wet season. In the summer, at Limon, the early part of the day is often sunny, and fogs come on in the afternoon and night; but in the wet season there are fogs in the morning, and heavy rains during the rest of the day and night.
A perusal of the foregoing pages, which are nothing more than a brief abstract from Mr. Spruce's official reports, cannot fail to impress the reader with the valuable nature of the service which has been performed, and with the energy and fortitude, combined with great skill and ability, which enabled Mr. Spruce to overcome so many difficulties; and almost equal praise is due to Mr. Cross. But in recounting these arduous labours, only half of Mr. Spruce's services have been recorded. That gentleman is an accomplished botanist, and most accurate observer; and he has supplied us with a detailed report which, I do not hesitate to say, contains a larger amount of valuable information on the chinchona-forests than any account which has yet appeared in Europe. In additionto the narrative of his proceedings, and his observations on the "red-bark" tree, Mr. Spruce here gives a minute account of the vegetation of the "red-bark" forests of Chimborazo, a detailed meteorological journal, and important remarks on the climate and soil.[371]
My apprehensions respecting the feelings of the natives, when our proceedings became known, were fully justified by what took place in Ecuador, as well as in Peru. But the South Americans are, as a rule, remarkable for the slowness of their movements; and it was not until May 1st, 1861, that the legislature of Ecuador decreed that every person, whether foreigner or native, should be forbidden to make collections of plants, cuttings, or seeds of the quina-tree; and that precautions should be taken to prevent those articles from passing the ports and frontiers of the Republic. A fine of 100 dollars on every plant, and every drachm of seed, was imposed on those who attempted to break this decree. But by May 1st, 1861, the plants and seeds of the quina-tree were safe on the Neilgherry hills, in Southern India.
While Mr. Spruce was engaged in collecting these seeds and plants in the forests at the foot of Chimborazo, Mr. Pritchett, whose services I had secured for the Huanuco region in Northern Peru, was employed on the species of chinchonæ yielding grey bark.
Mr. Pritchett left Lima on the 18th of May, 1860, and arrived in the town of Huanuco, the centre of the grey-bark region, on the 28th, where he made the necessary preparations for a journey into the neighbouring forests. On the 9th of June he set out for the mountain-range of Carpis, to the northward, where there are several species of chinchonæ. TheC. purpureais very abundant; theC. nitidais common on the north-east side, and on the upper part of the mountains; theC. obovatais more rare; and theC. micranthaandC. Peruvianaare both inhabitants of the lower slopes. After crossing the Carpis range, Mr. Pritchett followed the course of the river of Casapi to the village of Chinchao, and went thence to the coca estate of Casapi, at the eastern end of the valley, where it joins that of the river Huallaga, and here he was joined by his guide.
CHINCHONA NITIDA TREES.FROM A SKETCH BY MR. PRITCHETT.Page 323.
CHINCHONA NITIDA TREES.FROM A SKETCH BY MR. PRITCHETT.Page 323.
About three leagues from Casapi, and close to the Huallaga, is the mountain called San Cristoval de Cocheros (Cuchero of Pavon and Poeppig), which rises from the low land at the junction of the two rivers to a height of about 1200 feet above them, and is the centre of the bark district of Huanuco. On the northern side Mr. Pritchett found abundance ofC. micrantha, and some trees ofC. Peruviana; but the latter species was much more rare. They both grow to a very large size, some of them being thirty inches in diameter and seventy feet in height. The trees ofC. nitidawere at a higher elevation.
During June and July, though it was the dry season, heavy rains continued to fall from day to day; but towards the end of July the weather broke up, and the sun began to make an impression on the solid banks of cloud which filled the valleys, and then it was that, during some portion of the day, the sun penetrated to the very underwood of the forest. In the first half of August there was fine weather, with only an occasional shower. The seeds on the chinchona-trees ripened rapidly in the sunshine, and Mr. Pritchett collected them by felling the trees—a labour which was performed by Indians, whom he hired from the coca estate of Casapi. Seven large trees were cut down daily, and denuded of their capsules, for a fortnight; the drying process being carried on at the estate, where every moment of sunshine was taken advantage of. On the 13thof August he started for the coast with his collection of seeds, and half a mule-load of young chinchona-plants, which were in perfect health when placed in the Wardian cases at Lima.
Mr. Pritchett reports that in the district around Cocheros, Casapi, and Carpis, the rocks are of crystalline formation, in many localities highly disintegrated, and composed of masses of hornblende, felspar, and mica. He remarks that felspar contains much potash, of which the chinchona-trees are said to require a large quantity for their full development; and, as felspar abounds in this region, he attributes the abundance and size of the chinchona-trees to this circumstance. He also reports that steatite, a silicate of magnesia and alumina, abounds in the vicinity of Huanuco.
He describes the climate as moist and warm, and says that the difference in the degree of moisture and warmth between the lower slopes where theC. micranthaflourishes, and the higher parts of the mountains inhabited by theC. nitida, is very striking, while on the lower slopes the soil is much deeper and richer.[372]He reports the elevation of Cocheros above the level of the sea to be about 4000 feet,[373]but he made no meteorological or other observations; and I think there can be no doubt that the elevation of that mountain is much greater than Mr. Pritchett supposes. I do not find any information on this point in Poeppig's travels; but the Huanuco region is quite a beaten track, and there are several accounts of it by modern travellers. Huanuco itself is 6300 feet above the sea;[374]the distance thence to the summit of the cuesta del Carpis, which is 8000 feet above the sea, is about twenty miles, and there is a descent on the other side into the valley of the Casapi of 2920 feet.[375]According to thisaccount the village of Chinchao, in the Casapi valley, would have an elevation of about 5000 feet. From Chinchao to the foot of the Cocheros mountain is a distance of twenty-five miles down the Casapi valley,[376]a gentle descent, with numerous cottages and plantations on both sides of the road.[377]Thus the foot of the Cocheros mountain would be about 4500 feet above the sea, and its summit at least 6000 feet.
We shall not, therefore, be very far from the truth if we place the region ofC. nitidaon the Cocheros and Carpis mountains at from 6000 to 7000 feet above the sea, and ofC. micranthaat from 4000 to 5000 feet.
Mr. Pritchett performed the portion of this important undertaking which I intrusted to him with promptitude and zeal. Time was a great object, and, by going direct from Lima to the best locality in the Huanuco chinchona region, he completed the necessary collection of plants and seeds, and returned to the coast in little more than three months.[378]This shows how essential a previous knowledge of the chinchona region, of the people, and of the language, was, without which the collector would probably lose much time, which is the same thing as spending much money, and eventually wander into a locality where only worthless species are found, as was the case with the Dutch agent.
Owing to the unavoidable abandonment of Mr. Spruce'sintention of sending Dr. Taylor to collect seeds ofC. Condamineaat Loxa, one portion of my scheme for introducing all the valuable species into India remained incomplete at the close of 1860. On my return from India, therefore, in May 1861, I obtained the sanction of the Secretary of State for India to take measures for obtaining a supply of seeds from the Loxa forests. Mr. Cross, the gardener who had so ably assisted Mr. Spruce, and shared his labours, after safely depositing the collection of seeds and plants in India, had returned to South America, attracted by the richness and variety of the flora of the Andes. Having acquired experience of the people and language, of the localities where chinchona-trees are found, and of the mode of travelling, during his former visit, he possessed the necessary qualifications; and, as Mr. Spruce was too ill to undertake the work, it was intrusted to Mr. Cross, who performed it with expedition and success. He is an excellent practical gardener, intelligent and persevering, ardently devoted to his profession, and thoroughly trustworthy.
On the 17th of September, 1861, Mr. Cross left Guayaquil in an open rowing boat, and landed at Santa Rosa, the port of the province of Loxa, whence he proceeded, by way of Zaruma, to the town of Loxa, which he reached on the 27th. He had to pass through dense swampy forests, over dangerous precipitous ridges of the Andes, in crossing one of which his mule slipped down a deep ravine and was dashed to pieces, and along barren lofty plains. He mentions that during the ascent to Zaruma he saw several "red-bark" trees growing at an elevation of eight or nine thousand feet.
On the 1st of October he left Loxa, and went to a long low ridge of hills, called the Sierra de Cajanuma, about eight miles to the southward, a locality which is mentioned by Humboldt, Bonpland, and Caldas, as the abode of the most valuable kinds ofC. Condaminea. He came to an Indian huton a little rounded eminence near the summit of the mountain, which, being far from public roads or other dwellings, seemed well suited for his head-quarters during the time that he was searching for seeds. For be it remembered that the Decree of May 1st, 1861, already mentioned, was in full force, and that he was running the risk of fine and imprisonment in performing this important service. The owner of the hut, who was an experienced bark-collector, allowed Mr. Cross to establish himself in a little shed at one end of it, which, although favourable for drying seeds, was so cold that he was sometimes compelled, during windy nights, to seek shelter in the bottom of a neighbouring ravine.
After many comparatively unsuccessful searches in the surrounding woods, he was one day passing along the bank of a steep ravine, and, happening to look over a projecting rock, he saw a number of fine young trees of theC. Condamineaon the steep slope beneath, some of which bore a few panicles of seeds, which, on examination, he found to be perfectly ripe. After this discovery he continued to search all the ravines in the vicinity from sunrise to sunset, some of which he had to descend by means of the trailing stems of a species ofPassiflora, and in this way a good supply of seeds was collected. He reports that on the accessible slopes there are few chinchona-trees, owing partly to the annual burning, and partly to continual cropping of the young shoots by cattle. He describes the rocks, composed of micaceous schist and gneiss, as being, in many places, in a state of decomposition, and states that large portions are frequently tumbling down from the more elevated summits. The alluvial deposit in the ravines, where theC. Condamineais found growing, is shallow, in many places not more than six inches in depth, and Mr. Cross often gathered seeds from trees which were growing in clefts of rock, where there was not a single ounce of soil to be found. He describes theC. Condamineaas a slender tree, from 20 to 30 feet in height,[379]and from 8 to 10 inches in diameter at the base; but he saw few trees of these dimensions, and the plants from which the bark of commerce is now taken are in general not more than 8 to 10 feet in height.[380]When the plants are cut down, three or four young shoots or suckers generally spring up, but this does not always happen, as some of the more industrious bark-collectors frequently pull up the roots, and bark them also. The bark is taken from the smallest twigs, and thus the annual growths are often taken, especially if they are strong. The plants are sometimes found growing in small clumps, and sometimes solitary, but always in dry situations.
The temperature of this region ranges according to Humboldt and Caldas from 41° to 72° Fahr., and according to Mr. Cross from 34° to 70° Fahr.; but he adds that it seldom falls below 40°, and rarely rises above 65°; the mean range being from 45° to 60° Fahr. The climate of Loxa is very moist. The wet season commences in January and lasts until the end of April or middle of May; in June, July, and August there are heavy rains, accompanied by strong gales of wind; from September to January there is generally fine weather, but occasional showers of rain fall even at that time of year.[381]
The vegetation on the Sierra de Cajanuma is of a semi-arborescent character, but some of the higher summits are bare. In the bottoms of the ravines grow a species ofAlnus,Melastomæ,Peperomias, palms, and two species of tree ferns; and on the slopes throughout the low-lying country, barley, maize, peas, and potatoes are cultivated. Mr. Cross senthome a large collection of dried specimens of plants gathered on the Sierra de Cajanuma. Among them I observed aBefariawith pretty crimson flowers, of which he says that one ounce of the roots in two pints of water is taken twice a day by the Indians for dysentery; a very handsome purple lupin, growing six to eight feet high; anEmbothrium, a wide-spreading shrub, growing in dry situations; another smallerBefaria, a beautiful shrub, growing in very lofty dry localities; aVeronica, a shrub six to eight feet high, with a blue flower; aGaultheria; a wide-spreadingmelastomaceousplant, with inconspicuous flowers; and a number ofLycopodiaand ferns.