1The same opinion has been confirmed by Mr.Buffonin hisHist. Naturelle.tom.1.art.xix. Vol. 2. p. 419 of the edit. in twelves. F.↑2The name ofPorpesseis certainly derived from the name[17]Porcopesce, given to this genus by theItalians; and it is remarkable that almost all theEuropeannations conspired in calling them Sea-hogs, their name being inGermanMeer Schwein; theDanish,Swedish, andNorvegian,Marsuin, from whence theFrenchborrowed theirMarsouin. The natives ofIcelandcall themSuinhual, i.e. aSwine-whale, and so likewise theSlavoniannations have theirSwinia Morskaya. Whether this consent arises from their rooting the sand at the bottom of the sea in quest of Sand-eels and Sea-worms like swine, or from the vast quantity of lard surrounding their bodies is uncertain. F.↑3Mr.Kalmis certainly mistaken in reckoning theBottle-noseamongst theDolphinkind; it has no teeth in its mouth as all the fish of that class have, and therefore belongs to the first order of theWhales, or those that are without teeth. See Mr.Pennant’sBritish Zoology,Vol. 3. p. 43. where it is called thebeaked Whale, and very well described; a drawing is seen in the explanatory table, n. I. Perhaps it would not be improper to call itBalæna ampullata. F.↑4In Mr.Pennant’sBritish Zoologyvol. 3. p. 282. is the best account of this fish to be met with; and in hisBritish Zoology,illustrated by Plates and brief explanationsis plate xliv. a good and exact drawing of the fish, the upper figure representing it in front, the lower sideways. F.↑5Head of the Moravian Brethren. F.↑6Dr.Linnæusmentions only one species ofNyssa, namelyNyssa aquatica; Mr.Kalmdoes not mention the name of the species; but if his is not a different species, it must at least be a variety, since he says it grows on hills, whereas theaquaticagrows in the water. F.↑7Quere. Is this theJuglans baccataofLinnæus? F.↑8This species is not to be met with inLinn. spec. plant.F.↑9InMiller’sGardenDictionary, it is calledKetmia Indica folio ficus, fructu pentagono, recurvo esculento, graciliori, et longiori.↑10Nitrum Crystallus montana, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 84.Crystallus hexagona pellucida non Colorata.Wallerius’s Mineralogy, p. 100.Crystallus montana, colourless crystal.Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy, p. 13.↑11Pyrites crystallinus, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 113.Marchasitæ hexaëdricæ tesselares.Wallerius’s Mineralogy, p. 211.Marcasitæ, vel crystalli pyritacei, Marcasites.Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy, p. 39.↑12Mica membranacea, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 58.Mica membranacea pellucidissima flexilis alba. Wallerius’s Min. p. 120.Russianglass,Muscovyglass, Isinglass,Vitrum ruthenicum,Vitrum Mariæ.Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy, p. 18.↑13Marmor rude, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 41.Calcareus particulis scintillantibus.Wall.Min. p. 39.Calcareus scintillans, glittering limestone.Forster’s Introd. to Mineral. p. 9.↑14This has been confirmed, sinceCape Bretonis in the hands of theEnglish, and it is reported that the strata of coals run through the whole isle, and some basset out to day near the sea-shore, so that this isle will afford immense treasures of coals, when the government will find it convenient, to have them dug for the benefit of the Nation. F.↑15TheEnglishreader, who is perhaps not so well acquainted with the weather of theSwedishautumn, may form an idea of it, by having recourse to theCalendarium Floræ, or the botanical and œconomical almanack ofSweden, in Dr.Linnæus’s Amœn. Academ. and in Mr.Stillingfleet’sSwedishtracts, translated from the Amœn. Acad. 2d. edition. F.↑16VideHackluyt’s collect. voy. III. 246.↑17Vide Medical, &c. cases and experiments, translated from theSwedish,London1758. p. 282. P.↑18This has all the appearance of a vulgar error: neither does the succeeding account of theAmericanbears being carnivorous, agree with the observations of the most judicious travellers, who deny the fact. P.But however it might beeasibleto reconcile both opinions. ForEuropehas two or three kinds of bears, one species of which is carnivorous, the other lives only on vegetables: the large brown species, with its small variety, are reputed to be carnivorous, the black species is merely phytivorous. In case therefore both species are found inNorth America, it would be very easy to account for their being both carnivorous and not. F.↑19Quartzum hyalinum, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 65.Quartzum solidum pellucidum, WalleriiMiner. 91.[120]The common Quartz,Forster’s Mineralogy, p. 16. AndQuartzum coloratum, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 65.Quartzum solidum opacum coloratum.Wall.Min. 99.The impure Quartz, Forst. Min. p. 16.↑20InSweden, and in the north ofGermany, the round holes in rivers, with a stoney or rocky bed, which the whirling of the water has made, are called giants pots; these holes are likewise mentioned in Mr.Grosleys new observations on Italy, Vol. I. p. 8. F.↑21How far this approbation of the Royal Society, ought to be credited, is to be understood from the advertisements published at the head of each new volume of the Philosophical Transactions. F.↑22Thomas Herriot, servant to SirWalter Raleigh, who was employed by him to examine into the productions ofNorth America, makes no mention of the peach among the other fruits he describes, andM. du Pratz, who has given a very good account ofLouisianaand theMissisippi, says, that the natives got their peaches from theEnglishcolony ofCarolina, before theFrenchsettled there. P.↑23These worms are the Larva’s of theOestrusorGadfly, which deposits its eggs on the back of cattle, and the Larva’s being hatched from these eggs, cause great sores, wherein they live till they are ready for their change. In the south ofRussiathey use for the same purpose the decoction ofVeratrum, orthe white Hellebore. F.↑24The bones and tusks of Elephants are not only found inRussia, but also in the canton ofBaselinSwisserland, in the dominions of the Marquis ofBareithinFranconia, and more instances are found in theProtogæaof the celebratedLeibnitz. Lately near the riverOhiohave been discovered, a great number of skeletons of Elephants with their tusks, and very remarkable grinders still sticking in their jaw bones were sent to theBritish Museum; the late Dr.LittletonBishop ofCarlisle, also lodged some teeth sticking in their jawbones in the Museum of the Royal Society, which were brought fromPeru. The riversChatungaandIndighirkainSiberia, are remarkable for affording on their banks great quantities of bones and tusks of Elephants, which[136]being preserved there by the great frost, and in the short summer of a few weeks, the rain being rare, these tusks are commonly so fresh that they are employed inRussia, as common ivory, on account of the great quantity brought from these places toRussia; some of them were eight feet long, and of three hundred pounds weight. There have been found grinders of nine inches diameter. But theAmericangrinders of Elephants from near theOhioare yet more remarkable, on account of their being provided with crowns on their tops, such as are only found in the carnivorous animals, and such as feed on hard bones or nuts. Whilst on the contrary, Elephants at present feeding on grasses and soft vegetables have no such crowns at the tops of their grinders.Livy, it is true, makes a distinction between theAsiaticorIndianElephants, and theAfricanones; and remarks the latter to be inferior to the former in size and vigour; but whether the teeth in these animals are so much different from those of the other variety, has never been attended to. This circumstance of the difference in the fossil grinders of Elephants, from those in the living ones, and the place where these skeletons were found in, viz.Siberia,GermanyandAmerica, where at present no Elephants are to be met with, opens a wide field to conjectures in regard to the way, by which these animals were carried to those spots. The flood in the deluge perhaps has carried them thither; nor is it contrary to reason, history or revelation, to believe, these skeletons to be the remainders of animals, which lived on the surface of this globe, anterior to the Mosaic creation, which may be considered only as a new modification of the creatures living on this globe, adapted to its present state, under which it will remain till circumstances will make a new change necessary, and then our globe will by a new creation of revolution appear more adapted to its state, and be stocked with a set of animals more suitable to that state. Every[137]man used to philosophy and reasoning will find, that this plan gives a grand idea of the Creator, his œconomy and management of the universe: and moreover, it is conformable to the meaning of the words of a sacred writer, who says: Ps. civ. 29. 30.Thou bidest thy face and they(small and great beasts)are troubled; thou takest away their breath, they die, and return to their dust. Thou sendest forth thy spirit, they are created; and thou renewest the fact of the earth.See Dr.Hunter’s remarks on the above-mentioned teeth, in thePhilosophical Trans.Vol. lviii. F.↑25In Mr.Osbeck’s Voyage toChina, Vol I. p. 50. in a note, an account is given of this kind of land, which theSwedescallSwedieland, where it is observed, that the trees being burnt, their ashes afford manure sufficient for three years, after which they are left uncultivated again, till after twenty or more years, a new generation of trees being produced on them, the country people burn them, and cultivate the country for three years again. F.↑26The learned Dr.Wallerius, in his Mineralogy, §. 8. in the note to the article,Humus communis atra, mentions that some people were of opinion, that themouldof our globe increased their parts, especially in such places as had been uncultivated ever since the deluge, and that thus in a hundred years,[152]half an inch of mould was produced. But he observes in the same time, that this observation was not at all exact; for as the common mould seldom exceeds a soot, it must from thence follow, that since the deluge no more than 2400 years were elapsed, though the scripture chronology reckons upwards of 4000 years since that event: besides this, he remarks, that mould always becomes more dry and compressed, where it is out of the reach, of rain and snow; and where it is exposed to rain, it is carried off to lower places, and therefore increases and decreases according to the qualities of its local situation. Moreover, vegetables it is known prosper the best where mould is found. As the surface of our globe has been covered with vegetables since the deluge, they must have had a mould to grow in ever since that time; consequently it is highly probable, that there must have been a mould covering the surface of our globe, ever since the first origin. I should be led by some other confederations, to doubt of the infallibility of this rule for the increase of mould. InRussia, on this side the riverVolga, are high and extensive plains, which have been uncultivated ever since the deluge, for we know from history, that theScythians,Sarmatians,Huns,Chazars, andMogols, were successively the masters of these vast countries, and were altogether nomadic nations, who lived without agriculture; the country has been without wood since time immemorial, nor could there even spring up any wood whatsoever, since its rambling possessors every spring set fire to the old dry grass, in order to make room for the new grass, which in the latter end ofMay, I found come up very near to my waist. And these vast, desart plains, I saw every where covered with at lead two feet mould; nay, in some places it amounted to four feet; this would give according to the former rule of half an inch per Century, 4800 years, in the first instance, and in the second, 9600 years, and therefore shews that this rule for calculating the increase of mould, is very precarious. The chemical[153]analysis of plants, shews that they consist of water, earth, acid, alkali, oil, and an inflammable principle, independent of the last substance, and called by a lateGermanchemist thecaustic: these substances must enter yearly the new plants, and make their substance, and are as it were regenerated in these new plants, after being set at liberty from the structure of the last year’s plants by putrefaction, or by fire. Mould chemically examined, has the same analogous parts. Acid and caustic are plentifully contained in the common air, and may also easily be restored to the mould, and thus circulate through a new system of plants. Water comes likewise from rain and snow, out of our atmosphere: alkaline and oily particles, or a kind ofsoap, are the only things wanting, which when added with the former to any subtle earth, will make a good mould, and these are produced by putrefaction or fire, from vegetable and animal substances, and are the great promoters of vegetation.But the great question is, from whence these various substances necessary for vegetation originally came? To believe they are produced from putrified vegetables is begging the question, and making acirculus vitiosusin the argument. There is therefore no evasion; they were certainly produced by the great Creator of the universe, and endowed with such qualities, as make them capable of producing in various mixtures new bodies; and when they are introduced by moisture, into the first stamina of a plant, or a seed, they expand these stamina, and constitute a new being, capable of affording food to the animal creation. It is evident, Mr.Kalmhinted at the above-mentioned opinion of the increase of mould, and this gave me an opportunity of confirming his argument, and of stating fairly the great question oh which agriculture, the most necessary branch of human arts depends. F.↑27As the shells of oysters are a marine animal production, and their cavities are full of particles of sea-water, the moisture of it flies off, leaving behind its salt; when the shells are burnt, and the lime is slacked, the salt mixes with the lime: and though the mortar of such a lime grows ever so dry, the particles of salt immediately attract the moisture of the air, and cause that dampness complained of here. F.↑28Though Mr.Kalmhas so carefully avoided peoplingEuropewith this insect, yet Dr.Linnæusassures us in hisSystema Naturæ, that the southern countries ofEuropeare already infested with it;Scopolimentions it among hisInsecta Carniolicap. 63. andGeoffroyamong hisParisian Insects, Vol. 1. p. 267. t. 4. f. 9. has given a fine figure of it. F.↑29Diss. de Noxa Insectorum, Amœn. Acad. Vol. 3. p. 347.↑30In hisSystema Naturæ, he calls itBruchus Pisi, or the Pease Beetle; and says that theGracula Quiscula, orPurple dawofCatesby, is the greatest destroyer of them, and though[177]this bird has been proscribed by the legislature ofPensylvania,New Jersey, andNew Englandas a maize-thief, they feel however the imprudence of extirpating this bird; for a quantity of worms which formerly were eaten by these birds destroy their meadows at present. F.↑31If the pease were steeped before they are sown, in a lie of lime water and some dissolved arsenic, the pupa or aurelia of the insect would be killed. F.↑32Mr.Millerdescribes this liquor in his Gardener’s Dictionary under the article ofConvolvulus, species the 17th. and 18th.↑33This animal is probably theSorex cristatusof Dr.Linnæus, who says it is like the mole and lives inPensylvania. F.↑34The same is to be met with inEdwards’s Natural History of Birds, page 38. tab. 38. F.↑35There is a much lesser species of humming-bird, byLinnæuscalledTrochilus minimus, being the least bird known; SirHans Sloane’s living one, weighed only twenty grains, and Mr.Edwards’s dry one forty-five. It is drawn inEdwards’sbirds, t. 150, in its natural size, together with its egg. F.↑36The author seems to comprehend more by this word, than what it commonly includes, for he describes it as a building, which contains both a barn and stables. F.↑37This kind of building is frequent in the north ofGermany,Holland, andPrussia, and therefore it is no wonder that it is employed by people who, were used to them in their own country. F.↑38Probably it is a stone marle; a blue and reddish species of this kind is used with good success, in the county ofBamffinScotland.↑39Dr.Linnæus, in his Travels throughWestrogothia, has given a drawing of the machine by which woad is prepared, on the 128th. page.↑40As there are no Jews inSweden, Prof.Kalmwas an utter stranger to their manners and religious customs, and therefore relates them as a kind of novelty. F.↑41This has really happened by a greater union and exertion of power from the colonies and the mother country; so thatCanadahas been conquered and its possession has been confirmed toGreat Britainin the last peace. F.↑42Of this animal and of the above-mentionedRacoonis a representation given plate 2. both from original drawings; theGermanand theSwedishedition of Prof.Kalm’s work being both without this plate. F.↑43Neither of these accounts appear to be satisfactory; and therefore I am inclined to believe that these red foxes originally came over fromAsia, (most probably fromKamtchatka[284]where this species is common, seeMiller’sAccount of the Navigations of the Russians, &c.) though in remote times, and thus spread overNorth America. It is perhaps true that theIndiansnever took notice of them till theEuropeanswere settled among them; this, however, was because they never had occasion to use their skins: but when there was a demand for these they began to hunt them, and, as they had not been much accustomed to them before, they esteemed them as a novelty. What gives additionalconfirmationto this is, that when theRussiansunder CommodoreBeringlanded on the western coast ofAmerica, they saw five red foxes which were quite tame, and seemed not to be in the least afraid of men: now this might very well have been the case if we suppose them to have been for many generations in a place where no body disturbed them; but we cannot account for it, if we imagine that they had been used to a country where there were many inhabitants, or where they had been much hunted. F.↑44When CaptainAmadas, the firstEnglishmanthat ever landed inNorth America, set foot on shore (to use his own words)such a flocke of Cranes (the most part white) arose under us with such a cry, redoubled by many ecchoes, as if an armie of men had showted alltogether.↑45Properlyshining blackbirds.↑46What gives still more weight, to Mr.Kalm’s opinion of theElkbeing theMoose-deer, is the nameMusuwhich theAlgonkinsgive to the elk, as Mr.Kalmhimself observes in the sequel of his work; and this circumstance is the more remarkable, as theAlgonkinsbefore theIrokeeseorfive nationsgot so great a power inAmerica, were the most powerful nation in the northern part of this continent; in so much, that though they be now reduced to an inconsiderable number, their language is however a kind of universal language inNorth America; so that there is no doubt, that the elk is the famousMoose-deer. F.↑47It seems to be either the substance commonly calledFrench Chalk, or perhaps theSoap-rock, which is common inCornwallnear theLizard point, and which consists besides of some particles of talc, chiefly of an earth like magnesia, which latter with acid of vitriol, yields an earthy vitriolic, salt, orEpsom salt. F.↑48Amiantus(Asbestus) fibrosus, fibris separabilibus flexilibus tenacibus,Linn. Syst. nat.p. 55.Amiantus fibris mollibus parallelis facile separabilibus,Wall.Min. 140.Mountain Flax,Linum montanum,Forster’s Mineralogy, p. 17. F.↑49It has been observed, that only such squirrels and birds as have their nests near the place where such snakes come to, make this pitiful noise, and are so busy in running up and down the tree and the neighbouring branches, in order to draw off the attention of the snake from their brood, and often they come so very near in order to fly away again, that being within reach of the snakes, they are at last bit, poisoned and devoured; and this will, I believe, perfectly account for the powers of fascinating birds and small creatures in the snakes. F.↑50AsCatesbyandEdwardshave both represented theflying Squirrelin a sitting attitude, I have given here, plate I. a figure of one with the expanded membrane, and joined to it on the same plate, a more accurate figure of theground Squirrel.It is not yet made out with certainty, whether theAmericanflying squirrel, and that found inFinlandand in the north ofEuropeandAsia, be the same animal. TheAmericankind has a flat pennated tail, but theEuropeankind a round one, which affords a very distinguishing character. F.↑51See for this opinion the scarce and curious work intitled,Torfæi historia Vinlandiæ antiquæ seu partis Americæ septentrionalis. Hafniæ 1715.4to. F.↑52This experiment with the silver, supposes that the broth of the fish would be so strong as to act as a solvent upon the silver; but there may be poisons, which would not affect the silver, and however prove fatal to men; the surest way therefore would be to suppress that appetite, which may become fatal not only to a few men of the crew, but also endanger the whole ship, by the loss of necessary hands. F.↑
1The same opinion has been confirmed by Mr.Buffonin hisHist. Naturelle.tom.1.art.xix. Vol. 2. p. 419 of the edit. in twelves. F.↑2The name ofPorpesseis certainly derived from the name[17]Porcopesce, given to this genus by theItalians; and it is remarkable that almost all theEuropeannations conspired in calling them Sea-hogs, their name being inGermanMeer Schwein; theDanish,Swedish, andNorvegian,Marsuin, from whence theFrenchborrowed theirMarsouin. The natives ofIcelandcall themSuinhual, i.e. aSwine-whale, and so likewise theSlavoniannations have theirSwinia Morskaya. Whether this consent arises from their rooting the sand at the bottom of the sea in quest of Sand-eels and Sea-worms like swine, or from the vast quantity of lard surrounding their bodies is uncertain. F.↑3Mr.Kalmis certainly mistaken in reckoning theBottle-noseamongst theDolphinkind; it has no teeth in its mouth as all the fish of that class have, and therefore belongs to the first order of theWhales, or those that are without teeth. See Mr.Pennant’sBritish Zoology,Vol. 3. p. 43. where it is called thebeaked Whale, and very well described; a drawing is seen in the explanatory table, n. I. Perhaps it would not be improper to call itBalæna ampullata. F.↑4In Mr.Pennant’sBritish Zoologyvol. 3. p. 282. is the best account of this fish to be met with; and in hisBritish Zoology,illustrated by Plates and brief explanationsis plate xliv. a good and exact drawing of the fish, the upper figure representing it in front, the lower sideways. F.↑5Head of the Moravian Brethren. F.↑6Dr.Linnæusmentions only one species ofNyssa, namelyNyssa aquatica; Mr.Kalmdoes not mention the name of the species; but if his is not a different species, it must at least be a variety, since he says it grows on hills, whereas theaquaticagrows in the water. F.↑7Quere. Is this theJuglans baccataofLinnæus? F.↑8This species is not to be met with inLinn. spec. plant.F.↑9InMiller’sGardenDictionary, it is calledKetmia Indica folio ficus, fructu pentagono, recurvo esculento, graciliori, et longiori.↑10Nitrum Crystallus montana, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 84.Crystallus hexagona pellucida non Colorata.Wallerius’s Mineralogy, p. 100.Crystallus montana, colourless crystal.Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy, p. 13.↑11Pyrites crystallinus, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 113.Marchasitæ hexaëdricæ tesselares.Wallerius’s Mineralogy, p. 211.Marcasitæ, vel crystalli pyritacei, Marcasites.Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy, p. 39.↑12Mica membranacea, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 58.Mica membranacea pellucidissima flexilis alba. Wallerius’s Min. p. 120.Russianglass,Muscovyglass, Isinglass,Vitrum ruthenicum,Vitrum Mariæ.Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy, p. 18.↑13Marmor rude, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 41.Calcareus particulis scintillantibus.Wall.Min. p. 39.Calcareus scintillans, glittering limestone.Forster’s Introd. to Mineral. p. 9.↑14This has been confirmed, sinceCape Bretonis in the hands of theEnglish, and it is reported that the strata of coals run through the whole isle, and some basset out to day near the sea-shore, so that this isle will afford immense treasures of coals, when the government will find it convenient, to have them dug for the benefit of the Nation. F.↑15TheEnglishreader, who is perhaps not so well acquainted with the weather of theSwedishautumn, may form an idea of it, by having recourse to theCalendarium Floræ, or the botanical and œconomical almanack ofSweden, in Dr.Linnæus’s Amœn. Academ. and in Mr.Stillingfleet’sSwedishtracts, translated from the Amœn. Acad. 2d. edition. F.↑16VideHackluyt’s collect. voy. III. 246.↑17Vide Medical, &c. cases and experiments, translated from theSwedish,London1758. p. 282. P.↑18This has all the appearance of a vulgar error: neither does the succeeding account of theAmericanbears being carnivorous, agree with the observations of the most judicious travellers, who deny the fact. P.But however it might beeasibleto reconcile both opinions. ForEuropehas two or three kinds of bears, one species of which is carnivorous, the other lives only on vegetables: the large brown species, with its small variety, are reputed to be carnivorous, the black species is merely phytivorous. In case therefore both species are found inNorth America, it would be very easy to account for their being both carnivorous and not. F.↑19Quartzum hyalinum, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 65.Quartzum solidum pellucidum, WalleriiMiner. 91.[120]The common Quartz,Forster’s Mineralogy, p. 16. AndQuartzum coloratum, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 65.Quartzum solidum opacum coloratum.Wall.Min. 99.The impure Quartz, Forst. Min. p. 16.↑20InSweden, and in the north ofGermany, the round holes in rivers, with a stoney or rocky bed, which the whirling of the water has made, are called giants pots; these holes are likewise mentioned in Mr.Grosleys new observations on Italy, Vol. I. p. 8. F.↑21How far this approbation of the Royal Society, ought to be credited, is to be understood from the advertisements published at the head of each new volume of the Philosophical Transactions. F.↑22Thomas Herriot, servant to SirWalter Raleigh, who was employed by him to examine into the productions ofNorth America, makes no mention of the peach among the other fruits he describes, andM. du Pratz, who has given a very good account ofLouisianaand theMissisippi, says, that the natives got their peaches from theEnglishcolony ofCarolina, before theFrenchsettled there. P.↑23These worms are the Larva’s of theOestrusorGadfly, which deposits its eggs on the back of cattle, and the Larva’s being hatched from these eggs, cause great sores, wherein they live till they are ready for their change. In the south ofRussiathey use for the same purpose the decoction ofVeratrum, orthe white Hellebore. F.↑24The bones and tusks of Elephants are not only found inRussia, but also in the canton ofBaselinSwisserland, in the dominions of the Marquis ofBareithinFranconia, and more instances are found in theProtogæaof the celebratedLeibnitz. Lately near the riverOhiohave been discovered, a great number of skeletons of Elephants with their tusks, and very remarkable grinders still sticking in their jaw bones were sent to theBritish Museum; the late Dr.LittletonBishop ofCarlisle, also lodged some teeth sticking in their jawbones in the Museum of the Royal Society, which were brought fromPeru. The riversChatungaandIndighirkainSiberia, are remarkable for affording on their banks great quantities of bones and tusks of Elephants, which[136]being preserved there by the great frost, and in the short summer of a few weeks, the rain being rare, these tusks are commonly so fresh that they are employed inRussia, as common ivory, on account of the great quantity brought from these places toRussia; some of them were eight feet long, and of three hundred pounds weight. There have been found grinders of nine inches diameter. But theAmericangrinders of Elephants from near theOhioare yet more remarkable, on account of their being provided with crowns on their tops, such as are only found in the carnivorous animals, and such as feed on hard bones or nuts. Whilst on the contrary, Elephants at present feeding on grasses and soft vegetables have no such crowns at the tops of their grinders.Livy, it is true, makes a distinction between theAsiaticorIndianElephants, and theAfricanones; and remarks the latter to be inferior to the former in size and vigour; but whether the teeth in these animals are so much different from those of the other variety, has never been attended to. This circumstance of the difference in the fossil grinders of Elephants, from those in the living ones, and the place where these skeletons were found in, viz.Siberia,GermanyandAmerica, where at present no Elephants are to be met with, opens a wide field to conjectures in regard to the way, by which these animals were carried to those spots. The flood in the deluge perhaps has carried them thither; nor is it contrary to reason, history or revelation, to believe, these skeletons to be the remainders of animals, which lived on the surface of this globe, anterior to the Mosaic creation, which may be considered only as a new modification of the creatures living on this globe, adapted to its present state, under which it will remain till circumstances will make a new change necessary, and then our globe will by a new creation of revolution appear more adapted to its state, and be stocked with a set of animals more suitable to that state. Every[137]man used to philosophy and reasoning will find, that this plan gives a grand idea of the Creator, his œconomy and management of the universe: and moreover, it is conformable to the meaning of the words of a sacred writer, who says: Ps. civ. 29. 30.Thou bidest thy face and they(small and great beasts)are troubled; thou takest away their breath, they die, and return to their dust. Thou sendest forth thy spirit, they are created; and thou renewest the fact of the earth.See Dr.Hunter’s remarks on the above-mentioned teeth, in thePhilosophical Trans.Vol. lviii. F.↑25In Mr.Osbeck’s Voyage toChina, Vol I. p. 50. in a note, an account is given of this kind of land, which theSwedescallSwedieland, where it is observed, that the trees being burnt, their ashes afford manure sufficient for three years, after which they are left uncultivated again, till after twenty or more years, a new generation of trees being produced on them, the country people burn them, and cultivate the country for three years again. F.↑26The learned Dr.Wallerius, in his Mineralogy, §. 8. in the note to the article,Humus communis atra, mentions that some people were of opinion, that themouldof our globe increased their parts, especially in such places as had been uncultivated ever since the deluge, and that thus in a hundred years,[152]half an inch of mould was produced. But he observes in the same time, that this observation was not at all exact; for as the common mould seldom exceeds a soot, it must from thence follow, that since the deluge no more than 2400 years were elapsed, though the scripture chronology reckons upwards of 4000 years since that event: besides this, he remarks, that mould always becomes more dry and compressed, where it is out of the reach, of rain and snow; and where it is exposed to rain, it is carried off to lower places, and therefore increases and decreases according to the qualities of its local situation. Moreover, vegetables it is known prosper the best where mould is found. As the surface of our globe has been covered with vegetables since the deluge, they must have had a mould to grow in ever since that time; consequently it is highly probable, that there must have been a mould covering the surface of our globe, ever since the first origin. I should be led by some other confederations, to doubt of the infallibility of this rule for the increase of mould. InRussia, on this side the riverVolga, are high and extensive plains, which have been uncultivated ever since the deluge, for we know from history, that theScythians,Sarmatians,Huns,Chazars, andMogols, were successively the masters of these vast countries, and were altogether nomadic nations, who lived without agriculture; the country has been without wood since time immemorial, nor could there even spring up any wood whatsoever, since its rambling possessors every spring set fire to the old dry grass, in order to make room for the new grass, which in the latter end ofMay, I found come up very near to my waist. And these vast, desart plains, I saw every where covered with at lead two feet mould; nay, in some places it amounted to four feet; this would give according to the former rule of half an inch per Century, 4800 years, in the first instance, and in the second, 9600 years, and therefore shews that this rule for calculating the increase of mould, is very precarious. The chemical[153]analysis of plants, shews that they consist of water, earth, acid, alkali, oil, and an inflammable principle, independent of the last substance, and called by a lateGermanchemist thecaustic: these substances must enter yearly the new plants, and make their substance, and are as it were regenerated in these new plants, after being set at liberty from the structure of the last year’s plants by putrefaction, or by fire. Mould chemically examined, has the same analogous parts. Acid and caustic are plentifully contained in the common air, and may also easily be restored to the mould, and thus circulate through a new system of plants. Water comes likewise from rain and snow, out of our atmosphere: alkaline and oily particles, or a kind ofsoap, are the only things wanting, which when added with the former to any subtle earth, will make a good mould, and these are produced by putrefaction or fire, from vegetable and animal substances, and are the great promoters of vegetation.But the great question is, from whence these various substances necessary for vegetation originally came? To believe they are produced from putrified vegetables is begging the question, and making acirculus vitiosusin the argument. There is therefore no evasion; they were certainly produced by the great Creator of the universe, and endowed with such qualities, as make them capable of producing in various mixtures new bodies; and when they are introduced by moisture, into the first stamina of a plant, or a seed, they expand these stamina, and constitute a new being, capable of affording food to the animal creation. It is evident, Mr.Kalmhinted at the above-mentioned opinion of the increase of mould, and this gave me an opportunity of confirming his argument, and of stating fairly the great question oh which agriculture, the most necessary branch of human arts depends. F.↑27As the shells of oysters are a marine animal production, and their cavities are full of particles of sea-water, the moisture of it flies off, leaving behind its salt; when the shells are burnt, and the lime is slacked, the salt mixes with the lime: and though the mortar of such a lime grows ever so dry, the particles of salt immediately attract the moisture of the air, and cause that dampness complained of here. F.↑28Though Mr.Kalmhas so carefully avoided peoplingEuropewith this insect, yet Dr.Linnæusassures us in hisSystema Naturæ, that the southern countries ofEuropeare already infested with it;Scopolimentions it among hisInsecta Carniolicap. 63. andGeoffroyamong hisParisian Insects, Vol. 1. p. 267. t. 4. f. 9. has given a fine figure of it. F.↑29Diss. de Noxa Insectorum, Amœn. Acad. Vol. 3. p. 347.↑30In hisSystema Naturæ, he calls itBruchus Pisi, or the Pease Beetle; and says that theGracula Quiscula, orPurple dawofCatesby, is the greatest destroyer of them, and though[177]this bird has been proscribed by the legislature ofPensylvania,New Jersey, andNew Englandas a maize-thief, they feel however the imprudence of extirpating this bird; for a quantity of worms which formerly were eaten by these birds destroy their meadows at present. F.↑31If the pease were steeped before they are sown, in a lie of lime water and some dissolved arsenic, the pupa or aurelia of the insect would be killed. F.↑32Mr.Millerdescribes this liquor in his Gardener’s Dictionary under the article ofConvolvulus, species the 17th. and 18th.↑33This animal is probably theSorex cristatusof Dr.Linnæus, who says it is like the mole and lives inPensylvania. F.↑34The same is to be met with inEdwards’s Natural History of Birds, page 38. tab. 38. F.↑35There is a much lesser species of humming-bird, byLinnæuscalledTrochilus minimus, being the least bird known; SirHans Sloane’s living one, weighed only twenty grains, and Mr.Edwards’s dry one forty-five. It is drawn inEdwards’sbirds, t. 150, in its natural size, together with its egg. F.↑36The author seems to comprehend more by this word, than what it commonly includes, for he describes it as a building, which contains both a barn and stables. F.↑37This kind of building is frequent in the north ofGermany,Holland, andPrussia, and therefore it is no wonder that it is employed by people who, were used to them in their own country. F.↑38Probably it is a stone marle; a blue and reddish species of this kind is used with good success, in the county ofBamffinScotland.↑39Dr.Linnæus, in his Travels throughWestrogothia, has given a drawing of the machine by which woad is prepared, on the 128th. page.↑40As there are no Jews inSweden, Prof.Kalmwas an utter stranger to their manners and religious customs, and therefore relates them as a kind of novelty. F.↑41This has really happened by a greater union and exertion of power from the colonies and the mother country; so thatCanadahas been conquered and its possession has been confirmed toGreat Britainin the last peace. F.↑42Of this animal and of the above-mentionedRacoonis a representation given plate 2. both from original drawings; theGermanand theSwedishedition of Prof.Kalm’s work being both without this plate. F.↑43Neither of these accounts appear to be satisfactory; and therefore I am inclined to believe that these red foxes originally came over fromAsia, (most probably fromKamtchatka[284]where this species is common, seeMiller’sAccount of the Navigations of the Russians, &c.) though in remote times, and thus spread overNorth America. It is perhaps true that theIndiansnever took notice of them till theEuropeanswere settled among them; this, however, was because they never had occasion to use their skins: but when there was a demand for these they began to hunt them, and, as they had not been much accustomed to them before, they esteemed them as a novelty. What gives additionalconfirmationto this is, that when theRussiansunder CommodoreBeringlanded on the western coast ofAmerica, they saw five red foxes which were quite tame, and seemed not to be in the least afraid of men: now this might very well have been the case if we suppose them to have been for many generations in a place where no body disturbed them; but we cannot account for it, if we imagine that they had been used to a country where there were many inhabitants, or where they had been much hunted. F.↑44When CaptainAmadas, the firstEnglishmanthat ever landed inNorth America, set foot on shore (to use his own words)such a flocke of Cranes (the most part white) arose under us with such a cry, redoubled by many ecchoes, as if an armie of men had showted alltogether.↑45Properlyshining blackbirds.↑46What gives still more weight, to Mr.Kalm’s opinion of theElkbeing theMoose-deer, is the nameMusuwhich theAlgonkinsgive to the elk, as Mr.Kalmhimself observes in the sequel of his work; and this circumstance is the more remarkable, as theAlgonkinsbefore theIrokeeseorfive nationsgot so great a power inAmerica, were the most powerful nation in the northern part of this continent; in so much, that though they be now reduced to an inconsiderable number, their language is however a kind of universal language inNorth America; so that there is no doubt, that the elk is the famousMoose-deer. F.↑47It seems to be either the substance commonly calledFrench Chalk, or perhaps theSoap-rock, which is common inCornwallnear theLizard point, and which consists besides of some particles of talc, chiefly of an earth like magnesia, which latter with acid of vitriol, yields an earthy vitriolic, salt, orEpsom salt. F.↑48Amiantus(Asbestus) fibrosus, fibris separabilibus flexilibus tenacibus,Linn. Syst. nat.p. 55.Amiantus fibris mollibus parallelis facile separabilibus,Wall.Min. 140.Mountain Flax,Linum montanum,Forster’s Mineralogy, p. 17. F.↑49It has been observed, that only such squirrels and birds as have their nests near the place where such snakes come to, make this pitiful noise, and are so busy in running up and down the tree and the neighbouring branches, in order to draw off the attention of the snake from their brood, and often they come so very near in order to fly away again, that being within reach of the snakes, they are at last bit, poisoned and devoured; and this will, I believe, perfectly account for the powers of fascinating birds and small creatures in the snakes. F.↑50AsCatesbyandEdwardshave both represented theflying Squirrelin a sitting attitude, I have given here, plate I. a figure of one with the expanded membrane, and joined to it on the same plate, a more accurate figure of theground Squirrel.It is not yet made out with certainty, whether theAmericanflying squirrel, and that found inFinlandand in the north ofEuropeandAsia, be the same animal. TheAmericankind has a flat pennated tail, but theEuropeankind a round one, which affords a very distinguishing character. F.↑51See for this opinion the scarce and curious work intitled,Torfæi historia Vinlandiæ antiquæ seu partis Americæ septentrionalis. Hafniæ 1715.4to. F.↑52This experiment with the silver, supposes that the broth of the fish would be so strong as to act as a solvent upon the silver; but there may be poisons, which would not affect the silver, and however prove fatal to men; the surest way therefore would be to suppress that appetite, which may become fatal not only to a few men of the crew, but also endanger the whole ship, by the loss of necessary hands. F.↑
1The same opinion has been confirmed by Mr.Buffonin hisHist. Naturelle.tom.1.art.xix. Vol. 2. p. 419 of the edit. in twelves. F.↑2The name ofPorpesseis certainly derived from the name[17]Porcopesce, given to this genus by theItalians; and it is remarkable that almost all theEuropeannations conspired in calling them Sea-hogs, their name being inGermanMeer Schwein; theDanish,Swedish, andNorvegian,Marsuin, from whence theFrenchborrowed theirMarsouin. The natives ofIcelandcall themSuinhual, i.e. aSwine-whale, and so likewise theSlavoniannations have theirSwinia Morskaya. Whether this consent arises from their rooting the sand at the bottom of the sea in quest of Sand-eels and Sea-worms like swine, or from the vast quantity of lard surrounding their bodies is uncertain. F.↑3Mr.Kalmis certainly mistaken in reckoning theBottle-noseamongst theDolphinkind; it has no teeth in its mouth as all the fish of that class have, and therefore belongs to the first order of theWhales, or those that are without teeth. See Mr.Pennant’sBritish Zoology,Vol. 3. p. 43. where it is called thebeaked Whale, and very well described; a drawing is seen in the explanatory table, n. I. Perhaps it would not be improper to call itBalæna ampullata. F.↑4In Mr.Pennant’sBritish Zoologyvol. 3. p. 282. is the best account of this fish to be met with; and in hisBritish Zoology,illustrated by Plates and brief explanationsis plate xliv. a good and exact drawing of the fish, the upper figure representing it in front, the lower sideways. F.↑5Head of the Moravian Brethren. F.↑6Dr.Linnæusmentions only one species ofNyssa, namelyNyssa aquatica; Mr.Kalmdoes not mention the name of the species; but if his is not a different species, it must at least be a variety, since he says it grows on hills, whereas theaquaticagrows in the water. F.↑7Quere. Is this theJuglans baccataofLinnæus? F.↑8This species is not to be met with inLinn. spec. plant.F.↑9InMiller’sGardenDictionary, it is calledKetmia Indica folio ficus, fructu pentagono, recurvo esculento, graciliori, et longiori.↑10Nitrum Crystallus montana, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 84.Crystallus hexagona pellucida non Colorata.Wallerius’s Mineralogy, p. 100.Crystallus montana, colourless crystal.Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy, p. 13.↑11Pyrites crystallinus, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 113.Marchasitæ hexaëdricæ tesselares.Wallerius’s Mineralogy, p. 211.Marcasitæ, vel crystalli pyritacei, Marcasites.Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy, p. 39.↑12Mica membranacea, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 58.Mica membranacea pellucidissima flexilis alba. Wallerius’s Min. p. 120.Russianglass,Muscovyglass, Isinglass,Vitrum ruthenicum,Vitrum Mariæ.Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy, p. 18.↑13Marmor rude, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 41.Calcareus particulis scintillantibus.Wall.Min. p. 39.Calcareus scintillans, glittering limestone.Forster’s Introd. to Mineral. p. 9.↑14This has been confirmed, sinceCape Bretonis in the hands of theEnglish, and it is reported that the strata of coals run through the whole isle, and some basset out to day near the sea-shore, so that this isle will afford immense treasures of coals, when the government will find it convenient, to have them dug for the benefit of the Nation. F.↑15TheEnglishreader, who is perhaps not so well acquainted with the weather of theSwedishautumn, may form an idea of it, by having recourse to theCalendarium Floræ, or the botanical and œconomical almanack ofSweden, in Dr.Linnæus’s Amœn. Academ. and in Mr.Stillingfleet’sSwedishtracts, translated from the Amœn. Acad. 2d. edition. F.↑16VideHackluyt’s collect. voy. III. 246.↑17Vide Medical, &c. cases and experiments, translated from theSwedish,London1758. p. 282. P.↑18This has all the appearance of a vulgar error: neither does the succeeding account of theAmericanbears being carnivorous, agree with the observations of the most judicious travellers, who deny the fact. P.But however it might beeasibleto reconcile both opinions. ForEuropehas two or three kinds of bears, one species of which is carnivorous, the other lives only on vegetables: the large brown species, with its small variety, are reputed to be carnivorous, the black species is merely phytivorous. In case therefore both species are found inNorth America, it would be very easy to account for their being both carnivorous and not. F.↑19Quartzum hyalinum, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 65.Quartzum solidum pellucidum, WalleriiMiner. 91.[120]The common Quartz,Forster’s Mineralogy, p. 16. AndQuartzum coloratum, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 65.Quartzum solidum opacum coloratum.Wall.Min. 99.The impure Quartz, Forst. Min. p. 16.↑20InSweden, and in the north ofGermany, the round holes in rivers, with a stoney or rocky bed, which the whirling of the water has made, are called giants pots; these holes are likewise mentioned in Mr.Grosleys new observations on Italy, Vol. I. p. 8. F.↑21How far this approbation of the Royal Society, ought to be credited, is to be understood from the advertisements published at the head of each new volume of the Philosophical Transactions. F.↑22Thomas Herriot, servant to SirWalter Raleigh, who was employed by him to examine into the productions ofNorth America, makes no mention of the peach among the other fruits he describes, andM. du Pratz, who has given a very good account ofLouisianaand theMissisippi, says, that the natives got their peaches from theEnglishcolony ofCarolina, before theFrenchsettled there. P.↑23These worms are the Larva’s of theOestrusorGadfly, which deposits its eggs on the back of cattle, and the Larva’s being hatched from these eggs, cause great sores, wherein they live till they are ready for their change. In the south ofRussiathey use for the same purpose the decoction ofVeratrum, orthe white Hellebore. F.↑24The bones and tusks of Elephants are not only found inRussia, but also in the canton ofBaselinSwisserland, in the dominions of the Marquis ofBareithinFranconia, and more instances are found in theProtogæaof the celebratedLeibnitz. Lately near the riverOhiohave been discovered, a great number of skeletons of Elephants with their tusks, and very remarkable grinders still sticking in their jaw bones were sent to theBritish Museum; the late Dr.LittletonBishop ofCarlisle, also lodged some teeth sticking in their jawbones in the Museum of the Royal Society, which were brought fromPeru. The riversChatungaandIndighirkainSiberia, are remarkable for affording on their banks great quantities of bones and tusks of Elephants, which[136]being preserved there by the great frost, and in the short summer of a few weeks, the rain being rare, these tusks are commonly so fresh that they are employed inRussia, as common ivory, on account of the great quantity brought from these places toRussia; some of them were eight feet long, and of three hundred pounds weight. There have been found grinders of nine inches diameter. But theAmericangrinders of Elephants from near theOhioare yet more remarkable, on account of their being provided with crowns on their tops, such as are only found in the carnivorous animals, and such as feed on hard bones or nuts. Whilst on the contrary, Elephants at present feeding on grasses and soft vegetables have no such crowns at the tops of their grinders.Livy, it is true, makes a distinction between theAsiaticorIndianElephants, and theAfricanones; and remarks the latter to be inferior to the former in size and vigour; but whether the teeth in these animals are so much different from those of the other variety, has never been attended to. This circumstance of the difference in the fossil grinders of Elephants, from those in the living ones, and the place where these skeletons were found in, viz.Siberia,GermanyandAmerica, where at present no Elephants are to be met with, opens a wide field to conjectures in regard to the way, by which these animals were carried to those spots. The flood in the deluge perhaps has carried them thither; nor is it contrary to reason, history or revelation, to believe, these skeletons to be the remainders of animals, which lived on the surface of this globe, anterior to the Mosaic creation, which may be considered only as a new modification of the creatures living on this globe, adapted to its present state, under which it will remain till circumstances will make a new change necessary, and then our globe will by a new creation of revolution appear more adapted to its state, and be stocked with a set of animals more suitable to that state. Every[137]man used to philosophy and reasoning will find, that this plan gives a grand idea of the Creator, his œconomy and management of the universe: and moreover, it is conformable to the meaning of the words of a sacred writer, who says: Ps. civ. 29. 30.Thou bidest thy face and they(small and great beasts)are troubled; thou takest away their breath, they die, and return to their dust. Thou sendest forth thy spirit, they are created; and thou renewest the fact of the earth.See Dr.Hunter’s remarks on the above-mentioned teeth, in thePhilosophical Trans.Vol. lviii. F.↑25In Mr.Osbeck’s Voyage toChina, Vol I. p. 50. in a note, an account is given of this kind of land, which theSwedescallSwedieland, where it is observed, that the trees being burnt, their ashes afford manure sufficient for three years, after which they are left uncultivated again, till after twenty or more years, a new generation of trees being produced on them, the country people burn them, and cultivate the country for three years again. F.↑26The learned Dr.Wallerius, in his Mineralogy, §. 8. in the note to the article,Humus communis atra, mentions that some people were of opinion, that themouldof our globe increased their parts, especially in such places as had been uncultivated ever since the deluge, and that thus in a hundred years,[152]half an inch of mould was produced. But he observes in the same time, that this observation was not at all exact; for as the common mould seldom exceeds a soot, it must from thence follow, that since the deluge no more than 2400 years were elapsed, though the scripture chronology reckons upwards of 4000 years since that event: besides this, he remarks, that mould always becomes more dry and compressed, where it is out of the reach, of rain and snow; and where it is exposed to rain, it is carried off to lower places, and therefore increases and decreases according to the qualities of its local situation. Moreover, vegetables it is known prosper the best where mould is found. As the surface of our globe has been covered with vegetables since the deluge, they must have had a mould to grow in ever since that time; consequently it is highly probable, that there must have been a mould covering the surface of our globe, ever since the first origin. I should be led by some other confederations, to doubt of the infallibility of this rule for the increase of mould. InRussia, on this side the riverVolga, are high and extensive plains, which have been uncultivated ever since the deluge, for we know from history, that theScythians,Sarmatians,Huns,Chazars, andMogols, were successively the masters of these vast countries, and were altogether nomadic nations, who lived without agriculture; the country has been without wood since time immemorial, nor could there even spring up any wood whatsoever, since its rambling possessors every spring set fire to the old dry grass, in order to make room for the new grass, which in the latter end ofMay, I found come up very near to my waist. And these vast, desart plains, I saw every where covered with at lead two feet mould; nay, in some places it amounted to four feet; this would give according to the former rule of half an inch per Century, 4800 years, in the first instance, and in the second, 9600 years, and therefore shews that this rule for calculating the increase of mould, is very precarious. The chemical[153]analysis of plants, shews that they consist of water, earth, acid, alkali, oil, and an inflammable principle, independent of the last substance, and called by a lateGermanchemist thecaustic: these substances must enter yearly the new plants, and make their substance, and are as it were regenerated in these new plants, after being set at liberty from the structure of the last year’s plants by putrefaction, or by fire. Mould chemically examined, has the same analogous parts. Acid and caustic are plentifully contained in the common air, and may also easily be restored to the mould, and thus circulate through a new system of plants. Water comes likewise from rain and snow, out of our atmosphere: alkaline and oily particles, or a kind ofsoap, are the only things wanting, which when added with the former to any subtle earth, will make a good mould, and these are produced by putrefaction or fire, from vegetable and animal substances, and are the great promoters of vegetation.But the great question is, from whence these various substances necessary for vegetation originally came? To believe they are produced from putrified vegetables is begging the question, and making acirculus vitiosusin the argument. There is therefore no evasion; they were certainly produced by the great Creator of the universe, and endowed with such qualities, as make them capable of producing in various mixtures new bodies; and when they are introduced by moisture, into the first stamina of a plant, or a seed, they expand these stamina, and constitute a new being, capable of affording food to the animal creation. It is evident, Mr.Kalmhinted at the above-mentioned opinion of the increase of mould, and this gave me an opportunity of confirming his argument, and of stating fairly the great question oh which agriculture, the most necessary branch of human arts depends. F.↑27As the shells of oysters are a marine animal production, and their cavities are full of particles of sea-water, the moisture of it flies off, leaving behind its salt; when the shells are burnt, and the lime is slacked, the salt mixes with the lime: and though the mortar of such a lime grows ever so dry, the particles of salt immediately attract the moisture of the air, and cause that dampness complained of here. F.↑28Though Mr.Kalmhas so carefully avoided peoplingEuropewith this insect, yet Dr.Linnæusassures us in hisSystema Naturæ, that the southern countries ofEuropeare already infested with it;Scopolimentions it among hisInsecta Carniolicap. 63. andGeoffroyamong hisParisian Insects, Vol. 1. p. 267. t. 4. f. 9. has given a fine figure of it. F.↑29Diss. de Noxa Insectorum, Amœn. Acad. Vol. 3. p. 347.↑30In hisSystema Naturæ, he calls itBruchus Pisi, or the Pease Beetle; and says that theGracula Quiscula, orPurple dawofCatesby, is the greatest destroyer of them, and though[177]this bird has been proscribed by the legislature ofPensylvania,New Jersey, andNew Englandas a maize-thief, they feel however the imprudence of extirpating this bird; for a quantity of worms which formerly were eaten by these birds destroy their meadows at present. F.↑31If the pease were steeped before they are sown, in a lie of lime water and some dissolved arsenic, the pupa or aurelia of the insect would be killed. F.↑32Mr.Millerdescribes this liquor in his Gardener’s Dictionary under the article ofConvolvulus, species the 17th. and 18th.↑33This animal is probably theSorex cristatusof Dr.Linnæus, who says it is like the mole and lives inPensylvania. F.↑34The same is to be met with inEdwards’s Natural History of Birds, page 38. tab. 38. F.↑35There is a much lesser species of humming-bird, byLinnæuscalledTrochilus minimus, being the least bird known; SirHans Sloane’s living one, weighed only twenty grains, and Mr.Edwards’s dry one forty-five. It is drawn inEdwards’sbirds, t. 150, in its natural size, together with its egg. F.↑36The author seems to comprehend more by this word, than what it commonly includes, for he describes it as a building, which contains both a barn and stables. F.↑37This kind of building is frequent in the north ofGermany,Holland, andPrussia, and therefore it is no wonder that it is employed by people who, were used to them in their own country. F.↑38Probably it is a stone marle; a blue and reddish species of this kind is used with good success, in the county ofBamffinScotland.↑39Dr.Linnæus, in his Travels throughWestrogothia, has given a drawing of the machine by which woad is prepared, on the 128th. page.↑40As there are no Jews inSweden, Prof.Kalmwas an utter stranger to their manners and religious customs, and therefore relates them as a kind of novelty. F.↑41This has really happened by a greater union and exertion of power from the colonies and the mother country; so thatCanadahas been conquered and its possession has been confirmed toGreat Britainin the last peace. F.↑42Of this animal and of the above-mentionedRacoonis a representation given plate 2. both from original drawings; theGermanand theSwedishedition of Prof.Kalm’s work being both without this plate. F.↑43Neither of these accounts appear to be satisfactory; and therefore I am inclined to believe that these red foxes originally came over fromAsia, (most probably fromKamtchatka[284]where this species is common, seeMiller’sAccount of the Navigations of the Russians, &c.) though in remote times, and thus spread overNorth America. It is perhaps true that theIndiansnever took notice of them till theEuropeanswere settled among them; this, however, was because they never had occasion to use their skins: but when there was a demand for these they began to hunt them, and, as they had not been much accustomed to them before, they esteemed them as a novelty. What gives additionalconfirmationto this is, that when theRussiansunder CommodoreBeringlanded on the western coast ofAmerica, they saw five red foxes which were quite tame, and seemed not to be in the least afraid of men: now this might very well have been the case if we suppose them to have been for many generations in a place where no body disturbed them; but we cannot account for it, if we imagine that they had been used to a country where there were many inhabitants, or where they had been much hunted. F.↑44When CaptainAmadas, the firstEnglishmanthat ever landed inNorth America, set foot on shore (to use his own words)such a flocke of Cranes (the most part white) arose under us with such a cry, redoubled by many ecchoes, as if an armie of men had showted alltogether.↑45Properlyshining blackbirds.↑46What gives still more weight, to Mr.Kalm’s opinion of theElkbeing theMoose-deer, is the nameMusuwhich theAlgonkinsgive to the elk, as Mr.Kalmhimself observes in the sequel of his work; and this circumstance is the more remarkable, as theAlgonkinsbefore theIrokeeseorfive nationsgot so great a power inAmerica, were the most powerful nation in the northern part of this continent; in so much, that though they be now reduced to an inconsiderable number, their language is however a kind of universal language inNorth America; so that there is no doubt, that the elk is the famousMoose-deer. F.↑47It seems to be either the substance commonly calledFrench Chalk, or perhaps theSoap-rock, which is common inCornwallnear theLizard point, and which consists besides of some particles of talc, chiefly of an earth like magnesia, which latter with acid of vitriol, yields an earthy vitriolic, salt, orEpsom salt. F.↑48Amiantus(Asbestus) fibrosus, fibris separabilibus flexilibus tenacibus,Linn. Syst. nat.p. 55.Amiantus fibris mollibus parallelis facile separabilibus,Wall.Min. 140.Mountain Flax,Linum montanum,Forster’s Mineralogy, p. 17. F.↑49It has been observed, that only such squirrels and birds as have their nests near the place where such snakes come to, make this pitiful noise, and are so busy in running up and down the tree and the neighbouring branches, in order to draw off the attention of the snake from their brood, and often they come so very near in order to fly away again, that being within reach of the snakes, they are at last bit, poisoned and devoured; and this will, I believe, perfectly account for the powers of fascinating birds and small creatures in the snakes. F.↑50AsCatesbyandEdwardshave both represented theflying Squirrelin a sitting attitude, I have given here, plate I. a figure of one with the expanded membrane, and joined to it on the same plate, a more accurate figure of theground Squirrel.It is not yet made out with certainty, whether theAmericanflying squirrel, and that found inFinlandand in the north ofEuropeandAsia, be the same animal. TheAmericankind has a flat pennated tail, but theEuropeankind a round one, which affords a very distinguishing character. F.↑51See for this opinion the scarce and curious work intitled,Torfæi historia Vinlandiæ antiquæ seu partis Americæ septentrionalis. Hafniæ 1715.4to. F.↑52This experiment with the silver, supposes that the broth of the fish would be so strong as to act as a solvent upon the silver; but there may be poisons, which would not affect the silver, and however prove fatal to men; the surest way therefore would be to suppress that appetite, which may become fatal not only to a few men of the crew, but also endanger the whole ship, by the loss of necessary hands. F.↑
1The same opinion has been confirmed by Mr.Buffonin hisHist. Naturelle.tom.1.art.xix. Vol. 2. p. 419 of the edit. in twelves. F.↑2The name ofPorpesseis certainly derived from the name[17]Porcopesce, given to this genus by theItalians; and it is remarkable that almost all theEuropeannations conspired in calling them Sea-hogs, their name being inGermanMeer Schwein; theDanish,Swedish, andNorvegian,Marsuin, from whence theFrenchborrowed theirMarsouin. The natives ofIcelandcall themSuinhual, i.e. aSwine-whale, and so likewise theSlavoniannations have theirSwinia Morskaya. Whether this consent arises from their rooting the sand at the bottom of the sea in quest of Sand-eels and Sea-worms like swine, or from the vast quantity of lard surrounding their bodies is uncertain. F.↑3Mr.Kalmis certainly mistaken in reckoning theBottle-noseamongst theDolphinkind; it has no teeth in its mouth as all the fish of that class have, and therefore belongs to the first order of theWhales, or those that are without teeth. See Mr.Pennant’sBritish Zoology,Vol. 3. p. 43. where it is called thebeaked Whale, and very well described; a drawing is seen in the explanatory table, n. I. Perhaps it would not be improper to call itBalæna ampullata. F.↑4In Mr.Pennant’sBritish Zoologyvol. 3. p. 282. is the best account of this fish to be met with; and in hisBritish Zoology,illustrated by Plates and brief explanationsis plate xliv. a good and exact drawing of the fish, the upper figure representing it in front, the lower sideways. F.↑5Head of the Moravian Brethren. F.↑6Dr.Linnæusmentions only one species ofNyssa, namelyNyssa aquatica; Mr.Kalmdoes not mention the name of the species; but if his is not a different species, it must at least be a variety, since he says it grows on hills, whereas theaquaticagrows in the water. F.↑7Quere. Is this theJuglans baccataofLinnæus? F.↑8This species is not to be met with inLinn. spec. plant.F.↑9InMiller’sGardenDictionary, it is calledKetmia Indica folio ficus, fructu pentagono, recurvo esculento, graciliori, et longiori.↑10Nitrum Crystallus montana, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 84.Crystallus hexagona pellucida non Colorata.Wallerius’s Mineralogy, p. 100.Crystallus montana, colourless crystal.Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy, p. 13.↑11Pyrites crystallinus, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 113.Marchasitæ hexaëdricæ tesselares.Wallerius’s Mineralogy, p. 211.Marcasitæ, vel crystalli pyritacei, Marcasites.Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy, p. 39.↑12Mica membranacea, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 58.Mica membranacea pellucidissima flexilis alba. Wallerius’s Min. p. 120.Russianglass,Muscovyglass, Isinglass,Vitrum ruthenicum,Vitrum Mariæ.Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy, p. 18.↑13Marmor rude, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 41.Calcareus particulis scintillantibus.Wall.Min. p. 39.Calcareus scintillans, glittering limestone.Forster’s Introd. to Mineral. p. 9.↑14This has been confirmed, sinceCape Bretonis in the hands of theEnglish, and it is reported that the strata of coals run through the whole isle, and some basset out to day near the sea-shore, so that this isle will afford immense treasures of coals, when the government will find it convenient, to have them dug for the benefit of the Nation. F.↑15TheEnglishreader, who is perhaps not so well acquainted with the weather of theSwedishautumn, may form an idea of it, by having recourse to theCalendarium Floræ, or the botanical and œconomical almanack ofSweden, in Dr.Linnæus’s Amœn. Academ. and in Mr.Stillingfleet’sSwedishtracts, translated from the Amœn. Acad. 2d. edition. F.↑16VideHackluyt’s collect. voy. III. 246.↑17Vide Medical, &c. cases and experiments, translated from theSwedish,London1758. p. 282. P.↑18This has all the appearance of a vulgar error: neither does the succeeding account of theAmericanbears being carnivorous, agree with the observations of the most judicious travellers, who deny the fact. P.But however it might beeasibleto reconcile both opinions. ForEuropehas two or three kinds of bears, one species of which is carnivorous, the other lives only on vegetables: the large brown species, with its small variety, are reputed to be carnivorous, the black species is merely phytivorous. In case therefore both species are found inNorth America, it would be very easy to account for their being both carnivorous and not. F.↑19Quartzum hyalinum, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 65.Quartzum solidum pellucidum, WalleriiMiner. 91.[120]The common Quartz,Forster’s Mineralogy, p. 16. AndQuartzum coloratum, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 65.Quartzum solidum opacum coloratum.Wall.Min. 99.The impure Quartz, Forst. Min. p. 16.↑20InSweden, and in the north ofGermany, the round holes in rivers, with a stoney or rocky bed, which the whirling of the water has made, are called giants pots; these holes are likewise mentioned in Mr.Grosleys new observations on Italy, Vol. I. p. 8. F.↑21How far this approbation of the Royal Society, ought to be credited, is to be understood from the advertisements published at the head of each new volume of the Philosophical Transactions. F.↑22Thomas Herriot, servant to SirWalter Raleigh, who was employed by him to examine into the productions ofNorth America, makes no mention of the peach among the other fruits he describes, andM. du Pratz, who has given a very good account ofLouisianaand theMissisippi, says, that the natives got their peaches from theEnglishcolony ofCarolina, before theFrenchsettled there. P.↑23These worms are the Larva’s of theOestrusorGadfly, which deposits its eggs on the back of cattle, and the Larva’s being hatched from these eggs, cause great sores, wherein they live till they are ready for their change. In the south ofRussiathey use for the same purpose the decoction ofVeratrum, orthe white Hellebore. F.↑24The bones and tusks of Elephants are not only found inRussia, but also in the canton ofBaselinSwisserland, in the dominions of the Marquis ofBareithinFranconia, and more instances are found in theProtogæaof the celebratedLeibnitz. Lately near the riverOhiohave been discovered, a great number of skeletons of Elephants with their tusks, and very remarkable grinders still sticking in their jaw bones were sent to theBritish Museum; the late Dr.LittletonBishop ofCarlisle, also lodged some teeth sticking in their jawbones in the Museum of the Royal Society, which were brought fromPeru. The riversChatungaandIndighirkainSiberia, are remarkable for affording on their banks great quantities of bones and tusks of Elephants, which[136]being preserved there by the great frost, and in the short summer of a few weeks, the rain being rare, these tusks are commonly so fresh that they are employed inRussia, as common ivory, on account of the great quantity brought from these places toRussia; some of them were eight feet long, and of three hundred pounds weight. There have been found grinders of nine inches diameter. But theAmericangrinders of Elephants from near theOhioare yet more remarkable, on account of their being provided with crowns on their tops, such as are only found in the carnivorous animals, and such as feed on hard bones or nuts. Whilst on the contrary, Elephants at present feeding on grasses and soft vegetables have no such crowns at the tops of their grinders.Livy, it is true, makes a distinction between theAsiaticorIndianElephants, and theAfricanones; and remarks the latter to be inferior to the former in size and vigour; but whether the teeth in these animals are so much different from those of the other variety, has never been attended to. This circumstance of the difference in the fossil grinders of Elephants, from those in the living ones, and the place where these skeletons were found in, viz.Siberia,GermanyandAmerica, where at present no Elephants are to be met with, opens a wide field to conjectures in regard to the way, by which these animals were carried to those spots. The flood in the deluge perhaps has carried them thither; nor is it contrary to reason, history or revelation, to believe, these skeletons to be the remainders of animals, which lived on the surface of this globe, anterior to the Mosaic creation, which may be considered only as a new modification of the creatures living on this globe, adapted to its present state, under which it will remain till circumstances will make a new change necessary, and then our globe will by a new creation of revolution appear more adapted to its state, and be stocked with a set of animals more suitable to that state. Every[137]man used to philosophy and reasoning will find, that this plan gives a grand idea of the Creator, his œconomy and management of the universe: and moreover, it is conformable to the meaning of the words of a sacred writer, who says: Ps. civ. 29. 30.Thou bidest thy face and they(small and great beasts)are troubled; thou takest away their breath, they die, and return to their dust. Thou sendest forth thy spirit, they are created; and thou renewest the fact of the earth.See Dr.Hunter’s remarks on the above-mentioned teeth, in thePhilosophical Trans.Vol. lviii. F.↑25In Mr.Osbeck’s Voyage toChina, Vol I. p. 50. in a note, an account is given of this kind of land, which theSwedescallSwedieland, where it is observed, that the trees being burnt, their ashes afford manure sufficient for three years, after which they are left uncultivated again, till after twenty or more years, a new generation of trees being produced on them, the country people burn them, and cultivate the country for three years again. F.↑26The learned Dr.Wallerius, in his Mineralogy, §. 8. in the note to the article,Humus communis atra, mentions that some people were of opinion, that themouldof our globe increased their parts, especially in such places as had been uncultivated ever since the deluge, and that thus in a hundred years,[152]half an inch of mould was produced. But he observes in the same time, that this observation was not at all exact; for as the common mould seldom exceeds a soot, it must from thence follow, that since the deluge no more than 2400 years were elapsed, though the scripture chronology reckons upwards of 4000 years since that event: besides this, he remarks, that mould always becomes more dry and compressed, where it is out of the reach, of rain and snow; and where it is exposed to rain, it is carried off to lower places, and therefore increases and decreases according to the qualities of its local situation. Moreover, vegetables it is known prosper the best where mould is found. As the surface of our globe has been covered with vegetables since the deluge, they must have had a mould to grow in ever since that time; consequently it is highly probable, that there must have been a mould covering the surface of our globe, ever since the first origin. I should be led by some other confederations, to doubt of the infallibility of this rule for the increase of mould. InRussia, on this side the riverVolga, are high and extensive plains, which have been uncultivated ever since the deluge, for we know from history, that theScythians,Sarmatians,Huns,Chazars, andMogols, were successively the masters of these vast countries, and were altogether nomadic nations, who lived without agriculture; the country has been without wood since time immemorial, nor could there even spring up any wood whatsoever, since its rambling possessors every spring set fire to the old dry grass, in order to make room for the new grass, which in the latter end ofMay, I found come up very near to my waist. And these vast, desart plains, I saw every where covered with at lead two feet mould; nay, in some places it amounted to four feet; this would give according to the former rule of half an inch per Century, 4800 years, in the first instance, and in the second, 9600 years, and therefore shews that this rule for calculating the increase of mould, is very precarious. The chemical[153]analysis of plants, shews that they consist of water, earth, acid, alkali, oil, and an inflammable principle, independent of the last substance, and called by a lateGermanchemist thecaustic: these substances must enter yearly the new plants, and make their substance, and are as it were regenerated in these new plants, after being set at liberty from the structure of the last year’s plants by putrefaction, or by fire. Mould chemically examined, has the same analogous parts. Acid and caustic are plentifully contained in the common air, and may also easily be restored to the mould, and thus circulate through a new system of plants. Water comes likewise from rain and snow, out of our atmosphere: alkaline and oily particles, or a kind ofsoap, are the only things wanting, which when added with the former to any subtle earth, will make a good mould, and these are produced by putrefaction or fire, from vegetable and animal substances, and are the great promoters of vegetation.But the great question is, from whence these various substances necessary for vegetation originally came? To believe they are produced from putrified vegetables is begging the question, and making acirculus vitiosusin the argument. There is therefore no evasion; they were certainly produced by the great Creator of the universe, and endowed with such qualities, as make them capable of producing in various mixtures new bodies; and when they are introduced by moisture, into the first stamina of a plant, or a seed, they expand these stamina, and constitute a new being, capable of affording food to the animal creation. It is evident, Mr.Kalmhinted at the above-mentioned opinion of the increase of mould, and this gave me an opportunity of confirming his argument, and of stating fairly the great question oh which agriculture, the most necessary branch of human arts depends. F.↑27As the shells of oysters are a marine animal production, and their cavities are full of particles of sea-water, the moisture of it flies off, leaving behind its salt; when the shells are burnt, and the lime is slacked, the salt mixes with the lime: and though the mortar of such a lime grows ever so dry, the particles of salt immediately attract the moisture of the air, and cause that dampness complained of here. F.↑28Though Mr.Kalmhas so carefully avoided peoplingEuropewith this insect, yet Dr.Linnæusassures us in hisSystema Naturæ, that the southern countries ofEuropeare already infested with it;Scopolimentions it among hisInsecta Carniolicap. 63. andGeoffroyamong hisParisian Insects, Vol. 1. p. 267. t. 4. f. 9. has given a fine figure of it. F.↑29Diss. de Noxa Insectorum, Amœn. Acad. Vol. 3. p. 347.↑30In hisSystema Naturæ, he calls itBruchus Pisi, or the Pease Beetle; and says that theGracula Quiscula, orPurple dawofCatesby, is the greatest destroyer of them, and though[177]this bird has been proscribed by the legislature ofPensylvania,New Jersey, andNew Englandas a maize-thief, they feel however the imprudence of extirpating this bird; for a quantity of worms which formerly were eaten by these birds destroy their meadows at present. F.↑31If the pease were steeped before they are sown, in a lie of lime water and some dissolved arsenic, the pupa or aurelia of the insect would be killed. F.↑32Mr.Millerdescribes this liquor in his Gardener’s Dictionary under the article ofConvolvulus, species the 17th. and 18th.↑33This animal is probably theSorex cristatusof Dr.Linnæus, who says it is like the mole and lives inPensylvania. F.↑34The same is to be met with inEdwards’s Natural History of Birds, page 38. tab. 38. F.↑35There is a much lesser species of humming-bird, byLinnæuscalledTrochilus minimus, being the least bird known; SirHans Sloane’s living one, weighed only twenty grains, and Mr.Edwards’s dry one forty-five. It is drawn inEdwards’sbirds, t. 150, in its natural size, together with its egg. F.↑36The author seems to comprehend more by this word, than what it commonly includes, for he describes it as a building, which contains both a barn and stables. F.↑37This kind of building is frequent in the north ofGermany,Holland, andPrussia, and therefore it is no wonder that it is employed by people who, were used to them in their own country. F.↑38Probably it is a stone marle; a blue and reddish species of this kind is used with good success, in the county ofBamffinScotland.↑39Dr.Linnæus, in his Travels throughWestrogothia, has given a drawing of the machine by which woad is prepared, on the 128th. page.↑40As there are no Jews inSweden, Prof.Kalmwas an utter stranger to their manners and religious customs, and therefore relates them as a kind of novelty. F.↑41This has really happened by a greater union and exertion of power from the colonies and the mother country; so thatCanadahas been conquered and its possession has been confirmed toGreat Britainin the last peace. F.↑42Of this animal and of the above-mentionedRacoonis a representation given plate 2. both from original drawings; theGermanand theSwedishedition of Prof.Kalm’s work being both without this plate. F.↑43Neither of these accounts appear to be satisfactory; and therefore I am inclined to believe that these red foxes originally came over fromAsia, (most probably fromKamtchatka[284]where this species is common, seeMiller’sAccount of the Navigations of the Russians, &c.) though in remote times, and thus spread overNorth America. It is perhaps true that theIndiansnever took notice of them till theEuropeanswere settled among them; this, however, was because they never had occasion to use their skins: but when there was a demand for these they began to hunt them, and, as they had not been much accustomed to them before, they esteemed them as a novelty. What gives additionalconfirmationto this is, that when theRussiansunder CommodoreBeringlanded on the western coast ofAmerica, they saw five red foxes which were quite tame, and seemed not to be in the least afraid of men: now this might very well have been the case if we suppose them to have been for many generations in a place where no body disturbed them; but we cannot account for it, if we imagine that they had been used to a country where there were many inhabitants, or where they had been much hunted. F.↑44When CaptainAmadas, the firstEnglishmanthat ever landed inNorth America, set foot on shore (to use his own words)such a flocke of Cranes (the most part white) arose under us with such a cry, redoubled by many ecchoes, as if an armie of men had showted alltogether.↑45Properlyshining blackbirds.↑46What gives still more weight, to Mr.Kalm’s opinion of theElkbeing theMoose-deer, is the nameMusuwhich theAlgonkinsgive to the elk, as Mr.Kalmhimself observes in the sequel of his work; and this circumstance is the more remarkable, as theAlgonkinsbefore theIrokeeseorfive nationsgot so great a power inAmerica, were the most powerful nation in the northern part of this continent; in so much, that though they be now reduced to an inconsiderable number, their language is however a kind of universal language inNorth America; so that there is no doubt, that the elk is the famousMoose-deer. F.↑47It seems to be either the substance commonly calledFrench Chalk, or perhaps theSoap-rock, which is common inCornwallnear theLizard point, and which consists besides of some particles of talc, chiefly of an earth like magnesia, which latter with acid of vitriol, yields an earthy vitriolic, salt, orEpsom salt. F.↑48Amiantus(Asbestus) fibrosus, fibris separabilibus flexilibus tenacibus,Linn. Syst. nat.p. 55.Amiantus fibris mollibus parallelis facile separabilibus,Wall.Min. 140.Mountain Flax,Linum montanum,Forster’s Mineralogy, p. 17. F.↑49It has been observed, that only such squirrels and birds as have their nests near the place where such snakes come to, make this pitiful noise, and are so busy in running up and down the tree and the neighbouring branches, in order to draw off the attention of the snake from their brood, and often they come so very near in order to fly away again, that being within reach of the snakes, they are at last bit, poisoned and devoured; and this will, I believe, perfectly account for the powers of fascinating birds and small creatures in the snakes. F.↑50AsCatesbyandEdwardshave both represented theflying Squirrelin a sitting attitude, I have given here, plate I. a figure of one with the expanded membrane, and joined to it on the same plate, a more accurate figure of theground Squirrel.It is not yet made out with certainty, whether theAmericanflying squirrel, and that found inFinlandand in the north ofEuropeandAsia, be the same animal. TheAmericankind has a flat pennated tail, but theEuropeankind a round one, which affords a very distinguishing character. F.↑51See for this opinion the scarce and curious work intitled,Torfæi historia Vinlandiæ antiquæ seu partis Americæ septentrionalis. Hafniæ 1715.4to. F.↑52This experiment with the silver, supposes that the broth of the fish would be so strong as to act as a solvent upon the silver; but there may be poisons, which would not affect the silver, and however prove fatal to men; the surest way therefore would be to suppress that appetite, which may become fatal not only to a few men of the crew, but also endanger the whole ship, by the loss of necessary hands. F.↑
1The same opinion has been confirmed by Mr.Buffonin hisHist. Naturelle.tom.1.art.xix. Vol. 2. p. 419 of the edit. in twelves. F.↑
1The same opinion has been confirmed by Mr.Buffonin hisHist. Naturelle.tom.1.art.xix. Vol. 2. p. 419 of the edit. in twelves. F.↑
2The name ofPorpesseis certainly derived from the name[17]Porcopesce, given to this genus by theItalians; and it is remarkable that almost all theEuropeannations conspired in calling them Sea-hogs, their name being inGermanMeer Schwein; theDanish,Swedish, andNorvegian,Marsuin, from whence theFrenchborrowed theirMarsouin. The natives ofIcelandcall themSuinhual, i.e. aSwine-whale, and so likewise theSlavoniannations have theirSwinia Morskaya. Whether this consent arises from their rooting the sand at the bottom of the sea in quest of Sand-eels and Sea-worms like swine, or from the vast quantity of lard surrounding their bodies is uncertain. F.↑
2The name ofPorpesseis certainly derived from the name[17]Porcopesce, given to this genus by theItalians; and it is remarkable that almost all theEuropeannations conspired in calling them Sea-hogs, their name being inGermanMeer Schwein; theDanish,Swedish, andNorvegian,Marsuin, from whence theFrenchborrowed theirMarsouin. The natives ofIcelandcall themSuinhual, i.e. aSwine-whale, and so likewise theSlavoniannations have theirSwinia Morskaya. Whether this consent arises from their rooting the sand at the bottom of the sea in quest of Sand-eels and Sea-worms like swine, or from the vast quantity of lard surrounding their bodies is uncertain. F.↑
3Mr.Kalmis certainly mistaken in reckoning theBottle-noseamongst theDolphinkind; it has no teeth in its mouth as all the fish of that class have, and therefore belongs to the first order of theWhales, or those that are without teeth. See Mr.Pennant’sBritish Zoology,Vol. 3. p. 43. where it is called thebeaked Whale, and very well described; a drawing is seen in the explanatory table, n. I. Perhaps it would not be improper to call itBalæna ampullata. F.↑
3Mr.Kalmis certainly mistaken in reckoning theBottle-noseamongst theDolphinkind; it has no teeth in its mouth as all the fish of that class have, and therefore belongs to the first order of theWhales, or those that are without teeth. See Mr.Pennant’sBritish Zoology,Vol. 3. p. 43. where it is called thebeaked Whale, and very well described; a drawing is seen in the explanatory table, n. I. Perhaps it would not be improper to call itBalæna ampullata. F.↑
4In Mr.Pennant’sBritish Zoologyvol. 3. p. 282. is the best account of this fish to be met with; and in hisBritish Zoology,illustrated by Plates and brief explanationsis plate xliv. a good and exact drawing of the fish, the upper figure representing it in front, the lower sideways. F.↑
4In Mr.Pennant’sBritish Zoologyvol. 3. p. 282. is the best account of this fish to be met with; and in hisBritish Zoology,illustrated by Plates and brief explanationsis plate xliv. a good and exact drawing of the fish, the upper figure representing it in front, the lower sideways. F.↑
5Head of the Moravian Brethren. F.↑
5Head of the Moravian Brethren. F.↑
6Dr.Linnæusmentions only one species ofNyssa, namelyNyssa aquatica; Mr.Kalmdoes not mention the name of the species; but if his is not a different species, it must at least be a variety, since he says it grows on hills, whereas theaquaticagrows in the water. F.↑
6Dr.Linnæusmentions only one species ofNyssa, namelyNyssa aquatica; Mr.Kalmdoes not mention the name of the species; but if his is not a different species, it must at least be a variety, since he says it grows on hills, whereas theaquaticagrows in the water. F.↑
7Quere. Is this theJuglans baccataofLinnæus? F.↑
7Quere. Is this theJuglans baccataofLinnæus? F.↑
8This species is not to be met with inLinn. spec. plant.F.↑
8This species is not to be met with inLinn. spec. plant.F.↑
9InMiller’sGardenDictionary, it is calledKetmia Indica folio ficus, fructu pentagono, recurvo esculento, graciliori, et longiori.↑
9InMiller’sGardenDictionary, it is calledKetmia Indica folio ficus, fructu pentagono, recurvo esculento, graciliori, et longiori.↑
10Nitrum Crystallus montana, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 84.Crystallus hexagona pellucida non Colorata.Wallerius’s Mineralogy, p. 100.Crystallus montana, colourless crystal.Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy, p. 13.↑
10Nitrum Crystallus montana, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 84.Crystallus hexagona pellucida non Colorata.Wallerius’s Mineralogy, p. 100.Crystallus montana, colourless crystal.Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy, p. 13.↑
11Pyrites crystallinus, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 113.Marchasitæ hexaëdricæ tesselares.Wallerius’s Mineralogy, p. 211.Marcasitæ, vel crystalli pyritacei, Marcasites.Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy, p. 39.↑
11Pyrites crystallinus, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 113.Marchasitæ hexaëdricæ tesselares.Wallerius’s Mineralogy, p. 211.Marcasitæ, vel crystalli pyritacei, Marcasites.Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy, p. 39.↑
12Mica membranacea, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 58.Mica membranacea pellucidissima flexilis alba. Wallerius’s Min. p. 120.Russianglass,Muscovyglass, Isinglass,Vitrum ruthenicum,Vitrum Mariæ.Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy, p. 18.↑
12Mica membranacea, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 58.
Mica membranacea pellucidissima flexilis alba. Wallerius’s Min. p. 120.
Russianglass,Muscovyglass, Isinglass,Vitrum ruthenicum,Vitrum Mariæ.Forster’s Introd. to Mineralogy, p. 18.↑
13Marmor rude, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 41.Calcareus particulis scintillantibus.Wall.Min. p. 39.Calcareus scintillans, glittering limestone.Forster’s Introd. to Mineral. p. 9.↑
13Marmor rude, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 41.
Calcareus particulis scintillantibus.Wall.Min. p. 39.
Calcareus scintillans, glittering limestone.Forster’s Introd. to Mineral. p. 9.↑
14This has been confirmed, sinceCape Bretonis in the hands of theEnglish, and it is reported that the strata of coals run through the whole isle, and some basset out to day near the sea-shore, so that this isle will afford immense treasures of coals, when the government will find it convenient, to have them dug for the benefit of the Nation. F.↑
14This has been confirmed, sinceCape Bretonis in the hands of theEnglish, and it is reported that the strata of coals run through the whole isle, and some basset out to day near the sea-shore, so that this isle will afford immense treasures of coals, when the government will find it convenient, to have them dug for the benefit of the Nation. F.↑
15TheEnglishreader, who is perhaps not so well acquainted with the weather of theSwedishautumn, may form an idea of it, by having recourse to theCalendarium Floræ, or the botanical and œconomical almanack ofSweden, in Dr.Linnæus’s Amœn. Academ. and in Mr.Stillingfleet’sSwedishtracts, translated from the Amœn. Acad. 2d. edition. F.↑
15TheEnglishreader, who is perhaps not so well acquainted with the weather of theSwedishautumn, may form an idea of it, by having recourse to theCalendarium Floræ, or the botanical and œconomical almanack ofSweden, in Dr.Linnæus’s Amœn. Academ. and in Mr.Stillingfleet’sSwedishtracts, translated from the Amœn. Acad. 2d. edition. F.↑
16VideHackluyt’s collect. voy. III. 246.↑
16VideHackluyt’s collect. voy. III. 246.↑
17Vide Medical, &c. cases and experiments, translated from theSwedish,London1758. p. 282. P.↑
17Vide Medical, &c. cases and experiments, translated from theSwedish,London1758. p. 282. P.↑
18This has all the appearance of a vulgar error: neither does the succeeding account of theAmericanbears being carnivorous, agree with the observations of the most judicious travellers, who deny the fact. P.But however it might beeasibleto reconcile both opinions. ForEuropehas two or three kinds of bears, one species of which is carnivorous, the other lives only on vegetables: the large brown species, with its small variety, are reputed to be carnivorous, the black species is merely phytivorous. In case therefore both species are found inNorth America, it would be very easy to account for their being both carnivorous and not. F.↑
18This has all the appearance of a vulgar error: neither does the succeeding account of theAmericanbears being carnivorous, agree with the observations of the most judicious travellers, who deny the fact. P.
But however it might beeasibleto reconcile both opinions. ForEuropehas two or three kinds of bears, one species of which is carnivorous, the other lives only on vegetables: the large brown species, with its small variety, are reputed to be carnivorous, the black species is merely phytivorous. In case therefore both species are found inNorth America, it would be very easy to account for their being both carnivorous and not. F.↑
19Quartzum hyalinum, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 65.Quartzum solidum pellucidum, WalleriiMiner. 91.[120]The common Quartz,Forster’s Mineralogy, p. 16. AndQuartzum coloratum, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 65.Quartzum solidum opacum coloratum.Wall.Min. 99.The impure Quartz, Forst. Min. p. 16.↑
19Quartzum hyalinum, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 65.Quartzum solidum pellucidum, WalleriiMiner. 91.[120]The common Quartz,Forster’s Mineralogy, p. 16. AndQuartzum coloratum, Linn.Syst. nat. 3. p. 65.Quartzum solidum opacum coloratum.Wall.Min. 99.The impure Quartz, Forst. Min. p. 16.↑
20InSweden, and in the north ofGermany, the round holes in rivers, with a stoney or rocky bed, which the whirling of the water has made, are called giants pots; these holes are likewise mentioned in Mr.Grosleys new observations on Italy, Vol. I. p. 8. F.↑
20InSweden, and in the north ofGermany, the round holes in rivers, with a stoney or rocky bed, which the whirling of the water has made, are called giants pots; these holes are likewise mentioned in Mr.Grosleys new observations on Italy, Vol. I. p. 8. F.↑
21How far this approbation of the Royal Society, ought to be credited, is to be understood from the advertisements published at the head of each new volume of the Philosophical Transactions. F.↑
21How far this approbation of the Royal Society, ought to be credited, is to be understood from the advertisements published at the head of each new volume of the Philosophical Transactions. F.↑
22Thomas Herriot, servant to SirWalter Raleigh, who was employed by him to examine into the productions ofNorth America, makes no mention of the peach among the other fruits he describes, andM. du Pratz, who has given a very good account ofLouisianaand theMissisippi, says, that the natives got their peaches from theEnglishcolony ofCarolina, before theFrenchsettled there. P.↑
22Thomas Herriot, servant to SirWalter Raleigh, who was employed by him to examine into the productions ofNorth America, makes no mention of the peach among the other fruits he describes, andM. du Pratz, who has given a very good account ofLouisianaand theMissisippi, says, that the natives got their peaches from theEnglishcolony ofCarolina, before theFrenchsettled there. P.↑
23These worms are the Larva’s of theOestrusorGadfly, which deposits its eggs on the back of cattle, and the Larva’s being hatched from these eggs, cause great sores, wherein they live till they are ready for their change. In the south ofRussiathey use for the same purpose the decoction ofVeratrum, orthe white Hellebore. F.↑
23These worms are the Larva’s of theOestrusorGadfly, which deposits its eggs on the back of cattle, and the Larva’s being hatched from these eggs, cause great sores, wherein they live till they are ready for their change. In the south ofRussiathey use for the same purpose the decoction ofVeratrum, orthe white Hellebore. F.↑
24The bones and tusks of Elephants are not only found inRussia, but also in the canton ofBaselinSwisserland, in the dominions of the Marquis ofBareithinFranconia, and more instances are found in theProtogæaof the celebratedLeibnitz. Lately near the riverOhiohave been discovered, a great number of skeletons of Elephants with their tusks, and very remarkable grinders still sticking in their jaw bones were sent to theBritish Museum; the late Dr.LittletonBishop ofCarlisle, also lodged some teeth sticking in their jawbones in the Museum of the Royal Society, which were brought fromPeru. The riversChatungaandIndighirkainSiberia, are remarkable for affording on their banks great quantities of bones and tusks of Elephants, which[136]being preserved there by the great frost, and in the short summer of a few weeks, the rain being rare, these tusks are commonly so fresh that they are employed inRussia, as common ivory, on account of the great quantity brought from these places toRussia; some of them were eight feet long, and of three hundred pounds weight. There have been found grinders of nine inches diameter. But theAmericangrinders of Elephants from near theOhioare yet more remarkable, on account of their being provided with crowns on their tops, such as are only found in the carnivorous animals, and such as feed on hard bones or nuts. Whilst on the contrary, Elephants at present feeding on grasses and soft vegetables have no such crowns at the tops of their grinders.Livy, it is true, makes a distinction between theAsiaticorIndianElephants, and theAfricanones; and remarks the latter to be inferior to the former in size and vigour; but whether the teeth in these animals are so much different from those of the other variety, has never been attended to. This circumstance of the difference in the fossil grinders of Elephants, from those in the living ones, and the place where these skeletons were found in, viz.Siberia,GermanyandAmerica, where at present no Elephants are to be met with, opens a wide field to conjectures in regard to the way, by which these animals were carried to those spots. The flood in the deluge perhaps has carried them thither; nor is it contrary to reason, history or revelation, to believe, these skeletons to be the remainders of animals, which lived on the surface of this globe, anterior to the Mosaic creation, which may be considered only as a new modification of the creatures living on this globe, adapted to its present state, under which it will remain till circumstances will make a new change necessary, and then our globe will by a new creation of revolution appear more adapted to its state, and be stocked with a set of animals more suitable to that state. Every[137]man used to philosophy and reasoning will find, that this plan gives a grand idea of the Creator, his œconomy and management of the universe: and moreover, it is conformable to the meaning of the words of a sacred writer, who says: Ps. civ. 29. 30.Thou bidest thy face and they(small and great beasts)are troubled; thou takest away their breath, they die, and return to their dust. Thou sendest forth thy spirit, they are created; and thou renewest the fact of the earth.See Dr.Hunter’s remarks on the above-mentioned teeth, in thePhilosophical Trans.Vol. lviii. F.↑
24The bones and tusks of Elephants are not only found inRussia, but also in the canton ofBaselinSwisserland, in the dominions of the Marquis ofBareithinFranconia, and more instances are found in theProtogæaof the celebratedLeibnitz. Lately near the riverOhiohave been discovered, a great number of skeletons of Elephants with their tusks, and very remarkable grinders still sticking in their jaw bones were sent to theBritish Museum; the late Dr.LittletonBishop ofCarlisle, also lodged some teeth sticking in their jawbones in the Museum of the Royal Society, which were brought fromPeru. The riversChatungaandIndighirkainSiberia, are remarkable for affording on their banks great quantities of bones and tusks of Elephants, which[136]being preserved there by the great frost, and in the short summer of a few weeks, the rain being rare, these tusks are commonly so fresh that they are employed inRussia, as common ivory, on account of the great quantity brought from these places toRussia; some of them were eight feet long, and of three hundred pounds weight. There have been found grinders of nine inches diameter. But theAmericangrinders of Elephants from near theOhioare yet more remarkable, on account of their being provided with crowns on their tops, such as are only found in the carnivorous animals, and such as feed on hard bones or nuts. Whilst on the contrary, Elephants at present feeding on grasses and soft vegetables have no such crowns at the tops of their grinders.Livy, it is true, makes a distinction between theAsiaticorIndianElephants, and theAfricanones; and remarks the latter to be inferior to the former in size and vigour; but whether the teeth in these animals are so much different from those of the other variety, has never been attended to. This circumstance of the difference in the fossil grinders of Elephants, from those in the living ones, and the place where these skeletons were found in, viz.Siberia,GermanyandAmerica, where at present no Elephants are to be met with, opens a wide field to conjectures in regard to the way, by which these animals were carried to those spots. The flood in the deluge perhaps has carried them thither; nor is it contrary to reason, history or revelation, to believe, these skeletons to be the remainders of animals, which lived on the surface of this globe, anterior to the Mosaic creation, which may be considered only as a new modification of the creatures living on this globe, adapted to its present state, under which it will remain till circumstances will make a new change necessary, and then our globe will by a new creation of revolution appear more adapted to its state, and be stocked with a set of animals more suitable to that state. Every[137]man used to philosophy and reasoning will find, that this plan gives a grand idea of the Creator, his œconomy and management of the universe: and moreover, it is conformable to the meaning of the words of a sacred writer, who says: Ps. civ. 29. 30.Thou bidest thy face and they(small and great beasts)are troubled; thou takest away their breath, they die, and return to their dust. Thou sendest forth thy spirit, they are created; and thou renewest the fact of the earth.See Dr.Hunter’s remarks on the above-mentioned teeth, in thePhilosophical Trans.Vol. lviii. F.↑
25In Mr.Osbeck’s Voyage toChina, Vol I. p. 50. in a note, an account is given of this kind of land, which theSwedescallSwedieland, where it is observed, that the trees being burnt, their ashes afford manure sufficient for three years, after which they are left uncultivated again, till after twenty or more years, a new generation of trees being produced on them, the country people burn them, and cultivate the country for three years again. F.↑
25In Mr.Osbeck’s Voyage toChina, Vol I. p. 50. in a note, an account is given of this kind of land, which theSwedescallSwedieland, where it is observed, that the trees being burnt, their ashes afford manure sufficient for three years, after which they are left uncultivated again, till after twenty or more years, a new generation of trees being produced on them, the country people burn them, and cultivate the country for three years again. F.↑
26The learned Dr.Wallerius, in his Mineralogy, §. 8. in the note to the article,Humus communis atra, mentions that some people were of opinion, that themouldof our globe increased their parts, especially in such places as had been uncultivated ever since the deluge, and that thus in a hundred years,[152]half an inch of mould was produced. But he observes in the same time, that this observation was not at all exact; for as the common mould seldom exceeds a soot, it must from thence follow, that since the deluge no more than 2400 years were elapsed, though the scripture chronology reckons upwards of 4000 years since that event: besides this, he remarks, that mould always becomes more dry and compressed, where it is out of the reach, of rain and snow; and where it is exposed to rain, it is carried off to lower places, and therefore increases and decreases according to the qualities of its local situation. Moreover, vegetables it is known prosper the best where mould is found. As the surface of our globe has been covered with vegetables since the deluge, they must have had a mould to grow in ever since that time; consequently it is highly probable, that there must have been a mould covering the surface of our globe, ever since the first origin. I should be led by some other confederations, to doubt of the infallibility of this rule for the increase of mould. InRussia, on this side the riverVolga, are high and extensive plains, which have been uncultivated ever since the deluge, for we know from history, that theScythians,Sarmatians,Huns,Chazars, andMogols, were successively the masters of these vast countries, and were altogether nomadic nations, who lived without agriculture; the country has been without wood since time immemorial, nor could there even spring up any wood whatsoever, since its rambling possessors every spring set fire to the old dry grass, in order to make room for the new grass, which in the latter end ofMay, I found come up very near to my waist. And these vast, desart plains, I saw every where covered with at lead two feet mould; nay, in some places it amounted to four feet; this would give according to the former rule of half an inch per Century, 4800 years, in the first instance, and in the second, 9600 years, and therefore shews that this rule for calculating the increase of mould, is very precarious. The chemical[153]analysis of plants, shews that they consist of water, earth, acid, alkali, oil, and an inflammable principle, independent of the last substance, and called by a lateGermanchemist thecaustic: these substances must enter yearly the new plants, and make their substance, and are as it were regenerated in these new plants, after being set at liberty from the structure of the last year’s plants by putrefaction, or by fire. Mould chemically examined, has the same analogous parts. Acid and caustic are plentifully contained in the common air, and may also easily be restored to the mould, and thus circulate through a new system of plants. Water comes likewise from rain and snow, out of our atmosphere: alkaline and oily particles, or a kind ofsoap, are the only things wanting, which when added with the former to any subtle earth, will make a good mould, and these are produced by putrefaction or fire, from vegetable and animal substances, and are the great promoters of vegetation.But the great question is, from whence these various substances necessary for vegetation originally came? To believe they are produced from putrified vegetables is begging the question, and making acirculus vitiosusin the argument. There is therefore no evasion; they were certainly produced by the great Creator of the universe, and endowed with such qualities, as make them capable of producing in various mixtures new bodies; and when they are introduced by moisture, into the first stamina of a plant, or a seed, they expand these stamina, and constitute a new being, capable of affording food to the animal creation. It is evident, Mr.Kalmhinted at the above-mentioned opinion of the increase of mould, and this gave me an opportunity of confirming his argument, and of stating fairly the great question oh which agriculture, the most necessary branch of human arts depends. F.↑
26The learned Dr.Wallerius, in his Mineralogy, §. 8. in the note to the article,Humus communis atra, mentions that some people were of opinion, that themouldof our globe increased their parts, especially in such places as had been uncultivated ever since the deluge, and that thus in a hundred years,[152]half an inch of mould was produced. But he observes in the same time, that this observation was not at all exact; for as the common mould seldom exceeds a soot, it must from thence follow, that since the deluge no more than 2400 years were elapsed, though the scripture chronology reckons upwards of 4000 years since that event: besides this, he remarks, that mould always becomes more dry and compressed, where it is out of the reach, of rain and snow; and where it is exposed to rain, it is carried off to lower places, and therefore increases and decreases according to the qualities of its local situation. Moreover, vegetables it is known prosper the best where mould is found. As the surface of our globe has been covered with vegetables since the deluge, they must have had a mould to grow in ever since that time; consequently it is highly probable, that there must have been a mould covering the surface of our globe, ever since the first origin. I should be led by some other confederations, to doubt of the infallibility of this rule for the increase of mould. InRussia, on this side the riverVolga, are high and extensive plains, which have been uncultivated ever since the deluge, for we know from history, that theScythians,Sarmatians,Huns,Chazars, andMogols, were successively the masters of these vast countries, and were altogether nomadic nations, who lived without agriculture; the country has been without wood since time immemorial, nor could there even spring up any wood whatsoever, since its rambling possessors every spring set fire to the old dry grass, in order to make room for the new grass, which in the latter end ofMay, I found come up very near to my waist. And these vast, desart plains, I saw every where covered with at lead two feet mould; nay, in some places it amounted to four feet; this would give according to the former rule of half an inch per Century, 4800 years, in the first instance, and in the second, 9600 years, and therefore shews that this rule for calculating the increase of mould, is very precarious. The chemical[153]analysis of plants, shews that they consist of water, earth, acid, alkali, oil, and an inflammable principle, independent of the last substance, and called by a lateGermanchemist thecaustic: these substances must enter yearly the new plants, and make their substance, and are as it were regenerated in these new plants, after being set at liberty from the structure of the last year’s plants by putrefaction, or by fire. Mould chemically examined, has the same analogous parts. Acid and caustic are plentifully contained in the common air, and may also easily be restored to the mould, and thus circulate through a new system of plants. Water comes likewise from rain and snow, out of our atmosphere: alkaline and oily particles, or a kind ofsoap, are the only things wanting, which when added with the former to any subtle earth, will make a good mould, and these are produced by putrefaction or fire, from vegetable and animal substances, and are the great promoters of vegetation.
But the great question is, from whence these various substances necessary for vegetation originally came? To believe they are produced from putrified vegetables is begging the question, and making acirculus vitiosusin the argument. There is therefore no evasion; they were certainly produced by the great Creator of the universe, and endowed with such qualities, as make them capable of producing in various mixtures new bodies; and when they are introduced by moisture, into the first stamina of a plant, or a seed, they expand these stamina, and constitute a new being, capable of affording food to the animal creation. It is evident, Mr.Kalmhinted at the above-mentioned opinion of the increase of mould, and this gave me an opportunity of confirming his argument, and of stating fairly the great question oh which agriculture, the most necessary branch of human arts depends. F.↑
27As the shells of oysters are a marine animal production, and their cavities are full of particles of sea-water, the moisture of it flies off, leaving behind its salt; when the shells are burnt, and the lime is slacked, the salt mixes with the lime: and though the mortar of such a lime grows ever so dry, the particles of salt immediately attract the moisture of the air, and cause that dampness complained of here. F.↑
27As the shells of oysters are a marine animal production, and their cavities are full of particles of sea-water, the moisture of it flies off, leaving behind its salt; when the shells are burnt, and the lime is slacked, the salt mixes with the lime: and though the mortar of such a lime grows ever so dry, the particles of salt immediately attract the moisture of the air, and cause that dampness complained of here. F.↑
28Though Mr.Kalmhas so carefully avoided peoplingEuropewith this insect, yet Dr.Linnæusassures us in hisSystema Naturæ, that the southern countries ofEuropeare already infested with it;Scopolimentions it among hisInsecta Carniolicap. 63. andGeoffroyamong hisParisian Insects, Vol. 1. p. 267. t. 4. f. 9. has given a fine figure of it. F.↑
28Though Mr.Kalmhas so carefully avoided peoplingEuropewith this insect, yet Dr.Linnæusassures us in hisSystema Naturæ, that the southern countries ofEuropeare already infested with it;Scopolimentions it among hisInsecta Carniolicap. 63. andGeoffroyamong hisParisian Insects, Vol. 1. p. 267. t. 4. f. 9. has given a fine figure of it. F.↑
29Diss. de Noxa Insectorum, Amœn. Acad. Vol. 3. p. 347.↑
29Diss. de Noxa Insectorum, Amœn. Acad. Vol. 3. p. 347.↑
30In hisSystema Naturæ, he calls itBruchus Pisi, or the Pease Beetle; and says that theGracula Quiscula, orPurple dawofCatesby, is the greatest destroyer of them, and though[177]this bird has been proscribed by the legislature ofPensylvania,New Jersey, andNew Englandas a maize-thief, they feel however the imprudence of extirpating this bird; for a quantity of worms which formerly were eaten by these birds destroy their meadows at present. F.↑
30In hisSystema Naturæ, he calls itBruchus Pisi, or the Pease Beetle; and says that theGracula Quiscula, orPurple dawofCatesby, is the greatest destroyer of them, and though[177]this bird has been proscribed by the legislature ofPensylvania,New Jersey, andNew Englandas a maize-thief, they feel however the imprudence of extirpating this bird; for a quantity of worms which formerly were eaten by these birds destroy their meadows at present. F.↑
31If the pease were steeped before they are sown, in a lie of lime water and some dissolved arsenic, the pupa or aurelia of the insect would be killed. F.↑
31If the pease were steeped before they are sown, in a lie of lime water and some dissolved arsenic, the pupa or aurelia of the insect would be killed. F.↑
32Mr.Millerdescribes this liquor in his Gardener’s Dictionary under the article ofConvolvulus, species the 17th. and 18th.↑
32Mr.Millerdescribes this liquor in his Gardener’s Dictionary under the article ofConvolvulus, species the 17th. and 18th.↑
33This animal is probably theSorex cristatusof Dr.Linnæus, who says it is like the mole and lives inPensylvania. F.↑
33This animal is probably theSorex cristatusof Dr.Linnæus, who says it is like the mole and lives inPensylvania. F.↑
34The same is to be met with inEdwards’s Natural History of Birds, page 38. tab. 38. F.↑
34The same is to be met with inEdwards’s Natural History of Birds, page 38. tab. 38. F.↑
35There is a much lesser species of humming-bird, byLinnæuscalledTrochilus minimus, being the least bird known; SirHans Sloane’s living one, weighed only twenty grains, and Mr.Edwards’s dry one forty-five. It is drawn inEdwards’sbirds, t. 150, in its natural size, together with its egg. F.↑
35There is a much lesser species of humming-bird, byLinnæuscalledTrochilus minimus, being the least bird known; SirHans Sloane’s living one, weighed only twenty grains, and Mr.Edwards’s dry one forty-five. It is drawn inEdwards’sbirds, t. 150, in its natural size, together with its egg. F.↑
36The author seems to comprehend more by this word, than what it commonly includes, for he describes it as a building, which contains both a barn and stables. F.↑
36The author seems to comprehend more by this word, than what it commonly includes, for he describes it as a building, which contains both a barn and stables. F.↑
37This kind of building is frequent in the north ofGermany,Holland, andPrussia, and therefore it is no wonder that it is employed by people who, were used to them in their own country. F.↑
37This kind of building is frequent in the north ofGermany,Holland, andPrussia, and therefore it is no wonder that it is employed by people who, were used to them in their own country. F.↑
38Probably it is a stone marle; a blue and reddish species of this kind is used with good success, in the county ofBamffinScotland.↑
38Probably it is a stone marle; a blue and reddish species of this kind is used with good success, in the county ofBamffinScotland.↑
39Dr.Linnæus, in his Travels throughWestrogothia, has given a drawing of the machine by which woad is prepared, on the 128th. page.↑
39Dr.Linnæus, in his Travels throughWestrogothia, has given a drawing of the machine by which woad is prepared, on the 128th. page.↑
40As there are no Jews inSweden, Prof.Kalmwas an utter stranger to their manners and religious customs, and therefore relates them as a kind of novelty. F.↑
40As there are no Jews inSweden, Prof.Kalmwas an utter stranger to their manners and religious customs, and therefore relates them as a kind of novelty. F.↑
41This has really happened by a greater union and exertion of power from the colonies and the mother country; so thatCanadahas been conquered and its possession has been confirmed toGreat Britainin the last peace. F.↑
41This has really happened by a greater union and exertion of power from the colonies and the mother country; so thatCanadahas been conquered and its possession has been confirmed toGreat Britainin the last peace. F.↑
42Of this animal and of the above-mentionedRacoonis a representation given plate 2. both from original drawings; theGermanand theSwedishedition of Prof.Kalm’s work being both without this plate. F.↑
42Of this animal and of the above-mentionedRacoonis a representation given plate 2. both from original drawings; theGermanand theSwedishedition of Prof.Kalm’s work being both without this plate. F.↑
43Neither of these accounts appear to be satisfactory; and therefore I am inclined to believe that these red foxes originally came over fromAsia, (most probably fromKamtchatka[284]where this species is common, seeMiller’sAccount of the Navigations of the Russians, &c.) though in remote times, and thus spread overNorth America. It is perhaps true that theIndiansnever took notice of them till theEuropeanswere settled among them; this, however, was because they never had occasion to use their skins: but when there was a demand for these they began to hunt them, and, as they had not been much accustomed to them before, they esteemed them as a novelty. What gives additionalconfirmationto this is, that when theRussiansunder CommodoreBeringlanded on the western coast ofAmerica, they saw five red foxes which were quite tame, and seemed not to be in the least afraid of men: now this might very well have been the case if we suppose them to have been for many generations in a place where no body disturbed them; but we cannot account for it, if we imagine that they had been used to a country where there were many inhabitants, or where they had been much hunted. F.↑
43Neither of these accounts appear to be satisfactory; and therefore I am inclined to believe that these red foxes originally came over fromAsia, (most probably fromKamtchatka[284]where this species is common, seeMiller’sAccount of the Navigations of the Russians, &c.) though in remote times, and thus spread overNorth America. It is perhaps true that theIndiansnever took notice of them till theEuropeanswere settled among them; this, however, was because they never had occasion to use their skins: but when there was a demand for these they began to hunt them, and, as they had not been much accustomed to them before, they esteemed them as a novelty. What gives additionalconfirmationto this is, that when theRussiansunder CommodoreBeringlanded on the western coast ofAmerica, they saw five red foxes which were quite tame, and seemed not to be in the least afraid of men: now this might very well have been the case if we suppose them to have been for many generations in a place where no body disturbed them; but we cannot account for it, if we imagine that they had been used to a country where there were many inhabitants, or where they had been much hunted. F.↑
44When CaptainAmadas, the firstEnglishmanthat ever landed inNorth America, set foot on shore (to use his own words)such a flocke of Cranes (the most part white) arose under us with such a cry, redoubled by many ecchoes, as if an armie of men had showted alltogether.↑
44When CaptainAmadas, the firstEnglishmanthat ever landed inNorth America, set foot on shore (to use his own words)such a flocke of Cranes (the most part white) arose under us with such a cry, redoubled by many ecchoes, as if an armie of men had showted alltogether.↑
45Properlyshining blackbirds.↑
45Properlyshining blackbirds.↑
46What gives still more weight, to Mr.Kalm’s opinion of theElkbeing theMoose-deer, is the nameMusuwhich theAlgonkinsgive to the elk, as Mr.Kalmhimself observes in the sequel of his work; and this circumstance is the more remarkable, as theAlgonkinsbefore theIrokeeseorfive nationsgot so great a power inAmerica, were the most powerful nation in the northern part of this continent; in so much, that though they be now reduced to an inconsiderable number, their language is however a kind of universal language inNorth America; so that there is no doubt, that the elk is the famousMoose-deer. F.↑
46What gives still more weight, to Mr.Kalm’s opinion of theElkbeing theMoose-deer, is the nameMusuwhich theAlgonkinsgive to the elk, as Mr.Kalmhimself observes in the sequel of his work; and this circumstance is the more remarkable, as theAlgonkinsbefore theIrokeeseorfive nationsgot so great a power inAmerica, were the most powerful nation in the northern part of this continent; in so much, that though they be now reduced to an inconsiderable number, their language is however a kind of universal language inNorth America; so that there is no doubt, that the elk is the famousMoose-deer. F.↑
47It seems to be either the substance commonly calledFrench Chalk, or perhaps theSoap-rock, which is common inCornwallnear theLizard point, and which consists besides of some particles of talc, chiefly of an earth like magnesia, which latter with acid of vitriol, yields an earthy vitriolic, salt, orEpsom salt. F.↑
47It seems to be either the substance commonly calledFrench Chalk, or perhaps theSoap-rock, which is common inCornwallnear theLizard point, and which consists besides of some particles of talc, chiefly of an earth like magnesia, which latter with acid of vitriol, yields an earthy vitriolic, salt, orEpsom salt. F.↑
48Amiantus(Asbestus) fibrosus, fibris separabilibus flexilibus tenacibus,Linn. Syst. nat.p. 55.Amiantus fibris mollibus parallelis facile separabilibus,Wall.Min. 140.Mountain Flax,Linum montanum,Forster’s Mineralogy, p. 17. F.↑
48Amiantus(Asbestus) fibrosus, fibris separabilibus flexilibus tenacibus,Linn. Syst. nat.p. 55.
Amiantus fibris mollibus parallelis facile separabilibus,Wall.Min. 140.
Mountain Flax,Linum montanum,Forster’s Mineralogy, p. 17. F.↑
49It has been observed, that only such squirrels and birds as have their nests near the place where such snakes come to, make this pitiful noise, and are so busy in running up and down the tree and the neighbouring branches, in order to draw off the attention of the snake from their brood, and often they come so very near in order to fly away again, that being within reach of the snakes, they are at last bit, poisoned and devoured; and this will, I believe, perfectly account for the powers of fascinating birds and small creatures in the snakes. F.↑
49It has been observed, that only such squirrels and birds as have their nests near the place where such snakes come to, make this pitiful noise, and are so busy in running up and down the tree and the neighbouring branches, in order to draw off the attention of the snake from their brood, and often they come so very near in order to fly away again, that being within reach of the snakes, they are at last bit, poisoned and devoured; and this will, I believe, perfectly account for the powers of fascinating birds and small creatures in the snakes. F.↑
50AsCatesbyandEdwardshave both represented theflying Squirrelin a sitting attitude, I have given here, plate I. a figure of one with the expanded membrane, and joined to it on the same plate, a more accurate figure of theground Squirrel.It is not yet made out with certainty, whether theAmericanflying squirrel, and that found inFinlandand in the north ofEuropeandAsia, be the same animal. TheAmericankind has a flat pennated tail, but theEuropeankind a round one, which affords a very distinguishing character. F.↑
50AsCatesbyandEdwardshave both represented theflying Squirrelin a sitting attitude, I have given here, plate I. a figure of one with the expanded membrane, and joined to it on the same plate, a more accurate figure of theground Squirrel.
It is not yet made out with certainty, whether theAmericanflying squirrel, and that found inFinlandand in the north ofEuropeandAsia, be the same animal. TheAmericankind has a flat pennated tail, but theEuropeankind a round one, which affords a very distinguishing character. F.↑
51See for this opinion the scarce and curious work intitled,Torfæi historia Vinlandiæ antiquæ seu partis Americæ septentrionalis. Hafniæ 1715.4to. F.↑
51See for this opinion the scarce and curious work intitled,Torfæi historia Vinlandiæ antiquæ seu partis Americæ septentrionalis. Hafniæ 1715.4to. F.↑
52This experiment with the silver, supposes that the broth of the fish would be so strong as to act as a solvent upon the silver; but there may be poisons, which would not affect the silver, and however prove fatal to men; the surest way therefore would be to suppress that appetite, which may become fatal not only to a few men of the crew, but also endanger the whole ship, by the loss of necessary hands. F.↑
52This experiment with the silver, supposes that the broth of the fish would be so strong as to act as a solvent upon the silver; but there may be poisons, which would not affect the silver, and however prove fatal to men; the surest way therefore would be to suppress that appetite, which may become fatal not only to a few men of the crew, but also endanger the whole ship, by the loss of necessary hands. F.↑