The quadruped, which Dr.Linnæusin[97]the memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences, has described by the name ofUrsus cauda elongata, and which he callsUrsus Lotor, in hisSystema Naturæ, is here calledRaccoon. It is found very frequently, and destroys many chickens. It is hunted by dogs, and when it runs upon a tree to save itself, a man climbs upon the tree after it, and shakes it down to the ground, where the dogs kill it. The flesh is eaten, and is reputed to taste well. The bone of its male parts is made use of for a tobacco-stopper. The hatters purchase their skins, and make hats out of the hair, which are next in goodness to beavers. The tail is worn round the neck in winter, and therefore is likewise valuable. TheRaccoonis frequently the food of snakes.SomeEnglishmenasserted that near the riverPotomackinVirginia, a great quantity of oyster shells were to be met with, and that they themselves had seen whole mountains of them. The place where they are found is said to be about twoEnglishmiles distant from the sea-shore. The proprietor of that ground burns lime out of them. This stratum of oyster-shells is two fathom and more deep. Such quantities of shells have likewise been found in other places, especially inNew York, on digging in the[98]ground; and in one place, at the distance of someEnglishmiles from the sea, avast quantity of oyster-shells, and of other shells was found. Some people conjectured that the natives had formerly lived in that place, and had left the shells of the oysters which they had consumed, in such great heaps. But others could not conceive how it happened that they were thrown in such immense quantities all into one place.Every one is of opinion that theAmericansavages were a very good-natured people, if they were not attacked. No body is so strict in keeping his word as a savage. If any one of their allies come to visit them, they shew him more kindness, and greater endeavours to serve him, than he could have expected from his own countrymen. Mr.Cockgave me the following relation, as a proof of their integrity. About two years ago, anEnglishmerchant travelling amongst the savages, in order to sell them necessaries, and to buy other goods, was secretly killed, without the murderer’s being found out. But about a year after, the savages found out the guilty person amongst themselves. They immediately took him up, bound his hands on his back, and thus sent him with a guard to the governor atPhiladelphia, and sent him word, that they could[99]no longer acknowledge this wretch (who had been so wicked towards anEnglishman) as their countryman, and therefore would have nothing more to do with him, and that they delivered him up to the governor, to be punished for his villainy as the laws ofEnglanddirect. This Indian was afterwards hanged atPhiladelphia.Their good natural parts are proved by the following account, which many people have given me as a true one. When they send their ambassadors to theEnglishcolonies, in order to settle things of consequence with the governor, they sit down on the ground, as soon as they come to his audience, and hear with great attention the governor’s demands which they are to make an answer to. His demands are sometimes many. Yet they have only a stick in their hand, and make their marks on it with a knife, without writing any thing else down. But when they return the next day to give in their resolutions, they answer all the governor’s articles in the same order, in which he delivered them, without leaving one out, or changing the order, and give such accurate answers, as if they had an account of them at full length in writing.Mr.Sleidornrelated another story, which gave me great pleasure. He said he had[100]been atNew York, and had found a venerable oldAmericansavage amongst several others in an inn. This old man began to talk withSleidornas soon as the liquor was getting the better of his head, and boasted that he could write and read inEnglish.Sleidorntherefore desired leave to ask a question, which the old man readily granted.Sleidornthen asked him, whether he knew who was first circumcised? and the old man immediately answered,Father Abraham; but at the same time asked leave to propose a question in his turn, whichSleidorngranted; the old man then said, who was the first quaker?Sleidornsaid it was uncertain, that some took one person for it, and some another; but the cunning old fellow told him, you are mistaken, sir;Mordecaiwas the first quaker, for he would not take off his hat toHaman. Many of the savages, who are yet heathens, are said to have some obscure notion of the deluge. But I am convinced from my own experience, that they are not at all acquainted with it.I met with people here who maintained that giants had formerly lived in these parts, and the following particulars confirmed them in this opinion. A few years ago some people digging in the ground, met with a grave which contained human bones of an[101]astonishing size. TheTibiais said to have been fourteen feet long, and theos femoristo have measured as much. The teeth are likewise said to have been of a size proportioned to the rest, But more bones of this kind have not yet been found. Persons skilled in anatomy, who have seen these bones, have declared that they were human bones. One of the teeth has been sent toHamburgh, to a person who collected natural curiosities. Among the savages, in the neighbourhood of the place where the bones were found, there is an account handed down through many generations from fathers to children, that in this neighbourhood, on the banks of a river, there lived a very tall and strong man, in ancient times, who carried the people over the river on his back, and waded in the water, though it was very deep. Every body to whom he did this service gave him some maize, some skins of animals, or the like. In fine he got his livelyhood by this means, and was as it were the ferryman of those who wanted to pass the river.The soil here consists for the greatest part of sand, which is more or less mixed with clay. Both the sand and the clay, are of the colour of pale bricks. To judge by[102]appearance the ground was none of the best; and this conjecture was verified by the inhabitants of the country. When a corn-field has been obliged to bear the same kind of corn for three years together, it does not after that produce any thing at all if it be not well manured, or fallowed for some years. Manure is very difficult to be got, and therefore people rather leave the field uncultivated. In that interval it is covered with all sorts of plants and trees; and the countryman in the mean while, cultivates a piece of ground which has till then been fallow, or he chuses a part of the ground which has never been ploughed before, and he can in both cases be pretty sure of a plentiful crop. This method can here be used with great convenience. For the soil is loose, so that it can easily be ploughed, and every countryman has commonly a great deal of land for his property. The cattle here are neither housed in winter, nor tended in the fields, and for this reason they cannot gather a sufficient quantity of dung.All the cattle has been originally brought over fromEurope. The natives have never had any, and at present few of them care to get any. But the cattle degenerates[103]by degrees here, and becomes smaller. For the cows, horses, sheep, and hogs, are all larger inEngland, though those which are brought over are of that breed. But the first generation decreases a little, and the third and fourth is of the same size with the cattle already common here. The climate, the soil, and the food, altogether contribute their share towards producing this change.It is remarkable that the inhabitants of the country, commonly sooner acquire understanding, but likewise grow sooner old than the people inEurope. It is nothing uncommon to see little children, giving sprightly and ready answers to questions that are proposed to them, so that they seem to have as much understanding as old men. But they do not attain to such an age as theEuropeans, and it is almost an unheard of thing, that a person born in this country, should live to be eighty or ninety years of age. But I only speak of theEuropeansthat settled here. For the savages, or first inhabitants, frequently attained a great age, though at present such examples are uncommon, which is chiefly attributed to the great use of brandy, which the savages have learnt of theEuropeans. Those who are born inEuropeattain a greater age here,[104]than those who are born here, ofEuropeanparents. In the last war, it plainly appeared that these newAmericanswere by far less hardy than theEuropeansin expeditions, sieges, and long sea voyages, and died in numbers. It is very difficult for them to use themselves to a climate different from their own. The women cease bearing children sooner than inEurope. They seldom or never have children, after they are forty or forty-five years old, and some leave off in the thirtieth year of their age. I enquired into the causes of this, but no one could give me a good one. Some said it was owing to the affluence in which the people live here. Some ascribed it to the inconstancy and changeableness of the weather, and believed that there hardly was a country on earth in which the weather changes so often in a day, as it does here. For if it were ever so hot, one could not be certain whether in twenty-four hours there would not be a piercing cold. Nay, sometimes the weather will change five or six times a day.The trees in this country have the same qualities as its inhabitants. For the ships which are built ofAmericanwood, are by no means equal in point of strength, to those which are built inEurope. This is[105]what nobody attempts to contradict. When a ship which is built here, has served eight or twelve years it is worth little; and if one is to be met with, which has been in use longer and is yet serviceable, it is reckoned very astonishing. It is difficult to find out the causes from whence this happens. Some lay the fault to the badness of the wood: others condemn the method of building the ships, which is to make them of trees which are yet green, and have had no time to dry. I believe both causes are joined. For I found oak, which at the utmost had been cut down about twelve years, and was covered by a hard bark. But upon taking off this bark, the wood below it was almost entirely rotten, and like flour, so that I could rub it into powder between my fingers. How much longer will not ourEuropeanoak stand before it moulders?At night we returned toPhiladelphia.Septemberthe 23d. There are noHaresin this country, but some animals, which are a medium between ourHaresandRabbets, and make a great devastation whenever they get into fields of cabbage and turneps.Many people have not been able to find out why theNorth Americanplants which are carried toEuropeand planted there, for[106]the greatest part flower so late, and do not get ripe fruit before the frost overtakes them, although it appears from several accounts of travels, that the winters inPensylvania, and more so those inNew York,New England, andCanada, are full as severe as ourSwedishwinters, and therefore are much severer than those which are felt inEngland. Several men of judgment charged me for this reason to examine and enquire into this phœnomenon with all possible care. But I shall instead of an answer, rather give a few remarks which I made upon the climate and upon the plants ofNorth America, and leave my readers at liberty to draw the conclusions themselves.1. It is true, that the winters inPensylvania, and much more those in the more northern provinces, are frequently as severe as ourSwedishwinters, and much colder than theEnglishones, or those of the southern parts ofEurope. For I found atPhiladelphia, which is above twenty deg. more southerly than several provinces inSweden, that the thermometer of professorCelsius, fell twenty-four deg. below the freezing point in winter. Yet I was assured that the winters I spent here, were none of the coldest, but only common ones, which I could likewise conclude from theDelaware’s[107]not being frozen strong enough to bear a carriage atPhiladelphiaduring my stay, though this often happens. On considering the breadth of the river which I have already mentioned in my description ofPhiladelphia, and the difference between high and low water, which is eightEnglishfeet; it will pretty plainly appear that a very intense frost is required to cover theDelawarewith such thick ice.2. But it is likewise true, that though the winters are severe here, yet they are commonly of no long duration, and I can justly say, that they do not continue above two months and sometimes even less, atPhiladelphia; and it is something very uncommon when they continue for three months together, in so much that it is put into the gazettes. Nearer the pole the winters are somewhat longer, and in the quite northern parts they are as long as theSwedishwinters. The daily meteorological observations which I have made during my stay inAmerica, and which I intend to annex at the end of each volume of this work, will give more light in this matter.3. The heat in summer is excessive, and without intermission. I own I have seen the thermometer rise to nearly the same degree atAoboinFinland. But the difference[108]is, that when the thermometer of professorCelsiusrose to thirty deg. above the freezing point once in two or three summers atAobo, the same thermometer did not only for three months together stand at the same degree, but even sometimes rose higher; not only inPensylvania, but likewise inNew York,Albany, and a great part ofCanada. During the summers which I spent atPhiladelphia, the thermometer has two or three times risen to thirty-six deg. above the freezing point. It may therefore with great certainty be said, that inPensylvaniathe greatest part ofApril, the wholeMay, and all the following months tillOctober, are like ourSwedishmonths ofJuneandJuly. So excessive and continued a heat must certainly have very great effects. I here again refer to my meteorological observations. It must likewise be ascribed to the effects of this heat that the common melons, the water melons, and the pumpions of different sorts are sown in the fields without any bells or the like put over them, and yet are ripe as early asJuly; further, that cherries are ripe atPhiladelphiaabout the 25th. ofMay, and that inPensylvaniathe wheat is frequently reaped in the middle ofJune.4. The whole ofSeptember, and half, if[109]not the whole ofOctober, are the finest months inPensylvania, for the preceding ones are too hot. But these represent ourJulyand half ofAugust. The greatest part of the plants are in flower inSeptember, and many do not begin to open their flowers before the latter end of this month. I make no doubt that the goodness of the season, which is enlivened by a clear sky, and a tolerably hot sun-shine, greatly contributes towards this last effort of Flora. Yet though these plants come out so late, they are quite ripe before the middle ofOctober. But I am not able to account for their coming up so late in autumn, and I rather ask, why do not theCentaurea Jacea, theGentiana,AmarellaandCentauriumofLinnæus, and the common golden rod, orSolidago Virgaureaflower before the end of summer? or why do the common noble liverwort, orAnemone Hepatica, the wild violets (Viola martia, Linn.) the mezereon (Daphne Mezereum, Linn.) and other plants shew their flowers so early in spring? It has pleased the Almighty Creator to give to them this disposition. The weather atPhiladelphiaduring these months, is shewn by my meteorological tables. I have taken the greatest care in my observations, and have always avoided putting the thermometer[110]into any place where the sun could shine upon it, or where he had before heated the wall by his beams; for in those cases my observations would certainly not have been exact. The weather during ourSeptemberandOctoberis too well known to want an explanation.155. However there are some spontaneous plants inPensylvania, which do not every year bring their seeds to maturity before the cold begins. To these belong some species ofGentiana, ofAsters, and others. But in these too the wisdom of the Creator has wisely ordered every thing in its turn. For almost all the plants which have the quality of flowering so late in autumn, are perennial, or such as, though they have no seed to propagate themselves, can revive by shooting new branches and stalks from the same root every year. But perhaps a natural cause may be given to account for the late growth of these plants. Before theEuropeanscame into this country, it was inhabited by savage nations, who practised agriculture but little or not at all, and chiefly[111]lived upon hunting and fishing. The woods therefore have never been meddled with, except that sometimes a small part was destroyed by fire. The accounts which we have of the first landing of theEuropeanshere, shew that they found the country all over covered with thick forests.16From hence it follows, that excepting the higher trees, and the plants which grow in the water or near the shore, the rest must for the greatest part have been obliged to grow perhaps for a thousand years together, in a shade, either below or between the trees, and they therefore naturally belong to those which are only peculiar to woody and shady places. The trees in this country drop their leaves in such quantities in autumn, that the ground is covered with them to the depth of four or five inches. These leaves lie a good while in the next summer before they moulder, and this must of course hinder the growth of the plants which are under the trees, at the same time depriving them of the few rays of the sun which can come down to them through the thick leaves at the top of the trees. These causes joined together make such plants flower much later than they would otherwise do. May[112]it not therefore be said, that in so many centuries these plants had at last contracted ahabitof coming up very late, and that it would now require a great space of time to make them lose this habit, and use them to quicken their growth?Septemberthe 24th. We employed this whole day in gathering the seeds of plants of all kinds, and in putting scarce plants into the herbal.Septemberthe 25th. Mr.Hesseliusmade me a present of a little piece of petrified wood, which was found in the ground here. It was four inches long, one inch broad, and three lines thick. It might plainly be seen that it had formerly been wood. For in the places where it had been polished, all the longitudinal fibres were easily distinguishable, so that it might have been taken for a piece of oak which was cut smooth. My piece was part of a still greater piece. It was here thought to be petrified hiccory. I afterwards got more of it from other people. Mr.Lewis Evanstold me that on the boundaries ofVirginia, a great petrified block of hiccory had been found in the ground, with the bark on it, which was likewise petrified.Mr.John Bartramis anEnglishman, who lives in the country about four miles[113]fromPhiladelphia. He has acquired a great knowledge of natural philosophy and history, and seems to be born with a peculiar genius for these sciences. In his youth he had no opportunity of going to school. But by his own diligence and indefatigable application he got, without instruction, so far in Latin, as to understand all Latin books, and even those which were filled with botanical terms. He has in several successive years made frequent excursions into different distant parts ofNorth America, with an intention of gathering all sorts of plants which are scarce and little known. Those which he found he has planted in his own botanical garden, and likewise sent over their seeds or fresh roots toEngland. We owe to him the knowledge of many scarce plants, which he first found, and which were never known before. He has shewn great judgment, and an attention which lets nothing escape unnoticed. Yet with all these great qualities, he is to be blamed for his negligence; for he did not care to write down his numerous and useful observations. His friends atLondononce obliged him to send them a short account of one of his travels, and they were very ready, with a good intention, though not with sufficient judgment, to get this account printed.[114]But this book, did Mr.Bartrammore harm than good; for as he is rather backward in writing down what he knows, this publication was found to contain but few new observations. It would not however be doing justice to Mr.Bartram’s merit, if it were to be judged of by this performance. He has not filled it with a thousandth part of the great knowledge, which he has acquired in natural philosophy and history, especially in regard toNorth America. I have often been at a loss to think of the sources, from whence he got many things which came to his knowledge. I likewise owe him many things, for he possessed that great quality of communicating every thing he knew. I shall therefore in the sequel, frequently mention this gentleman. For I should never forgive myself, if I were to omit the name of the first inventor, and claim that as my own invention, which I learnt from another person.ManyMuscle shells, orMytili anatini, are to be met with on the north-west side of the town in the clay-pits, which were at present filled with water from a little brook in the neighbourhood. These muscles seem to have been washed into that place by the tide, when the water in the brook was high. For these clay-pits are not old, but were[115]lately made. Poor boys sometimes go out of town, wade in the water, and gather great quantities of these shells, which they sell very easily, they being reckoned a dainty.TheVirginian Azarolewith a red fruit, orLinnæus’sCratægus Crus galli, is a species of hawthorn, and they plant it in hedges, for want of that hawthorn, which is commonly used for this purpose inEurope. Its berries are red, and of the same size, shape, and taste with those of our hawthorn. Yet this tree does not seem to make a good hedge, for its leaves were already fallen, whilst other trees still preserved theirs. Its spines are very long and sharp; their length being two or three inches. These spines are applied to some inconsiderable use. Each berry contains two stones.Mr.Bartramassured me, that theNorth Americanoak, cannot resist putrefaction for near such a space of time, as theEuropean. For this reason, the boats (which carry all sorts of goods down from the upper parts of the country) upon the riverHudson, which is one of the greatest in these parts, are made of two kinds of wood. That part which must always be under water, is made of black oak; but[116]the upper part, which is now above and now under water, and is therefore more exposed to putrefaction, is made of red cedar orJuniperus Virginiana, which is reckoned the most hardy wood in the country. The bottom is made of black oak, because that wood is very tough. For the river being full of stones, and the boats frequently running against them, the black oak gives way, and therefore does not easily crack. But the cedar would not do for this purpose; because it is hard and brittle. The oak likewise is not so much attacked by putrefaction, when it is always kept under water.In autumn, I could always get good pears here; but every body acknowledged, that this fruit would not succeed well in the country.All my observations and remarks on the qualities of theRattle-snake, are inserted in the Memoirs of theSwedishAcademy of Sciences, for the year 1752, p. 316, and for the year 1753, p. 54, and thither I refer the reader.17Bearsare very numerous higher up in the country, and do much mischief. Mr.Bartramtold me, that when a bear catches[117]a cow, kills her in the following manner: he bites a hole into the hide, and blows with all his power into it, till the animal swells excessively and dies; for the air expands greatly between the flesh and the hide.18An oldSwedecalledNils Gustave’sson, who was ninety-one years of age, said, that in his youth, the bears had been very frequent hereabouts, but that they had seldom attacked the cattle: that whenever a bear was killed, its flesh was prepared like pork, and that it had a very good taste. And the flesh of bears is still prepared like ham, on the riverMorris. The environs ofPhiladelphia, and even the whole province ofPensylvaniain general contain very few bears, they having been extirpated by degrees. InVirginiathey kill them in several different ways. Their flesh is eaten by both rich and poor, since it is reckoned equal in goodness to pork. In[118]some parts of this province, where no hogs can be kept on account of the great numbers of bears, the people are used to catch and kill them, and to use them instead of hogs. TheAmericanbears however, are said to be less fierce and dangerous, than theEuropeanones.Septemberthe 26th. The broad plantain, orPlantago major, grows on the highroads, foot paths, meadows, and in gardens in great plenty. Mr.Bartramhad found this plant in many places on his travels, but he did not know whether it was an originalAmericanplant, or whether theEuropeanshad brought it over. This doubt had its rise from the savages (who always had an extensive knowledge of the plants of the country) pretending that this plant never grew here before the arrival of theEuropeans., They therefore give it a name which signifies, theEnglishman’sfoot, for they say that where aEuropeanhad walked, there this plant grew in his foot steps.TheChenopodium album, orGoosefootwith sinuated leaves, grows in plenty in the gardens. But it is more scarce near the houses, in the streets, on dunghills and corn-fields. This seems to shew, that it is not a native ofAmerica, but has been brought over amongst other seeds fromEurope. In the[119]same manner it is thought that theTansey(Tanacetum vulgare, Linn.) which grows here and there in the hedges, on the roads, and near houses, was produced fromEuropeanseeds.Thecommon vervain, with blue flowers, orverbena officinalis, was shewn to me by Mr.Bartram, not far from his house in a little plain nearPhiladelphia. It was the only place where he had found it inAmerica. And for this reason I suppose it was likewise sown here amongst otherEuropeanseeds.Mr.Bartramwas at this time-building a house inPhiladelphia, and had sunk a cellar to a considerable depth, the soil of which was thrown out. I here observed the following strata. The upper loose soil was only half a foot deep, and of a dark brown colour. Under it was a stratum of clay so much blended with sand, that it was in greater quantity than the clay itself; and this stratum was eight feet deep. These were both brick coloured. The next stratum consisted of little pebbles mixed with a coarse sand. The stones consisted either of aclear, or of adark Quartz;19they were[120]quite smooth and roundish on the outside, and lay in a stratum which was a foot deep. Then the brick-coloured clay mixed with sand appeared again. But the depth of this stratum could not be determined. Query, could the river formerly have reached to this place and formed these strata?Mr.Bartramhas not only frequently found oyster-shells in the ground, but likewise met with such shells and snails, as undoubtedly belong to the sea, at the distance of a hundred and moreEnglishmiles from the shore. He has even found them on the ridge of mountains which separate theEnglishplantations from the habitations of the savages. These mountains which theEnglishcall theblue mountains, are of considerable height, and extend, in one continued chain from north to south, or fromCanadatoCarolina. Yet in some places they have gaps, which are as it were broke through, to afford a passage for the great rivers, which roll down into the lower country.TheCassia Chamæcristagrew on the roads the woods, and sometimes[121]on uncultivated fields, especially when shrubs grew in them. Its leaves are like those of theSensitive plant, orMimosa, and have likewise the quality of contracting when touched, in common with the leaves of the latter.TheCrowsin this country are little different from our common crows inSweden. Their size is the same with that of our crows, and they are as black as jet in every part of their body. I saw them flying to day in great numbers together. Their voice is not quite like that of our crows, but has rather more of the cry of the rook, orLinnæus’sCorvus frugilegus.Mr.Bartramrelated, that on his journeys to the northernEnglishcolonies, he had discovered great holes in the mountains on the banks of rivers, which according to his description, must exactly have been suchgiants pots,20as are to be met with inSweden, and which I have described in a particular dissertation read in the RoyalSwedishAcademy of Sciences. Mr.Bartramhas likewise addressed some letters to the Royal Society atLondonupon this subject. For[122]some people pretended, that these holes were made by the savages, that they might in time of war hide their corn and other valuable effects in them. But he wrote against this opinion, and accounted for the origin of these cavities in the following manner. When the ice settles, many pebbles stick in it. In spring when the snow melts, the water in the rivers swells so high that it reaches above the place where these holes are now found in the mountains. The ice therefore will of course float as high. And then it often happens, that the pebbles which were contained in it, ever since autumn when it first settled on the banks of the river, fall out of the ice upon the rocky bank, and are from thence carried into a cleft or crack by the water. These pebbles are then continually turned about by the water, which comes in upon them, and by this means they gradually form the hole. The water at the same time polishes the stone by its circular motion round it, and helps to make the hole or cavity round. It is certain that by this turning and tossing, the stone is at last unfit for this purpose; but the river throws commonly every spring other stones instead of it into the cavity, and they are turned round in the same manner. By this whirling both the mountain[123]and the stone afford either a fine or a coarse sand, which is washed away by the water when in spring, or at other times it is high enough to throw its waves into the cavity. This was the opinion of Mr.Bartramabout the origin of these cavities. The Royal Society of Sciences atLondon, has given a favourable reception to, and approved of them.21The remarks which I made in the summer of the year 1743, during my stay atLand’s-Ort, in my country, will prove that I was at that time of the same opinion, in regard to these holes. I have since further explained this opinion in a letter to the Royal Academy of Sciences; and this letter is still preserved in the Academy’s Memoirs, which have not yet been published. But there is great reason to doubt, whether all cavities of this kind in mountains, have the same origin.Here are different species ofMulberry trees, which grow wild in the forests ofnorthandsouth America. In these parts the red mulberry trees are more plentiful than any other. However Mr.Bartramassured me that he had likewise seen the[124]white mulberry trees growing wild, but that they were more scarce. I asked him and several other people of this country, why they did not set up silk manufactures, having such a quantity of mulberries, which succeed so easily? For it has been observed that when the berries fall upon the ground where it is not compact but loose, they soon put out several fine delicate shoots. But they replied that it would not be worth while to erect any silk manufactures here, because labour is so dear. For a man gets from eighteen pence to three shillings and upwards, for one day’s work, and the women are paid in proportion. They were therefore of opinion that the cultivation of all sorts of corn, of hemp, and of flax, would be of greater advantage, and that at the same time it did not require near so much care as the feeding of silk worms. By the trials of a governor inConnecticut, which is a more northern province thanNew York, it is evident however, that silk worms succeed very well here, and that this kind of mulberry trees is very good for them. The governor brought up a great quantity of silk worms in his court yard; and they succeeded so well, and spun so much silk, as to afford him a sufficient quantity for cloathing himself and all his family.[125]Several sorts ofVineslikewise grow wild hereabouts. Whenever I made a little excursion out of town, I saw them in numerous places climbing up trees and hedges. They clasp around them, and cover them sometimes entirely, and even hang down on the sides. This has the same appearance at a distance, as the tendrils of hops climbing along trees. I enquired of Mr.Bartramwhy they did not plant vineyards, or press wine from the grapes of the wild vine. But they answered, that the same objection lay against it, which lies against the erection of a silk manufacture, that the necessary hands were too scarce, and it therefore was more rational to make agriculture their chief employment. But the true reason undoubtedly is, that the wine which is pressed out of most of theNorth Americanwild grapes is sour and sharp, and has not near such an agreeable taste, as that which is made fromEuropeangrapes.TheVirginian Wake robin, orArum Virginicum, grows in wet places. Mr.Bartramtold me, that the savages boiled thespadixand the berries of this flower, and devoured it as a great dainty. When the berries are raw, they have a harsh, pungent[126]taste, which they lose in great measure upon boiling.TheSarothra Gentianoides, grows abundantly in the fields and under the bushes, in a dry sandy ground nearPhiladelphia. It looks extremely like our whortleberry bushes when they first begin to green, and when the points of the leaves are yet red. Mr.Bartramhas sent this plant to Dr.Dillenius, but that gentleman did not know where he should range it. It is reckoned a very good traumatic, and this quality Mr.Bartramhimself experienced; for being thrown and kicked by a vicious horse, in such a manner as to have both his thighs greatly hurt, he boiled theSarothraand applied it to his wounds. It not only immediately appeased his pain, which before had been very violent, but he likewise by its assistance recovered in a short time.Having read in Mr.Miller’sBotanical Dictionary, that Mr.Peter Collinsonhad a particularLarch treefromAmericain his garden, I asked Mr.Bartramwhether he was acquainted with it, he answered, that he had sent it himself to Mr.Collinson, that it only grew in the eastern parts ofNew Jersey, and that he had met with it in no otherEnglishplantation. It differs from the other species ofLarch trees, its[127]cones being much less. I afterwards saw this tree in great plenty inCanada.Mr.Bartramwas of opinion, that the apple tree was brought intoAmericaby theEuropeans, and that it never was there before their arrival. But he looked upon peaches as an originalAmericanfruit, and as growing wild in the greatest part ofAmerica. Others again were of opinion, that they were first brought over by theEuropeans. But all theFrenchinCanadaagreed, that on the banks of the riverMissisippiand in the country thereabouts peaches were found growing wild in great quantity.22Septemberthe 27th. The tree which theEnglishhere callPersimon, is theDiospyros VirginianaofLinnæus. It grows for the greatest part in wet places, round the water pits. I have already mentioned that the fruits of this tree are extremely bitter and sharp before they are quite ripe, and that being eaten in that state they quite[128]contract ones mouth, and have a very disagreeable taste. But as soon as they are ripe, which does not happen till they have been quite softened by the frost, they are a very agreeable fruit. They are here eaten raw, and seldom any other way. But in a great book, which contains a description ofVirginia, you meet with different ways of preparing thePersimon, under the article of that name. Mr.Bartram, related that they were commonly put upon the table amongst the sweet-meats, and that some people made a tolerably good wine of them. Some of these Persimon fruits were dropped on the ground in his garden, and were almost quite ripe, having been exposed to a great degree of the heat of the sun. We picked up a few and tasted them, and I must own that those who praised this fruit as an agreeable one, have but done it justice. It really deserves a place among the most palatable fruit of this country, when the frost has thoroughly conquered its acrimony.TheVerbascum Thapsus, orgreat white Mullein, grows in great quantity on roads, in hedges, on dry fields, and high meadows of a ground mixed with sand. TheSwedeshere call it thetobacco of the savages, but owned, that they did not know whether[129]or no the Indians really used this plant instead of tobacco. TheSwedesare used to tie the leaves round their feet and arms, when they have the ague. Some of them prepared a tea from the leaves, for the dysentery. ASwedelikewise told me, that a decoction of the roots was injected into the wounds of the cattle which are full of worms, which killed these worms, and made them fall out.23Septemberthe 28th. The meadows which are surrounded by wood, and were at present mown, have a fine lively verdure. On the contrary when they lie on hills, or in open fields, or in some elevated situation, especially so that the sun may be able to act upon them without any obstacles, their grass looks brown and dry. Several people fromVirginiatold me, that on account of the great heat and drought, the meadows and pastures almost always had a brown colour, and looked as if they were burnt. The inhabitants of those parts do not therefore enjoy the pleasure which aEuropean[130]feels at the sight of our verdant, odoriferous meadows.TheAmerican Nightshade, or thePhytolacca decandra, grows abundantly in the fields, and under the trees, on little hills. Its black berries are now ripe. We observed to day some little birds with a blue plumage, and of the size of ourHortulansandYellow Hammers(Emberiza CitrinellaandEmberiza Hortulanus) flying down from the trees, in order to settle upon the nightshade and eat its berries.Towards night I went to Mr.Bartram’s country seat.Septemberthe 29th. TheGnaphalium margaritaceum, grows in astonishing quantities upon all uncultivated fields, glades, hills, and the like. Its height is different according to its different soil and situation. Sometimes it is very ramose, and sometimes very little. It has a strong, but agreeable smell. TheEnglishcall itLife everlasting; for its flowers, which consist chiefly of dry, shining, silvery leaves (Folia calycina) do not change when dried. This plant is now every where in full blossom. But some have already lost the flowers, and are beginning to drop the seeds. TheEnglishladies were used to gather great quantities of thisLife everlasting, and to pluck them[131]with the stalks. For they put them into pots with or without water, amongst other fine flowers which they had gathered both in the gardens and in the fields, and placed them as an ornament in the rooms. TheEnglishladies in general are much inclined to have fine flowers all the summer long, in or upon the chimneys, sometimes upon a table, or before the windows, either on account of their fine appearance, or for the sake of their sweet scent. TheGnaphaliumabove-mentioned, was one of those, which they kept in their rooms during the winter, because its flowers never altered from what they were when they stood in the ground. Mr.Bartramtold me another use of this plant. A decoction of the flowers and stalks is used to bathe any pained or bruised part, or it is rubbed with the plant itself tied up in a bag.Instead of flax several people made use of a kind ofDog’sbane, orLinnæus’sApocynum cannabinum. The people prepared the stalks of this plant, in the same manner as we prepare those of hemp or flax. It was spun and several kinds of stuffs were woven from it. The savages are said to have had the art of making bags, fishing-nets, and the like, for many centuries together, before the arrival of theEuropeans.[132]I asked Mr.Bartram, whether he had observed in his travels, that the water was fallen, and that the sea had formerly covered any places which were now land. He told me, that from what he had experienced, he was convinced that the greatest part of this country, even for several miles together, had formerly been under water. The reasons which led him to give credit to this opinion, were the following.1. On digging in the blue mountains, which are above three hundredEnglishmiles distant from the sea, you find loose oyster and other sorts of shells, and they are also likewise to be met with in the vallies formed by these mountains.2. A vast quantity of petrified shells are found in limestone, flint, and sandstone, on the same mountains. Mr.Bartramassured me at the same time, that it was incredible what quantities of them there were in the different kinds of stones of which the mountains consist.3. The same shells are likewise dug in great quantity, quite entire and not mouldered, in the provinces ofVirginiaandMaryland, as also inPhiladelphiaand inNew York.4. On digging wells (not only inPhiladelphia, but likewise in other places) the[133]people have met with trees, roots, and leaves of oak, for the greatest part, not yet rotten, at the depth of eighteen feet.5. The best soil and the richest mould is to be met with in the vallies hereabouts. These vallies are commonly crossed by a rivulet or brook. And on their declivity, a mountain commonly rises, which in those places where the brook passes close to it, looks as if it were cut on purpose. Mr.Bartrambelieved, that all these vallies formerly were lakes; that the water had by degrees hollowed out the mountain, and opened a passage for itself through it; and that the great quantity of slime which is contained in the water, and which had subsided to the bottom of the lake, was the rich soil which is at present in the vallies, and the cause of their great fertility. But such vallies and cloven mountains are very frequent in the country, and of this kind is the peculiar gap between two mountains, through which a river takes its course or boundaries ofNew YorkandPennsylvania. The people in a jest say, that this opening by the D—l, as he wanted to go out ofPennsylvaniaintoNew York.6. The whole appearance of the blue mountains, plainly shews that the water[134]formerly covered at part of them. For many are broken in a peculiar manner, but the highest are plain.7. When the savages are told, that shells are found on these high mountains, and that from thence there is reason to believe that the sea must formerly have extended to them, and even in part flown over them; they answer that this is not new to them, they having a tradition from their ancestors among them, that the sea formerly surrounded these mountains.8. The water in rivers and brooks likewise decreases. Mills, which sixty years ago were built on rivers, and at that time had a sufficient supply of water almost all the year long, have at present so little, that they cannot be used, but after a heavy rain, or when the snow melts in spring. This decrease of water in part arises from the great quantity of land which is now cultivated, and from the extirpation of great forests for that purpose.9. The sea-shore increases likewise in time. This arises from the quantity of sand continually thrown on shore from the bottom of the sea, by the waves.Mr.Bartramthought that some peculiar attention should be paid to another thing relating to these observations. The shells[135]which are to be found petrified on the northern mountains, are of such kinds as at present are not to be got in the sea, in the same latitude, and they are not fished on the shore, till you come toSouth Carolina. Mr.Bartramfrom hence took an occasion to defend Dr.Thomas Burnet’s opinion, that the earth before the deluge was in a different position towards the sun. He likewise asked whether the great bones which are sometimes found in the ground in Siberia, and which are supposed to be elephant’s bones and tusks, did not confirm this opinion. For at present those animals cannot live in such cold countries; but if according to Dr.Burnet, the sun once formed different zones about our earth, from those it now makes, the elephant may easily be supposed to have lived inSiberia.24However it[136]seems that all which we have hitherto mentioned, may have been the effect of different causes. To those belong the universal deluge, the increase of land which is merely[137]the work of time, and the changes of the course of rivers, which when the snow melts and in great floods, leave their first beds, and form new ones.At some distance from Mr.Bartram’s country house, a little brook flowed through the wood, and likewise ran over a rock. The attentive Mr.Bartramhere shewed me several little cavities in the rock, and we plainly saw that they must have been generated in the manner I before described, that is, by supposing a pebble to have remained in a cleft of the rock, and to have been turned round by the violence of the water, till it had formed such cavity in the mountain. For on putting our hands into one of these cavities, we found that it contained numerous small pebbles, whose surface was quite smooth and round. And these stones we found in each of the holes.Mr.Bartramshewed me a number of[138]plants which he had collected into a herbal on his travels. Among these were the following, which likewise grow in the northern parts ofEurope, of which he had either got the whole plants, or only broken branches.1.Betula alba.Thecommon birch tree, which he had found on thecats-hills.2.Betula nana.This species of birch grows in several low places towards the hills.3.Comarum palustre, in the meadows, between the hills inNew Jersey.4.Gentiana lutea, the greatGentian, from the fields near the mountains. It was very like our variety, but had not so many flowers under each leaf.5.Linnæa borealis, from the mountains inCanada. It creeps along the ground.6.Myrica Gale, from the neighbourhood of the riverSusquehanna, where it grows in a wet soil.7.Potentilla fruticosa, from the swampy fields and low meadows, between the riverDelaware, and the riverNew York.8.Trientalis Europæa, from thecats-hills.9.Triglochin maritimum, from the salt springs towards the country of the five nations.[139]Mr.Bartramshewed me a letter fromEast Jersey, in which he got the following account of the discovery of an Indian grave. In theAprilof the year 1744, as some people were digging a cellar, they came upon a great stone, like a tombstone, which was at last got out with great difficulty, and about four feet deeper under it, they met with a large quantity of human bones and a cake of maize. The latter was yet quite untouched, and several of the people present tasted it out of curiosity. From these circumstances it was concluded that this was a grave of a person of note among the savages. For it is their custom to bury along with the deceased, meat any other things which he liked best. The stone was eight feet long, four feet broad, and even some inches more where it was broadest, and fifteen inches thick at one end, but only twelve inches at the other end. It consisted of the same coarse kind of stone, that is to be got in this country. There were no letters nor other characters visible on it.The corn which theIndianschiefly cultivate is theMaize, orZea Mays,Linn.Then have little corn fields for that purpose. But besides this, they likewise plant a great quantity ofSquashes, a species of[140]pumpions or melons, which they have always cultivated, even in the remotest ages. TheEuropeanssettled inAmerica, got the seeds of this plant, and at present their gardens are full of it, the fruit has an agreeable taste when it is well prepared. They are commonly boiled, then crushed (as we are used to do with turneps when we make apulseof them) and some pepper or other spice thrown upon them, and the dish is ready. The Indians likewise sow several kinds of beans, which for the greatest part they have got from theEuropeans. But pease which they likewise sow, they have always had amongst them, before any foreigners came into the country. The squashes of the Indians, which now are likewise cultivated by theEuropeans, belong to those kinds of gourds (cucurbita,) which ripen before any other. They are a very delicious fruit, but will not keep. I have however seen them kept till pretty laid In winter.Septemberthe 30th. Wheat and rye are sown in autumn about this time, and commonly reaped towards the end ofJune, or in the beginning ofJuly. These kinds of corn, however, are sometimes ready to be reaped in the middle ofJune, and there are even examples that they have been[141]mown in the beginning of that month. Barley and oats are sown inApril, and they commonly begin to grow ripe towards the end ofJuly. Buck-wheat is sown in the middle or at the end ofJuly, and is about this time, or somewhat later, ready to be reaped. If it be sown before the above-mentioned time, as inMay, or inJune, it only gives flowers, and little or no corn.Mr.Bartramand other people assured me, that most of the cows which theEnglishhave here, are the offspring of those which they bought of theSwedeswhen they were masters of the country. TheEnglishthemselves are said to have brought over but few. TheSwedeseither brought their cattle from home, or bought them of theDutch, who were then settled here.Near the town, I saw anIvyorHedera Helix, planted against the wall of a stone building, which was so covered by the fine green leaves of this plant, as almost to conceal the whole. It was doubtless brought over fromEurope, for I have never perceived it any where else on my travels throughNorth-America. But in its stead I have often seen wild vines made to run up the walls.I asked Mr.Bartram, whether he had[142]observed, that trees and plants decreased in proportion as they were brought further to theNorth, asCatesbypretends? He answered, that the question should be more limited, and then his opinion would prove the true one. There are some trees which grow better in southern countries, and become less as you advance to the north. Their seeds or berries are sometimes brought into colder climates by birds and by other accidents. They gradually decrease in growth, till at last they will not grow at all. On the other hand, there are other trees and herbs which the wise Creator destined for the northern countries, and they grow there to an amazing size. But the further they are transplanted to the south, the less they grow; till at last they degenerate so much as not to be able to grow at all. Other plants love a temperate climate, and if they be carried either south or north, they will not succeed well, but always decrease. Thus for examplePensylvaniacontains some trees which grow exceedingly well, but always decrease in proportion as they are carried further off either to the north, or to the south.I afterwards on my travels, had frequent proofs of this truth. TheSassafras, which grows inPensylvania, under[143]forty deg. of lat. and becomes a pretty tall and thick tree, was so little atOswegoandFort Nicholson, between forty-three. and forty-four deg. of lat. that it hardly reached the height of two or four feet, and was seldom so thick as the little finger of a full grown person. This was likewise the case with theTulip tree. For inPensylvaniait grows as high as our tallest oaks and firs, and its thickness is proportionable to its height. But aboutOswegoit was not above twelve feet high, and no thicker than a man’s arm. TheSugar Maple, orAcer saccharinum, is one of the most common trees in the woods ofCanada, and grows very tall. But in the southern provinces, asNew JerseyandPensylvania, it only grows on the northern side of the blue mountains, and on the steep hills which are on the banks of the river, and which are turned to the north. Yet there it does not attain to a third or fourth part of the height which it has inCanada. It is needless to mention more examples.Octoberthe 1st. The gnats which are very troublesome at night here, are calledMusquetoes. They are exactly like the gnats inSweden, only somewhat less, and the description which is to be met with in Dr.Linnæus’sSystema Naturæ, andFauna[144]Suecica, fully agrees with them, and they are called by himCulex pipiens. In day time or at night they come into the houses, and when the people are gone to bed they begin their disagreeable humming, approach always nearer to the bed, and at last suck up so much blood, that they can hardly fly away. Their bite causes blisters in people of a delicate complexion. When the weather has been cool for some days, the musquetoes disappear. But when it changes again, and especially after a rain, they gather frequently in such quantities about the houses, that their numbers are astonishing. The chimneys of theEnglishwhich have no valves for shutting them up, afford the gnats a free entrance into the houses. In sultry evenings, they accompany the cattle in great swarms, from the woods to the houses or to town, and when they are drove before the houses, the gnats fly in wherever they can. In the greatest heat of summer, they are so numerous in some places, that the air seems to be quite full of them, especially near swamps and stagnant waters, such as the riverMorrisinNew Jersey. The inhabitants therefore make a fire before their houses to expell these disagreeableguestsby the smoak. The oldSwedeshere, said that gnats had formerly been[145]much more numerous; that even at present they swarmed in vast quantities on the sea shore near the salt water, and that those which troubled us this autumn inPhiladelphiawere of a more venomous kind, than they commonly used to be. This last quality appeared from the blisters, which were formed on the spots, where the gnats had inserted their sting. InSwedenI never felt any other inconvenience from their sting, than a little itching; whilst they sucked. But when they stung me here at night, my face was so disfigured by little red spots and blisters, that I was almost ashamed to shew myself.I have already mentioned somewhat about the enclosures usual here; I now add, that most of the planks which are put horizontally, and of which the enclosures in the environs ofPhiladelphiachiefly consist, are of the red cedar wood, which is here reckoned more durable than any other. But where this could not be got, either white or black oak supplied its place. The people were likewise very glad if they could get cedar wood for the posts, or else they took white oak, or chesnut, as I was told by Mr.Bartram. But it seems that that kind of wood in general does not keep well in the ground for a considerable time. I[146]saw some posts made of chesnut wood, and put into the ground only the year before, which were already for the greatest part rotten below.TheSassafras tree, orLaurus Sassafras,Linn.grows in abundance in the country, and stands scattered up and down the woods, and near bushes and enclosures. On old grounds, which are left uncultivated, it is one of the first that comes up, and is as plentiful as young birches are on thoseSwedishfields, which are formed by burning the trees which grew on them.25The sassafras grows in a dry loose ground, of a pale brick colour, which consists for the greatest part of sand, mixed with some clay. It seems to be but a poor soil. The mountains roundGothenburgh, inSweden, would afford many places rich enough for theSassafrasto grow in, and I even fear they would be too rich. I here saw it both in the woods amidst other trees, and more frequently by itself along the enclosures.[147]In both it looks equally fresh. I have never seen it on wet or low places. The people here gather its flowers, and use them instead of tea. But the wood itself is of no use in œconomy; for when it is set on fire, it causes a continual crackling, without making any good fire. The tree spreads its roots very much, and new shoots come up from them in some places; but these shoots are not good for transplanting, because they have so few fibres besides the root, which connects them to the main stem, that they cannot well strike into the ground. If therefore any one would plantSassafrastrees he must endeavour to get their berries, which however is difficult, since the birds eat them before they are half ripe. The cows are very greedy after the tender new shoots, and look for them every where.The bark of this tree is used by the women here in dying worsted a fine lasting orange colour, which does not fade in the sun. They use urine instead of alum in dying, and boil the dye in a brass boiler, because in an iron vessel it does not yield so fine a colour. A woman inVirginiahas successfully employed the berries of the Sassafras against a great pain in one of her feet, which for three years together she had to such a degree, that it almost hindered[148]her from walking. She was advised to broil the berries of sassafras, and to rub the painful parts of her foot with the oil, which by this means would be got from the berries. She did so, but at the same time it made her vomit; yet this was not sufficient to keep her from following the prescription three times more, though as often as she made use thereof, it always had the same effect. However she was entirely freed from that pain, and perfectly recovered.A blackWoodpeckerwith a red head, or thePicus pileatus,Linn.is frequent in thePensylvanianforests, and stays the winter, as I know from my own experience. It is reckoned among those birds which destroy the maize; because it settles on the ripe ears, and destroys them with its bill. TheSwedescall itTillkroka, but all other woodpeckers, those with gold yellow wings excepted, are calledHackspickarin theSwedishlanguage. I intend to describe them altogether more exactly in a particular work. I only observe here, that almost all the different species of woodpeckers are very noxious to the maize, when it begins to ripen: for by picking holes in the membrane round the ear, the rain gets into it, and causes the ear with all the corn it contains to rot.[149]Octoberthe 3d. In the morning I set out forWilmington, which was formerly calledChristinaby theSwedes, and is thirtyEnglishmiles to the south west ofPhiladelphia. Three miles behindPhiladelphiaI passed the riverSkulkillin a ferry, beyond which the country appears almost a continual chain of mountains and vallies. The mountains have an easy slope on all sides, and the vallies are commonly crossed by brooks with crystal streams. The greater part of the country is covered with several kinds of deciduous trees; for I scarcely saw a single tree of the fir kind, if I except a few red cedars. The forest was high, but open below, so that it left a free prospect to the eye, and no under-wood obstructed the passage between the trees. It would have been easy in some places to have gone under the branches with a carriage for a quarter of a mile, the trees standing at great distances from each other, and the ground being very level. In some places little glades opened, which were either meadows, pastures, or corn-fields; of which latter some were cultivated and others not. In a few places, several houses were built close to each other. But for the greatest part they were single. In part of the fields the wheat was already sown, in theEnglish[150]manner without trenches, but with furrows pretty close together. I sometimes saw the country people very busy in sowing their rye. Near every farm-house was a little field with maize. The inhabitants hereabouts were commonly eitherEnglishorSwedes.All the day long I saw a continual variety of trees; walnut trees of different sorts, which were all full of nuts; chesnut trees quite covered with fine chesnuts; mulberries, sassafras, liquidambar, tulip trees, and many others.Several species of vines grew wild hereabouts. They run up to the summits of the trees, their clusters of grapes and their leaves covering the stems. I even saw some young oaks five or six fathoms high, whose tops were crowned with vines. The ground is that which is so common hereabouts, which I have already described, viz. a clay mixed with a great quantity of sand, and covered with a rich soil or vegetable earth. The vines are principally seen on trees which stand single in corn-fields, and at the end of woods, where the meadows, pastures, and fields begin, and likewise along the enclosures, where they cling with their tendrils round the trees which stand there. The lower parts of the plant are[151]full of grapes, which hang below the leaves, and were now almost ripe, and had a pleasant sourish taste. The country people gather them in great quantities, and sell them in the town. They are eaten without further preparation, and commonly people are presented with them when they come to pay a visit.The soil does not seem to be deep hereabouts; for the upper black stratum is hardly two inches. This I had an occasion to see both in such places where the ground is dug up, and in such where the water, during heavy flowers of rain, has made cuts, which are pretty numerous here. The upper soil has a dark colour, and the next a pale colour like bricks. I have observed everywhere inAmerica, that the depth of the upper soil does not by far agree with the computation of some people, though we can almost be sure, that in some places it never was stirred since the deluge. I shall be more particular in this respect afterwards.26[152]TheDatura Stramonium, orThorn Apple, grows in great quantities near all the villages. Its height is different according to the soil it is in. For in a rich soil it[153]grows eight or ten feet high, but in a hard and poor ground, it will seldom come up to six inches. ThisDatura, together with thePhytolacca, orAmerican Nightshade, grow here in those places near the gardens,[154]houses, and roads, which inSwedenare covered with nettles and goose-foot, whichEuropeanplants are very scarce inAmerica. But theDaturaandPhytolaccaare the worst weeds here, nobody knowing any particular use of them.Turnep-fields are sometimes to be seen. In the middle of the highroad I perceived a dead black snake, which was four feet six inches long, and an inch and a half in thickness. It belonged to the viper kind.
The quadruped, which Dr.Linnæusin[97]the memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences, has described by the name ofUrsus cauda elongata, and which he callsUrsus Lotor, in hisSystema Naturæ, is here calledRaccoon. It is found very frequently, and destroys many chickens. It is hunted by dogs, and when it runs upon a tree to save itself, a man climbs upon the tree after it, and shakes it down to the ground, where the dogs kill it. The flesh is eaten, and is reputed to taste well. The bone of its male parts is made use of for a tobacco-stopper. The hatters purchase their skins, and make hats out of the hair, which are next in goodness to beavers. The tail is worn round the neck in winter, and therefore is likewise valuable. TheRaccoonis frequently the food of snakes.SomeEnglishmenasserted that near the riverPotomackinVirginia, a great quantity of oyster shells were to be met with, and that they themselves had seen whole mountains of them. The place where they are found is said to be about twoEnglishmiles distant from the sea-shore. The proprietor of that ground burns lime out of them. This stratum of oyster-shells is two fathom and more deep. Such quantities of shells have likewise been found in other places, especially inNew York, on digging in the[98]ground; and in one place, at the distance of someEnglishmiles from the sea, avast quantity of oyster-shells, and of other shells was found. Some people conjectured that the natives had formerly lived in that place, and had left the shells of the oysters which they had consumed, in such great heaps. But others could not conceive how it happened that they were thrown in such immense quantities all into one place.Every one is of opinion that theAmericansavages were a very good-natured people, if they were not attacked. No body is so strict in keeping his word as a savage. If any one of their allies come to visit them, they shew him more kindness, and greater endeavours to serve him, than he could have expected from his own countrymen. Mr.Cockgave me the following relation, as a proof of their integrity. About two years ago, anEnglishmerchant travelling amongst the savages, in order to sell them necessaries, and to buy other goods, was secretly killed, without the murderer’s being found out. But about a year after, the savages found out the guilty person amongst themselves. They immediately took him up, bound his hands on his back, and thus sent him with a guard to the governor atPhiladelphia, and sent him word, that they could[99]no longer acknowledge this wretch (who had been so wicked towards anEnglishman) as their countryman, and therefore would have nothing more to do with him, and that they delivered him up to the governor, to be punished for his villainy as the laws ofEnglanddirect. This Indian was afterwards hanged atPhiladelphia.Their good natural parts are proved by the following account, which many people have given me as a true one. When they send their ambassadors to theEnglishcolonies, in order to settle things of consequence with the governor, they sit down on the ground, as soon as they come to his audience, and hear with great attention the governor’s demands which they are to make an answer to. His demands are sometimes many. Yet they have only a stick in their hand, and make their marks on it with a knife, without writing any thing else down. But when they return the next day to give in their resolutions, they answer all the governor’s articles in the same order, in which he delivered them, without leaving one out, or changing the order, and give such accurate answers, as if they had an account of them at full length in writing.Mr.Sleidornrelated another story, which gave me great pleasure. He said he had[100]been atNew York, and had found a venerable oldAmericansavage amongst several others in an inn. This old man began to talk withSleidornas soon as the liquor was getting the better of his head, and boasted that he could write and read inEnglish.Sleidorntherefore desired leave to ask a question, which the old man readily granted.Sleidornthen asked him, whether he knew who was first circumcised? and the old man immediately answered,Father Abraham; but at the same time asked leave to propose a question in his turn, whichSleidorngranted; the old man then said, who was the first quaker?Sleidornsaid it was uncertain, that some took one person for it, and some another; but the cunning old fellow told him, you are mistaken, sir;Mordecaiwas the first quaker, for he would not take off his hat toHaman. Many of the savages, who are yet heathens, are said to have some obscure notion of the deluge. But I am convinced from my own experience, that they are not at all acquainted with it.I met with people here who maintained that giants had formerly lived in these parts, and the following particulars confirmed them in this opinion. A few years ago some people digging in the ground, met with a grave which contained human bones of an[101]astonishing size. TheTibiais said to have been fourteen feet long, and theos femoristo have measured as much. The teeth are likewise said to have been of a size proportioned to the rest, But more bones of this kind have not yet been found. Persons skilled in anatomy, who have seen these bones, have declared that they were human bones. One of the teeth has been sent toHamburgh, to a person who collected natural curiosities. Among the savages, in the neighbourhood of the place where the bones were found, there is an account handed down through many generations from fathers to children, that in this neighbourhood, on the banks of a river, there lived a very tall and strong man, in ancient times, who carried the people over the river on his back, and waded in the water, though it was very deep. Every body to whom he did this service gave him some maize, some skins of animals, or the like. In fine he got his livelyhood by this means, and was as it were the ferryman of those who wanted to pass the river.The soil here consists for the greatest part of sand, which is more or less mixed with clay. Both the sand and the clay, are of the colour of pale bricks. To judge by[102]appearance the ground was none of the best; and this conjecture was verified by the inhabitants of the country. When a corn-field has been obliged to bear the same kind of corn for three years together, it does not after that produce any thing at all if it be not well manured, or fallowed for some years. Manure is very difficult to be got, and therefore people rather leave the field uncultivated. In that interval it is covered with all sorts of plants and trees; and the countryman in the mean while, cultivates a piece of ground which has till then been fallow, or he chuses a part of the ground which has never been ploughed before, and he can in both cases be pretty sure of a plentiful crop. This method can here be used with great convenience. For the soil is loose, so that it can easily be ploughed, and every countryman has commonly a great deal of land for his property. The cattle here are neither housed in winter, nor tended in the fields, and for this reason they cannot gather a sufficient quantity of dung.All the cattle has been originally brought over fromEurope. The natives have never had any, and at present few of them care to get any. But the cattle degenerates[103]by degrees here, and becomes smaller. For the cows, horses, sheep, and hogs, are all larger inEngland, though those which are brought over are of that breed. But the first generation decreases a little, and the third and fourth is of the same size with the cattle already common here. The climate, the soil, and the food, altogether contribute their share towards producing this change.It is remarkable that the inhabitants of the country, commonly sooner acquire understanding, but likewise grow sooner old than the people inEurope. It is nothing uncommon to see little children, giving sprightly and ready answers to questions that are proposed to them, so that they seem to have as much understanding as old men. But they do not attain to such an age as theEuropeans, and it is almost an unheard of thing, that a person born in this country, should live to be eighty or ninety years of age. But I only speak of theEuropeansthat settled here. For the savages, or first inhabitants, frequently attained a great age, though at present such examples are uncommon, which is chiefly attributed to the great use of brandy, which the savages have learnt of theEuropeans. Those who are born inEuropeattain a greater age here,[104]than those who are born here, ofEuropeanparents. In the last war, it plainly appeared that these newAmericanswere by far less hardy than theEuropeansin expeditions, sieges, and long sea voyages, and died in numbers. It is very difficult for them to use themselves to a climate different from their own. The women cease bearing children sooner than inEurope. They seldom or never have children, after they are forty or forty-five years old, and some leave off in the thirtieth year of their age. I enquired into the causes of this, but no one could give me a good one. Some said it was owing to the affluence in which the people live here. Some ascribed it to the inconstancy and changeableness of the weather, and believed that there hardly was a country on earth in which the weather changes so often in a day, as it does here. For if it were ever so hot, one could not be certain whether in twenty-four hours there would not be a piercing cold. Nay, sometimes the weather will change five or six times a day.The trees in this country have the same qualities as its inhabitants. For the ships which are built ofAmericanwood, are by no means equal in point of strength, to those which are built inEurope. This is[105]what nobody attempts to contradict. When a ship which is built here, has served eight or twelve years it is worth little; and if one is to be met with, which has been in use longer and is yet serviceable, it is reckoned very astonishing. It is difficult to find out the causes from whence this happens. Some lay the fault to the badness of the wood: others condemn the method of building the ships, which is to make them of trees which are yet green, and have had no time to dry. I believe both causes are joined. For I found oak, which at the utmost had been cut down about twelve years, and was covered by a hard bark. But upon taking off this bark, the wood below it was almost entirely rotten, and like flour, so that I could rub it into powder between my fingers. How much longer will not ourEuropeanoak stand before it moulders?At night we returned toPhiladelphia.Septemberthe 23d. There are noHaresin this country, but some animals, which are a medium between ourHaresandRabbets, and make a great devastation whenever they get into fields of cabbage and turneps.Many people have not been able to find out why theNorth Americanplants which are carried toEuropeand planted there, for[106]the greatest part flower so late, and do not get ripe fruit before the frost overtakes them, although it appears from several accounts of travels, that the winters inPensylvania, and more so those inNew York,New England, andCanada, are full as severe as ourSwedishwinters, and therefore are much severer than those which are felt inEngland. Several men of judgment charged me for this reason to examine and enquire into this phœnomenon with all possible care. But I shall instead of an answer, rather give a few remarks which I made upon the climate and upon the plants ofNorth America, and leave my readers at liberty to draw the conclusions themselves.1. It is true, that the winters inPensylvania, and much more those in the more northern provinces, are frequently as severe as ourSwedishwinters, and much colder than theEnglishones, or those of the southern parts ofEurope. For I found atPhiladelphia, which is above twenty deg. more southerly than several provinces inSweden, that the thermometer of professorCelsius, fell twenty-four deg. below the freezing point in winter. Yet I was assured that the winters I spent here, were none of the coldest, but only common ones, which I could likewise conclude from theDelaware’s[107]not being frozen strong enough to bear a carriage atPhiladelphiaduring my stay, though this often happens. On considering the breadth of the river which I have already mentioned in my description ofPhiladelphia, and the difference between high and low water, which is eightEnglishfeet; it will pretty plainly appear that a very intense frost is required to cover theDelawarewith such thick ice.2. But it is likewise true, that though the winters are severe here, yet they are commonly of no long duration, and I can justly say, that they do not continue above two months and sometimes even less, atPhiladelphia; and it is something very uncommon when they continue for three months together, in so much that it is put into the gazettes. Nearer the pole the winters are somewhat longer, and in the quite northern parts they are as long as theSwedishwinters. The daily meteorological observations which I have made during my stay inAmerica, and which I intend to annex at the end of each volume of this work, will give more light in this matter.3. The heat in summer is excessive, and without intermission. I own I have seen the thermometer rise to nearly the same degree atAoboinFinland. But the difference[108]is, that when the thermometer of professorCelsiusrose to thirty deg. above the freezing point once in two or three summers atAobo, the same thermometer did not only for three months together stand at the same degree, but even sometimes rose higher; not only inPensylvania, but likewise inNew York,Albany, and a great part ofCanada. During the summers which I spent atPhiladelphia, the thermometer has two or three times risen to thirty-six deg. above the freezing point. It may therefore with great certainty be said, that inPensylvaniathe greatest part ofApril, the wholeMay, and all the following months tillOctober, are like ourSwedishmonths ofJuneandJuly. So excessive and continued a heat must certainly have very great effects. I here again refer to my meteorological observations. It must likewise be ascribed to the effects of this heat that the common melons, the water melons, and the pumpions of different sorts are sown in the fields without any bells or the like put over them, and yet are ripe as early asJuly; further, that cherries are ripe atPhiladelphiaabout the 25th. ofMay, and that inPensylvaniathe wheat is frequently reaped in the middle ofJune.4. The whole ofSeptember, and half, if[109]not the whole ofOctober, are the finest months inPensylvania, for the preceding ones are too hot. But these represent ourJulyand half ofAugust. The greatest part of the plants are in flower inSeptember, and many do not begin to open their flowers before the latter end of this month. I make no doubt that the goodness of the season, which is enlivened by a clear sky, and a tolerably hot sun-shine, greatly contributes towards this last effort of Flora. Yet though these plants come out so late, they are quite ripe before the middle ofOctober. But I am not able to account for their coming up so late in autumn, and I rather ask, why do not theCentaurea Jacea, theGentiana,AmarellaandCentauriumofLinnæus, and the common golden rod, orSolidago Virgaureaflower before the end of summer? or why do the common noble liverwort, orAnemone Hepatica, the wild violets (Viola martia, Linn.) the mezereon (Daphne Mezereum, Linn.) and other plants shew their flowers so early in spring? It has pleased the Almighty Creator to give to them this disposition. The weather atPhiladelphiaduring these months, is shewn by my meteorological tables. I have taken the greatest care in my observations, and have always avoided putting the thermometer[110]into any place where the sun could shine upon it, or where he had before heated the wall by his beams; for in those cases my observations would certainly not have been exact. The weather during ourSeptemberandOctoberis too well known to want an explanation.155. However there are some spontaneous plants inPensylvania, which do not every year bring their seeds to maturity before the cold begins. To these belong some species ofGentiana, ofAsters, and others. But in these too the wisdom of the Creator has wisely ordered every thing in its turn. For almost all the plants which have the quality of flowering so late in autumn, are perennial, or such as, though they have no seed to propagate themselves, can revive by shooting new branches and stalks from the same root every year. But perhaps a natural cause may be given to account for the late growth of these plants. Before theEuropeanscame into this country, it was inhabited by savage nations, who practised agriculture but little or not at all, and chiefly[111]lived upon hunting and fishing. The woods therefore have never been meddled with, except that sometimes a small part was destroyed by fire. The accounts which we have of the first landing of theEuropeanshere, shew that they found the country all over covered with thick forests.16From hence it follows, that excepting the higher trees, and the plants which grow in the water or near the shore, the rest must for the greatest part have been obliged to grow perhaps for a thousand years together, in a shade, either below or between the trees, and they therefore naturally belong to those which are only peculiar to woody and shady places. The trees in this country drop their leaves in such quantities in autumn, that the ground is covered with them to the depth of four or five inches. These leaves lie a good while in the next summer before they moulder, and this must of course hinder the growth of the plants which are under the trees, at the same time depriving them of the few rays of the sun which can come down to them through the thick leaves at the top of the trees. These causes joined together make such plants flower much later than they would otherwise do. May[112]it not therefore be said, that in so many centuries these plants had at last contracted ahabitof coming up very late, and that it would now require a great space of time to make them lose this habit, and use them to quicken their growth?Septemberthe 24th. We employed this whole day in gathering the seeds of plants of all kinds, and in putting scarce plants into the herbal.Septemberthe 25th. Mr.Hesseliusmade me a present of a little piece of petrified wood, which was found in the ground here. It was four inches long, one inch broad, and three lines thick. It might plainly be seen that it had formerly been wood. For in the places where it had been polished, all the longitudinal fibres were easily distinguishable, so that it might have been taken for a piece of oak which was cut smooth. My piece was part of a still greater piece. It was here thought to be petrified hiccory. I afterwards got more of it from other people. Mr.Lewis Evanstold me that on the boundaries ofVirginia, a great petrified block of hiccory had been found in the ground, with the bark on it, which was likewise petrified.Mr.John Bartramis anEnglishman, who lives in the country about four miles[113]fromPhiladelphia. He has acquired a great knowledge of natural philosophy and history, and seems to be born with a peculiar genius for these sciences. In his youth he had no opportunity of going to school. But by his own diligence and indefatigable application he got, without instruction, so far in Latin, as to understand all Latin books, and even those which were filled with botanical terms. He has in several successive years made frequent excursions into different distant parts ofNorth America, with an intention of gathering all sorts of plants which are scarce and little known. Those which he found he has planted in his own botanical garden, and likewise sent over their seeds or fresh roots toEngland. We owe to him the knowledge of many scarce plants, which he first found, and which were never known before. He has shewn great judgment, and an attention which lets nothing escape unnoticed. Yet with all these great qualities, he is to be blamed for his negligence; for he did not care to write down his numerous and useful observations. His friends atLondononce obliged him to send them a short account of one of his travels, and they were very ready, with a good intention, though not with sufficient judgment, to get this account printed.[114]But this book, did Mr.Bartrammore harm than good; for as he is rather backward in writing down what he knows, this publication was found to contain but few new observations. It would not however be doing justice to Mr.Bartram’s merit, if it were to be judged of by this performance. He has not filled it with a thousandth part of the great knowledge, which he has acquired in natural philosophy and history, especially in regard toNorth America. I have often been at a loss to think of the sources, from whence he got many things which came to his knowledge. I likewise owe him many things, for he possessed that great quality of communicating every thing he knew. I shall therefore in the sequel, frequently mention this gentleman. For I should never forgive myself, if I were to omit the name of the first inventor, and claim that as my own invention, which I learnt from another person.ManyMuscle shells, orMytili anatini, are to be met with on the north-west side of the town in the clay-pits, which were at present filled with water from a little brook in the neighbourhood. These muscles seem to have been washed into that place by the tide, when the water in the brook was high. For these clay-pits are not old, but were[115]lately made. Poor boys sometimes go out of town, wade in the water, and gather great quantities of these shells, which they sell very easily, they being reckoned a dainty.TheVirginian Azarolewith a red fruit, orLinnæus’sCratægus Crus galli, is a species of hawthorn, and they plant it in hedges, for want of that hawthorn, which is commonly used for this purpose inEurope. Its berries are red, and of the same size, shape, and taste with those of our hawthorn. Yet this tree does not seem to make a good hedge, for its leaves were already fallen, whilst other trees still preserved theirs. Its spines are very long and sharp; their length being two or three inches. These spines are applied to some inconsiderable use. Each berry contains two stones.Mr.Bartramassured me, that theNorth Americanoak, cannot resist putrefaction for near such a space of time, as theEuropean. For this reason, the boats (which carry all sorts of goods down from the upper parts of the country) upon the riverHudson, which is one of the greatest in these parts, are made of two kinds of wood. That part which must always be under water, is made of black oak; but[116]the upper part, which is now above and now under water, and is therefore more exposed to putrefaction, is made of red cedar orJuniperus Virginiana, which is reckoned the most hardy wood in the country. The bottom is made of black oak, because that wood is very tough. For the river being full of stones, and the boats frequently running against them, the black oak gives way, and therefore does not easily crack. But the cedar would not do for this purpose; because it is hard and brittle. The oak likewise is not so much attacked by putrefaction, when it is always kept under water.In autumn, I could always get good pears here; but every body acknowledged, that this fruit would not succeed well in the country.All my observations and remarks on the qualities of theRattle-snake, are inserted in the Memoirs of theSwedishAcademy of Sciences, for the year 1752, p. 316, and for the year 1753, p. 54, and thither I refer the reader.17Bearsare very numerous higher up in the country, and do much mischief. Mr.Bartramtold me, that when a bear catches[117]a cow, kills her in the following manner: he bites a hole into the hide, and blows with all his power into it, till the animal swells excessively and dies; for the air expands greatly between the flesh and the hide.18An oldSwedecalledNils Gustave’sson, who was ninety-one years of age, said, that in his youth, the bears had been very frequent hereabouts, but that they had seldom attacked the cattle: that whenever a bear was killed, its flesh was prepared like pork, and that it had a very good taste. And the flesh of bears is still prepared like ham, on the riverMorris. The environs ofPhiladelphia, and even the whole province ofPensylvaniain general contain very few bears, they having been extirpated by degrees. InVirginiathey kill them in several different ways. Their flesh is eaten by both rich and poor, since it is reckoned equal in goodness to pork. In[118]some parts of this province, where no hogs can be kept on account of the great numbers of bears, the people are used to catch and kill them, and to use them instead of hogs. TheAmericanbears however, are said to be less fierce and dangerous, than theEuropeanones.Septemberthe 26th. The broad plantain, orPlantago major, grows on the highroads, foot paths, meadows, and in gardens in great plenty. Mr.Bartramhad found this plant in many places on his travels, but he did not know whether it was an originalAmericanplant, or whether theEuropeanshad brought it over. This doubt had its rise from the savages (who always had an extensive knowledge of the plants of the country) pretending that this plant never grew here before the arrival of theEuropeans., They therefore give it a name which signifies, theEnglishman’sfoot, for they say that where aEuropeanhad walked, there this plant grew in his foot steps.TheChenopodium album, orGoosefootwith sinuated leaves, grows in plenty in the gardens. But it is more scarce near the houses, in the streets, on dunghills and corn-fields. This seems to shew, that it is not a native ofAmerica, but has been brought over amongst other seeds fromEurope. In the[119]same manner it is thought that theTansey(Tanacetum vulgare, Linn.) which grows here and there in the hedges, on the roads, and near houses, was produced fromEuropeanseeds.Thecommon vervain, with blue flowers, orverbena officinalis, was shewn to me by Mr.Bartram, not far from his house in a little plain nearPhiladelphia. It was the only place where he had found it inAmerica. And for this reason I suppose it was likewise sown here amongst otherEuropeanseeds.Mr.Bartramwas at this time-building a house inPhiladelphia, and had sunk a cellar to a considerable depth, the soil of which was thrown out. I here observed the following strata. The upper loose soil was only half a foot deep, and of a dark brown colour. Under it was a stratum of clay so much blended with sand, that it was in greater quantity than the clay itself; and this stratum was eight feet deep. These were both brick coloured. The next stratum consisted of little pebbles mixed with a coarse sand. The stones consisted either of aclear, or of adark Quartz;19they were[120]quite smooth and roundish on the outside, and lay in a stratum which was a foot deep. Then the brick-coloured clay mixed with sand appeared again. But the depth of this stratum could not be determined. Query, could the river formerly have reached to this place and formed these strata?Mr.Bartramhas not only frequently found oyster-shells in the ground, but likewise met with such shells and snails, as undoubtedly belong to the sea, at the distance of a hundred and moreEnglishmiles from the shore. He has even found them on the ridge of mountains which separate theEnglishplantations from the habitations of the savages. These mountains which theEnglishcall theblue mountains, are of considerable height, and extend, in one continued chain from north to south, or fromCanadatoCarolina. Yet in some places they have gaps, which are as it were broke through, to afford a passage for the great rivers, which roll down into the lower country.TheCassia Chamæcristagrew on the roads the woods, and sometimes[121]on uncultivated fields, especially when shrubs grew in them. Its leaves are like those of theSensitive plant, orMimosa, and have likewise the quality of contracting when touched, in common with the leaves of the latter.TheCrowsin this country are little different from our common crows inSweden. Their size is the same with that of our crows, and they are as black as jet in every part of their body. I saw them flying to day in great numbers together. Their voice is not quite like that of our crows, but has rather more of the cry of the rook, orLinnæus’sCorvus frugilegus.Mr.Bartramrelated, that on his journeys to the northernEnglishcolonies, he had discovered great holes in the mountains on the banks of rivers, which according to his description, must exactly have been suchgiants pots,20as are to be met with inSweden, and which I have described in a particular dissertation read in the RoyalSwedishAcademy of Sciences. Mr.Bartramhas likewise addressed some letters to the Royal Society atLondonupon this subject. For[122]some people pretended, that these holes were made by the savages, that they might in time of war hide their corn and other valuable effects in them. But he wrote against this opinion, and accounted for the origin of these cavities in the following manner. When the ice settles, many pebbles stick in it. In spring when the snow melts, the water in the rivers swells so high that it reaches above the place where these holes are now found in the mountains. The ice therefore will of course float as high. And then it often happens, that the pebbles which were contained in it, ever since autumn when it first settled on the banks of the river, fall out of the ice upon the rocky bank, and are from thence carried into a cleft or crack by the water. These pebbles are then continually turned about by the water, which comes in upon them, and by this means they gradually form the hole. The water at the same time polishes the stone by its circular motion round it, and helps to make the hole or cavity round. It is certain that by this turning and tossing, the stone is at last unfit for this purpose; but the river throws commonly every spring other stones instead of it into the cavity, and they are turned round in the same manner. By this whirling both the mountain[123]and the stone afford either a fine or a coarse sand, which is washed away by the water when in spring, or at other times it is high enough to throw its waves into the cavity. This was the opinion of Mr.Bartramabout the origin of these cavities. The Royal Society of Sciences atLondon, has given a favourable reception to, and approved of them.21The remarks which I made in the summer of the year 1743, during my stay atLand’s-Ort, in my country, will prove that I was at that time of the same opinion, in regard to these holes. I have since further explained this opinion in a letter to the Royal Academy of Sciences; and this letter is still preserved in the Academy’s Memoirs, which have not yet been published. But there is great reason to doubt, whether all cavities of this kind in mountains, have the same origin.Here are different species ofMulberry trees, which grow wild in the forests ofnorthandsouth America. In these parts the red mulberry trees are more plentiful than any other. However Mr.Bartramassured me that he had likewise seen the[124]white mulberry trees growing wild, but that they were more scarce. I asked him and several other people of this country, why they did not set up silk manufactures, having such a quantity of mulberries, which succeed so easily? For it has been observed that when the berries fall upon the ground where it is not compact but loose, they soon put out several fine delicate shoots. But they replied that it would not be worth while to erect any silk manufactures here, because labour is so dear. For a man gets from eighteen pence to three shillings and upwards, for one day’s work, and the women are paid in proportion. They were therefore of opinion that the cultivation of all sorts of corn, of hemp, and of flax, would be of greater advantage, and that at the same time it did not require near so much care as the feeding of silk worms. By the trials of a governor inConnecticut, which is a more northern province thanNew York, it is evident however, that silk worms succeed very well here, and that this kind of mulberry trees is very good for them. The governor brought up a great quantity of silk worms in his court yard; and they succeeded so well, and spun so much silk, as to afford him a sufficient quantity for cloathing himself and all his family.[125]Several sorts ofVineslikewise grow wild hereabouts. Whenever I made a little excursion out of town, I saw them in numerous places climbing up trees and hedges. They clasp around them, and cover them sometimes entirely, and even hang down on the sides. This has the same appearance at a distance, as the tendrils of hops climbing along trees. I enquired of Mr.Bartramwhy they did not plant vineyards, or press wine from the grapes of the wild vine. But they answered, that the same objection lay against it, which lies against the erection of a silk manufacture, that the necessary hands were too scarce, and it therefore was more rational to make agriculture their chief employment. But the true reason undoubtedly is, that the wine which is pressed out of most of theNorth Americanwild grapes is sour and sharp, and has not near such an agreeable taste, as that which is made fromEuropeangrapes.TheVirginian Wake robin, orArum Virginicum, grows in wet places. Mr.Bartramtold me, that the savages boiled thespadixand the berries of this flower, and devoured it as a great dainty. When the berries are raw, they have a harsh, pungent[126]taste, which they lose in great measure upon boiling.TheSarothra Gentianoides, grows abundantly in the fields and under the bushes, in a dry sandy ground nearPhiladelphia. It looks extremely like our whortleberry bushes when they first begin to green, and when the points of the leaves are yet red. Mr.Bartramhas sent this plant to Dr.Dillenius, but that gentleman did not know where he should range it. It is reckoned a very good traumatic, and this quality Mr.Bartramhimself experienced; for being thrown and kicked by a vicious horse, in such a manner as to have both his thighs greatly hurt, he boiled theSarothraand applied it to his wounds. It not only immediately appeased his pain, which before had been very violent, but he likewise by its assistance recovered in a short time.Having read in Mr.Miller’sBotanical Dictionary, that Mr.Peter Collinsonhad a particularLarch treefromAmericain his garden, I asked Mr.Bartramwhether he was acquainted with it, he answered, that he had sent it himself to Mr.Collinson, that it only grew in the eastern parts ofNew Jersey, and that he had met with it in no otherEnglishplantation. It differs from the other species ofLarch trees, its[127]cones being much less. I afterwards saw this tree in great plenty inCanada.Mr.Bartramwas of opinion, that the apple tree was brought intoAmericaby theEuropeans, and that it never was there before their arrival. But he looked upon peaches as an originalAmericanfruit, and as growing wild in the greatest part ofAmerica. Others again were of opinion, that they were first brought over by theEuropeans. But all theFrenchinCanadaagreed, that on the banks of the riverMissisippiand in the country thereabouts peaches were found growing wild in great quantity.22Septemberthe 27th. The tree which theEnglishhere callPersimon, is theDiospyros VirginianaofLinnæus. It grows for the greatest part in wet places, round the water pits. I have already mentioned that the fruits of this tree are extremely bitter and sharp before they are quite ripe, and that being eaten in that state they quite[128]contract ones mouth, and have a very disagreeable taste. But as soon as they are ripe, which does not happen till they have been quite softened by the frost, they are a very agreeable fruit. They are here eaten raw, and seldom any other way. But in a great book, which contains a description ofVirginia, you meet with different ways of preparing thePersimon, under the article of that name. Mr.Bartram, related that they were commonly put upon the table amongst the sweet-meats, and that some people made a tolerably good wine of them. Some of these Persimon fruits were dropped on the ground in his garden, and were almost quite ripe, having been exposed to a great degree of the heat of the sun. We picked up a few and tasted them, and I must own that those who praised this fruit as an agreeable one, have but done it justice. It really deserves a place among the most palatable fruit of this country, when the frost has thoroughly conquered its acrimony.TheVerbascum Thapsus, orgreat white Mullein, grows in great quantity on roads, in hedges, on dry fields, and high meadows of a ground mixed with sand. TheSwedeshere call it thetobacco of the savages, but owned, that they did not know whether[129]or no the Indians really used this plant instead of tobacco. TheSwedesare used to tie the leaves round their feet and arms, when they have the ague. Some of them prepared a tea from the leaves, for the dysentery. ASwedelikewise told me, that a decoction of the roots was injected into the wounds of the cattle which are full of worms, which killed these worms, and made them fall out.23Septemberthe 28th. The meadows which are surrounded by wood, and were at present mown, have a fine lively verdure. On the contrary when they lie on hills, or in open fields, or in some elevated situation, especially so that the sun may be able to act upon them without any obstacles, their grass looks brown and dry. Several people fromVirginiatold me, that on account of the great heat and drought, the meadows and pastures almost always had a brown colour, and looked as if they were burnt. The inhabitants of those parts do not therefore enjoy the pleasure which aEuropean[130]feels at the sight of our verdant, odoriferous meadows.TheAmerican Nightshade, or thePhytolacca decandra, grows abundantly in the fields, and under the trees, on little hills. Its black berries are now ripe. We observed to day some little birds with a blue plumage, and of the size of ourHortulansandYellow Hammers(Emberiza CitrinellaandEmberiza Hortulanus) flying down from the trees, in order to settle upon the nightshade and eat its berries.Towards night I went to Mr.Bartram’s country seat.Septemberthe 29th. TheGnaphalium margaritaceum, grows in astonishing quantities upon all uncultivated fields, glades, hills, and the like. Its height is different according to its different soil and situation. Sometimes it is very ramose, and sometimes very little. It has a strong, but agreeable smell. TheEnglishcall itLife everlasting; for its flowers, which consist chiefly of dry, shining, silvery leaves (Folia calycina) do not change when dried. This plant is now every where in full blossom. But some have already lost the flowers, and are beginning to drop the seeds. TheEnglishladies were used to gather great quantities of thisLife everlasting, and to pluck them[131]with the stalks. For they put them into pots with or without water, amongst other fine flowers which they had gathered both in the gardens and in the fields, and placed them as an ornament in the rooms. TheEnglishladies in general are much inclined to have fine flowers all the summer long, in or upon the chimneys, sometimes upon a table, or before the windows, either on account of their fine appearance, or for the sake of their sweet scent. TheGnaphaliumabove-mentioned, was one of those, which they kept in their rooms during the winter, because its flowers never altered from what they were when they stood in the ground. Mr.Bartramtold me another use of this plant. A decoction of the flowers and stalks is used to bathe any pained or bruised part, or it is rubbed with the plant itself tied up in a bag.Instead of flax several people made use of a kind ofDog’sbane, orLinnæus’sApocynum cannabinum. The people prepared the stalks of this plant, in the same manner as we prepare those of hemp or flax. It was spun and several kinds of stuffs were woven from it. The savages are said to have had the art of making bags, fishing-nets, and the like, for many centuries together, before the arrival of theEuropeans.[132]I asked Mr.Bartram, whether he had observed in his travels, that the water was fallen, and that the sea had formerly covered any places which were now land. He told me, that from what he had experienced, he was convinced that the greatest part of this country, even for several miles together, had formerly been under water. The reasons which led him to give credit to this opinion, were the following.1. On digging in the blue mountains, which are above three hundredEnglishmiles distant from the sea, you find loose oyster and other sorts of shells, and they are also likewise to be met with in the vallies formed by these mountains.2. A vast quantity of petrified shells are found in limestone, flint, and sandstone, on the same mountains. Mr.Bartramassured me at the same time, that it was incredible what quantities of them there were in the different kinds of stones of which the mountains consist.3. The same shells are likewise dug in great quantity, quite entire and not mouldered, in the provinces ofVirginiaandMaryland, as also inPhiladelphiaand inNew York.4. On digging wells (not only inPhiladelphia, but likewise in other places) the[133]people have met with trees, roots, and leaves of oak, for the greatest part, not yet rotten, at the depth of eighteen feet.5. The best soil and the richest mould is to be met with in the vallies hereabouts. These vallies are commonly crossed by a rivulet or brook. And on their declivity, a mountain commonly rises, which in those places where the brook passes close to it, looks as if it were cut on purpose. Mr.Bartrambelieved, that all these vallies formerly were lakes; that the water had by degrees hollowed out the mountain, and opened a passage for itself through it; and that the great quantity of slime which is contained in the water, and which had subsided to the bottom of the lake, was the rich soil which is at present in the vallies, and the cause of their great fertility. But such vallies and cloven mountains are very frequent in the country, and of this kind is the peculiar gap between two mountains, through which a river takes its course or boundaries ofNew YorkandPennsylvania. The people in a jest say, that this opening by the D—l, as he wanted to go out ofPennsylvaniaintoNew York.6. The whole appearance of the blue mountains, plainly shews that the water[134]formerly covered at part of them. For many are broken in a peculiar manner, but the highest are plain.7. When the savages are told, that shells are found on these high mountains, and that from thence there is reason to believe that the sea must formerly have extended to them, and even in part flown over them; they answer that this is not new to them, they having a tradition from their ancestors among them, that the sea formerly surrounded these mountains.8. The water in rivers and brooks likewise decreases. Mills, which sixty years ago were built on rivers, and at that time had a sufficient supply of water almost all the year long, have at present so little, that they cannot be used, but after a heavy rain, or when the snow melts in spring. This decrease of water in part arises from the great quantity of land which is now cultivated, and from the extirpation of great forests for that purpose.9. The sea-shore increases likewise in time. This arises from the quantity of sand continually thrown on shore from the bottom of the sea, by the waves.Mr.Bartramthought that some peculiar attention should be paid to another thing relating to these observations. The shells[135]which are to be found petrified on the northern mountains, are of such kinds as at present are not to be got in the sea, in the same latitude, and they are not fished on the shore, till you come toSouth Carolina. Mr.Bartramfrom hence took an occasion to defend Dr.Thomas Burnet’s opinion, that the earth before the deluge was in a different position towards the sun. He likewise asked whether the great bones which are sometimes found in the ground in Siberia, and which are supposed to be elephant’s bones and tusks, did not confirm this opinion. For at present those animals cannot live in such cold countries; but if according to Dr.Burnet, the sun once formed different zones about our earth, from those it now makes, the elephant may easily be supposed to have lived inSiberia.24However it[136]seems that all which we have hitherto mentioned, may have been the effect of different causes. To those belong the universal deluge, the increase of land which is merely[137]the work of time, and the changes of the course of rivers, which when the snow melts and in great floods, leave their first beds, and form new ones.At some distance from Mr.Bartram’s country house, a little brook flowed through the wood, and likewise ran over a rock. The attentive Mr.Bartramhere shewed me several little cavities in the rock, and we plainly saw that they must have been generated in the manner I before described, that is, by supposing a pebble to have remained in a cleft of the rock, and to have been turned round by the violence of the water, till it had formed such cavity in the mountain. For on putting our hands into one of these cavities, we found that it contained numerous small pebbles, whose surface was quite smooth and round. And these stones we found in each of the holes.Mr.Bartramshewed me a number of[138]plants which he had collected into a herbal on his travels. Among these were the following, which likewise grow in the northern parts ofEurope, of which he had either got the whole plants, or only broken branches.1.Betula alba.Thecommon birch tree, which he had found on thecats-hills.2.Betula nana.This species of birch grows in several low places towards the hills.3.Comarum palustre, in the meadows, between the hills inNew Jersey.4.Gentiana lutea, the greatGentian, from the fields near the mountains. It was very like our variety, but had not so many flowers under each leaf.5.Linnæa borealis, from the mountains inCanada. It creeps along the ground.6.Myrica Gale, from the neighbourhood of the riverSusquehanna, where it grows in a wet soil.7.Potentilla fruticosa, from the swampy fields and low meadows, between the riverDelaware, and the riverNew York.8.Trientalis Europæa, from thecats-hills.9.Triglochin maritimum, from the salt springs towards the country of the five nations.[139]Mr.Bartramshewed me a letter fromEast Jersey, in which he got the following account of the discovery of an Indian grave. In theAprilof the year 1744, as some people were digging a cellar, they came upon a great stone, like a tombstone, which was at last got out with great difficulty, and about four feet deeper under it, they met with a large quantity of human bones and a cake of maize. The latter was yet quite untouched, and several of the people present tasted it out of curiosity. From these circumstances it was concluded that this was a grave of a person of note among the savages. For it is their custom to bury along with the deceased, meat any other things which he liked best. The stone was eight feet long, four feet broad, and even some inches more where it was broadest, and fifteen inches thick at one end, but only twelve inches at the other end. It consisted of the same coarse kind of stone, that is to be got in this country. There were no letters nor other characters visible on it.The corn which theIndianschiefly cultivate is theMaize, orZea Mays,Linn.Then have little corn fields for that purpose. But besides this, they likewise plant a great quantity ofSquashes, a species of[140]pumpions or melons, which they have always cultivated, even in the remotest ages. TheEuropeanssettled inAmerica, got the seeds of this plant, and at present their gardens are full of it, the fruit has an agreeable taste when it is well prepared. They are commonly boiled, then crushed (as we are used to do with turneps when we make apulseof them) and some pepper or other spice thrown upon them, and the dish is ready. The Indians likewise sow several kinds of beans, which for the greatest part they have got from theEuropeans. But pease which they likewise sow, they have always had amongst them, before any foreigners came into the country. The squashes of the Indians, which now are likewise cultivated by theEuropeans, belong to those kinds of gourds (cucurbita,) which ripen before any other. They are a very delicious fruit, but will not keep. I have however seen them kept till pretty laid In winter.Septemberthe 30th. Wheat and rye are sown in autumn about this time, and commonly reaped towards the end ofJune, or in the beginning ofJuly. These kinds of corn, however, are sometimes ready to be reaped in the middle ofJune, and there are even examples that they have been[141]mown in the beginning of that month. Barley and oats are sown inApril, and they commonly begin to grow ripe towards the end ofJuly. Buck-wheat is sown in the middle or at the end ofJuly, and is about this time, or somewhat later, ready to be reaped. If it be sown before the above-mentioned time, as inMay, or inJune, it only gives flowers, and little or no corn.Mr.Bartramand other people assured me, that most of the cows which theEnglishhave here, are the offspring of those which they bought of theSwedeswhen they were masters of the country. TheEnglishthemselves are said to have brought over but few. TheSwedeseither brought their cattle from home, or bought them of theDutch, who were then settled here.Near the town, I saw anIvyorHedera Helix, planted against the wall of a stone building, which was so covered by the fine green leaves of this plant, as almost to conceal the whole. It was doubtless brought over fromEurope, for I have never perceived it any where else on my travels throughNorth-America. But in its stead I have often seen wild vines made to run up the walls.I asked Mr.Bartram, whether he had[142]observed, that trees and plants decreased in proportion as they were brought further to theNorth, asCatesbypretends? He answered, that the question should be more limited, and then his opinion would prove the true one. There are some trees which grow better in southern countries, and become less as you advance to the north. Their seeds or berries are sometimes brought into colder climates by birds and by other accidents. They gradually decrease in growth, till at last they will not grow at all. On the other hand, there are other trees and herbs which the wise Creator destined for the northern countries, and they grow there to an amazing size. But the further they are transplanted to the south, the less they grow; till at last they degenerate so much as not to be able to grow at all. Other plants love a temperate climate, and if they be carried either south or north, they will not succeed well, but always decrease. Thus for examplePensylvaniacontains some trees which grow exceedingly well, but always decrease in proportion as they are carried further off either to the north, or to the south.I afterwards on my travels, had frequent proofs of this truth. TheSassafras, which grows inPensylvania, under[143]forty deg. of lat. and becomes a pretty tall and thick tree, was so little atOswegoandFort Nicholson, between forty-three. and forty-four deg. of lat. that it hardly reached the height of two or four feet, and was seldom so thick as the little finger of a full grown person. This was likewise the case with theTulip tree. For inPensylvaniait grows as high as our tallest oaks and firs, and its thickness is proportionable to its height. But aboutOswegoit was not above twelve feet high, and no thicker than a man’s arm. TheSugar Maple, orAcer saccharinum, is one of the most common trees in the woods ofCanada, and grows very tall. But in the southern provinces, asNew JerseyandPensylvania, it only grows on the northern side of the blue mountains, and on the steep hills which are on the banks of the river, and which are turned to the north. Yet there it does not attain to a third or fourth part of the height which it has inCanada. It is needless to mention more examples.Octoberthe 1st. The gnats which are very troublesome at night here, are calledMusquetoes. They are exactly like the gnats inSweden, only somewhat less, and the description which is to be met with in Dr.Linnæus’sSystema Naturæ, andFauna[144]Suecica, fully agrees with them, and they are called by himCulex pipiens. In day time or at night they come into the houses, and when the people are gone to bed they begin their disagreeable humming, approach always nearer to the bed, and at last suck up so much blood, that they can hardly fly away. Their bite causes blisters in people of a delicate complexion. When the weather has been cool for some days, the musquetoes disappear. But when it changes again, and especially after a rain, they gather frequently in such quantities about the houses, that their numbers are astonishing. The chimneys of theEnglishwhich have no valves for shutting them up, afford the gnats a free entrance into the houses. In sultry evenings, they accompany the cattle in great swarms, from the woods to the houses or to town, and when they are drove before the houses, the gnats fly in wherever they can. In the greatest heat of summer, they are so numerous in some places, that the air seems to be quite full of them, especially near swamps and stagnant waters, such as the riverMorrisinNew Jersey. The inhabitants therefore make a fire before their houses to expell these disagreeableguestsby the smoak. The oldSwedeshere, said that gnats had formerly been[145]much more numerous; that even at present they swarmed in vast quantities on the sea shore near the salt water, and that those which troubled us this autumn inPhiladelphiawere of a more venomous kind, than they commonly used to be. This last quality appeared from the blisters, which were formed on the spots, where the gnats had inserted their sting. InSwedenI never felt any other inconvenience from their sting, than a little itching; whilst they sucked. But when they stung me here at night, my face was so disfigured by little red spots and blisters, that I was almost ashamed to shew myself.I have already mentioned somewhat about the enclosures usual here; I now add, that most of the planks which are put horizontally, and of which the enclosures in the environs ofPhiladelphiachiefly consist, are of the red cedar wood, which is here reckoned more durable than any other. But where this could not be got, either white or black oak supplied its place. The people were likewise very glad if they could get cedar wood for the posts, or else they took white oak, or chesnut, as I was told by Mr.Bartram. But it seems that that kind of wood in general does not keep well in the ground for a considerable time. I[146]saw some posts made of chesnut wood, and put into the ground only the year before, which were already for the greatest part rotten below.TheSassafras tree, orLaurus Sassafras,Linn.grows in abundance in the country, and stands scattered up and down the woods, and near bushes and enclosures. On old grounds, which are left uncultivated, it is one of the first that comes up, and is as plentiful as young birches are on thoseSwedishfields, which are formed by burning the trees which grew on them.25The sassafras grows in a dry loose ground, of a pale brick colour, which consists for the greatest part of sand, mixed with some clay. It seems to be but a poor soil. The mountains roundGothenburgh, inSweden, would afford many places rich enough for theSassafrasto grow in, and I even fear they would be too rich. I here saw it both in the woods amidst other trees, and more frequently by itself along the enclosures.[147]In both it looks equally fresh. I have never seen it on wet or low places. The people here gather its flowers, and use them instead of tea. But the wood itself is of no use in œconomy; for when it is set on fire, it causes a continual crackling, without making any good fire. The tree spreads its roots very much, and new shoots come up from them in some places; but these shoots are not good for transplanting, because they have so few fibres besides the root, which connects them to the main stem, that they cannot well strike into the ground. If therefore any one would plantSassafrastrees he must endeavour to get their berries, which however is difficult, since the birds eat them before they are half ripe. The cows are very greedy after the tender new shoots, and look for them every where.The bark of this tree is used by the women here in dying worsted a fine lasting orange colour, which does not fade in the sun. They use urine instead of alum in dying, and boil the dye in a brass boiler, because in an iron vessel it does not yield so fine a colour. A woman inVirginiahas successfully employed the berries of the Sassafras against a great pain in one of her feet, which for three years together she had to such a degree, that it almost hindered[148]her from walking. She was advised to broil the berries of sassafras, and to rub the painful parts of her foot with the oil, which by this means would be got from the berries. She did so, but at the same time it made her vomit; yet this was not sufficient to keep her from following the prescription three times more, though as often as she made use thereof, it always had the same effect. However she was entirely freed from that pain, and perfectly recovered.A blackWoodpeckerwith a red head, or thePicus pileatus,Linn.is frequent in thePensylvanianforests, and stays the winter, as I know from my own experience. It is reckoned among those birds which destroy the maize; because it settles on the ripe ears, and destroys them with its bill. TheSwedescall itTillkroka, but all other woodpeckers, those with gold yellow wings excepted, are calledHackspickarin theSwedishlanguage. I intend to describe them altogether more exactly in a particular work. I only observe here, that almost all the different species of woodpeckers are very noxious to the maize, when it begins to ripen: for by picking holes in the membrane round the ear, the rain gets into it, and causes the ear with all the corn it contains to rot.[149]Octoberthe 3d. In the morning I set out forWilmington, which was formerly calledChristinaby theSwedes, and is thirtyEnglishmiles to the south west ofPhiladelphia. Three miles behindPhiladelphiaI passed the riverSkulkillin a ferry, beyond which the country appears almost a continual chain of mountains and vallies. The mountains have an easy slope on all sides, and the vallies are commonly crossed by brooks with crystal streams. The greater part of the country is covered with several kinds of deciduous trees; for I scarcely saw a single tree of the fir kind, if I except a few red cedars. The forest was high, but open below, so that it left a free prospect to the eye, and no under-wood obstructed the passage between the trees. It would have been easy in some places to have gone under the branches with a carriage for a quarter of a mile, the trees standing at great distances from each other, and the ground being very level. In some places little glades opened, which were either meadows, pastures, or corn-fields; of which latter some were cultivated and others not. In a few places, several houses were built close to each other. But for the greatest part they were single. In part of the fields the wheat was already sown, in theEnglish[150]manner without trenches, but with furrows pretty close together. I sometimes saw the country people very busy in sowing their rye. Near every farm-house was a little field with maize. The inhabitants hereabouts were commonly eitherEnglishorSwedes.All the day long I saw a continual variety of trees; walnut trees of different sorts, which were all full of nuts; chesnut trees quite covered with fine chesnuts; mulberries, sassafras, liquidambar, tulip trees, and many others.Several species of vines grew wild hereabouts. They run up to the summits of the trees, their clusters of grapes and their leaves covering the stems. I even saw some young oaks five or six fathoms high, whose tops were crowned with vines. The ground is that which is so common hereabouts, which I have already described, viz. a clay mixed with a great quantity of sand, and covered with a rich soil or vegetable earth. The vines are principally seen on trees which stand single in corn-fields, and at the end of woods, where the meadows, pastures, and fields begin, and likewise along the enclosures, where they cling with their tendrils round the trees which stand there. The lower parts of the plant are[151]full of grapes, which hang below the leaves, and were now almost ripe, and had a pleasant sourish taste. The country people gather them in great quantities, and sell them in the town. They are eaten without further preparation, and commonly people are presented with them when they come to pay a visit.The soil does not seem to be deep hereabouts; for the upper black stratum is hardly two inches. This I had an occasion to see both in such places where the ground is dug up, and in such where the water, during heavy flowers of rain, has made cuts, which are pretty numerous here. The upper soil has a dark colour, and the next a pale colour like bricks. I have observed everywhere inAmerica, that the depth of the upper soil does not by far agree with the computation of some people, though we can almost be sure, that in some places it never was stirred since the deluge. I shall be more particular in this respect afterwards.26[152]TheDatura Stramonium, orThorn Apple, grows in great quantities near all the villages. Its height is different according to the soil it is in. For in a rich soil it[153]grows eight or ten feet high, but in a hard and poor ground, it will seldom come up to six inches. ThisDatura, together with thePhytolacca, orAmerican Nightshade, grow here in those places near the gardens,[154]houses, and roads, which inSwedenare covered with nettles and goose-foot, whichEuropeanplants are very scarce inAmerica. But theDaturaandPhytolaccaare the worst weeds here, nobody knowing any particular use of them.Turnep-fields are sometimes to be seen. In the middle of the highroad I perceived a dead black snake, which was four feet six inches long, and an inch and a half in thickness. It belonged to the viper kind.
The quadruped, which Dr.Linnæusin[97]the memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences, has described by the name ofUrsus cauda elongata, and which he callsUrsus Lotor, in hisSystema Naturæ, is here calledRaccoon. It is found very frequently, and destroys many chickens. It is hunted by dogs, and when it runs upon a tree to save itself, a man climbs upon the tree after it, and shakes it down to the ground, where the dogs kill it. The flesh is eaten, and is reputed to taste well. The bone of its male parts is made use of for a tobacco-stopper. The hatters purchase their skins, and make hats out of the hair, which are next in goodness to beavers. The tail is worn round the neck in winter, and therefore is likewise valuable. TheRaccoonis frequently the food of snakes.SomeEnglishmenasserted that near the riverPotomackinVirginia, a great quantity of oyster shells were to be met with, and that they themselves had seen whole mountains of them. The place where they are found is said to be about twoEnglishmiles distant from the sea-shore. The proprietor of that ground burns lime out of them. This stratum of oyster-shells is two fathom and more deep. Such quantities of shells have likewise been found in other places, especially inNew York, on digging in the[98]ground; and in one place, at the distance of someEnglishmiles from the sea, avast quantity of oyster-shells, and of other shells was found. Some people conjectured that the natives had formerly lived in that place, and had left the shells of the oysters which they had consumed, in such great heaps. But others could not conceive how it happened that they were thrown in such immense quantities all into one place.Every one is of opinion that theAmericansavages were a very good-natured people, if they were not attacked. No body is so strict in keeping his word as a savage. If any one of their allies come to visit them, they shew him more kindness, and greater endeavours to serve him, than he could have expected from his own countrymen. Mr.Cockgave me the following relation, as a proof of their integrity. About two years ago, anEnglishmerchant travelling amongst the savages, in order to sell them necessaries, and to buy other goods, was secretly killed, without the murderer’s being found out. But about a year after, the savages found out the guilty person amongst themselves. They immediately took him up, bound his hands on his back, and thus sent him with a guard to the governor atPhiladelphia, and sent him word, that they could[99]no longer acknowledge this wretch (who had been so wicked towards anEnglishman) as their countryman, and therefore would have nothing more to do with him, and that they delivered him up to the governor, to be punished for his villainy as the laws ofEnglanddirect. This Indian was afterwards hanged atPhiladelphia.Their good natural parts are proved by the following account, which many people have given me as a true one. When they send their ambassadors to theEnglishcolonies, in order to settle things of consequence with the governor, they sit down on the ground, as soon as they come to his audience, and hear with great attention the governor’s demands which they are to make an answer to. His demands are sometimes many. Yet they have only a stick in their hand, and make their marks on it with a knife, without writing any thing else down. But when they return the next day to give in their resolutions, they answer all the governor’s articles in the same order, in which he delivered them, without leaving one out, or changing the order, and give such accurate answers, as if they had an account of them at full length in writing.Mr.Sleidornrelated another story, which gave me great pleasure. He said he had[100]been atNew York, and had found a venerable oldAmericansavage amongst several others in an inn. This old man began to talk withSleidornas soon as the liquor was getting the better of his head, and boasted that he could write and read inEnglish.Sleidorntherefore desired leave to ask a question, which the old man readily granted.Sleidornthen asked him, whether he knew who was first circumcised? and the old man immediately answered,Father Abraham; but at the same time asked leave to propose a question in his turn, whichSleidorngranted; the old man then said, who was the first quaker?Sleidornsaid it was uncertain, that some took one person for it, and some another; but the cunning old fellow told him, you are mistaken, sir;Mordecaiwas the first quaker, for he would not take off his hat toHaman. Many of the savages, who are yet heathens, are said to have some obscure notion of the deluge. But I am convinced from my own experience, that they are not at all acquainted with it.I met with people here who maintained that giants had formerly lived in these parts, and the following particulars confirmed them in this opinion. A few years ago some people digging in the ground, met with a grave which contained human bones of an[101]astonishing size. TheTibiais said to have been fourteen feet long, and theos femoristo have measured as much. The teeth are likewise said to have been of a size proportioned to the rest, But more bones of this kind have not yet been found. Persons skilled in anatomy, who have seen these bones, have declared that they were human bones. One of the teeth has been sent toHamburgh, to a person who collected natural curiosities. Among the savages, in the neighbourhood of the place where the bones were found, there is an account handed down through many generations from fathers to children, that in this neighbourhood, on the banks of a river, there lived a very tall and strong man, in ancient times, who carried the people over the river on his back, and waded in the water, though it was very deep. Every body to whom he did this service gave him some maize, some skins of animals, or the like. In fine he got his livelyhood by this means, and was as it were the ferryman of those who wanted to pass the river.The soil here consists for the greatest part of sand, which is more or less mixed with clay. Both the sand and the clay, are of the colour of pale bricks. To judge by[102]appearance the ground was none of the best; and this conjecture was verified by the inhabitants of the country. When a corn-field has been obliged to bear the same kind of corn for three years together, it does not after that produce any thing at all if it be not well manured, or fallowed for some years. Manure is very difficult to be got, and therefore people rather leave the field uncultivated. In that interval it is covered with all sorts of plants and trees; and the countryman in the mean while, cultivates a piece of ground which has till then been fallow, or he chuses a part of the ground which has never been ploughed before, and he can in both cases be pretty sure of a plentiful crop. This method can here be used with great convenience. For the soil is loose, so that it can easily be ploughed, and every countryman has commonly a great deal of land for his property. The cattle here are neither housed in winter, nor tended in the fields, and for this reason they cannot gather a sufficient quantity of dung.All the cattle has been originally brought over fromEurope. The natives have never had any, and at present few of them care to get any. But the cattle degenerates[103]by degrees here, and becomes smaller. For the cows, horses, sheep, and hogs, are all larger inEngland, though those which are brought over are of that breed. But the first generation decreases a little, and the third and fourth is of the same size with the cattle already common here. The climate, the soil, and the food, altogether contribute their share towards producing this change.It is remarkable that the inhabitants of the country, commonly sooner acquire understanding, but likewise grow sooner old than the people inEurope. It is nothing uncommon to see little children, giving sprightly and ready answers to questions that are proposed to them, so that they seem to have as much understanding as old men. But they do not attain to such an age as theEuropeans, and it is almost an unheard of thing, that a person born in this country, should live to be eighty or ninety years of age. But I only speak of theEuropeansthat settled here. For the savages, or first inhabitants, frequently attained a great age, though at present such examples are uncommon, which is chiefly attributed to the great use of brandy, which the savages have learnt of theEuropeans. Those who are born inEuropeattain a greater age here,[104]than those who are born here, ofEuropeanparents. In the last war, it plainly appeared that these newAmericanswere by far less hardy than theEuropeansin expeditions, sieges, and long sea voyages, and died in numbers. It is very difficult for them to use themselves to a climate different from their own. The women cease bearing children sooner than inEurope. They seldom or never have children, after they are forty or forty-five years old, and some leave off in the thirtieth year of their age. I enquired into the causes of this, but no one could give me a good one. Some said it was owing to the affluence in which the people live here. Some ascribed it to the inconstancy and changeableness of the weather, and believed that there hardly was a country on earth in which the weather changes so often in a day, as it does here. For if it were ever so hot, one could not be certain whether in twenty-four hours there would not be a piercing cold. Nay, sometimes the weather will change five or six times a day.The trees in this country have the same qualities as its inhabitants. For the ships which are built ofAmericanwood, are by no means equal in point of strength, to those which are built inEurope. This is[105]what nobody attempts to contradict. When a ship which is built here, has served eight or twelve years it is worth little; and if one is to be met with, which has been in use longer and is yet serviceable, it is reckoned very astonishing. It is difficult to find out the causes from whence this happens. Some lay the fault to the badness of the wood: others condemn the method of building the ships, which is to make them of trees which are yet green, and have had no time to dry. I believe both causes are joined. For I found oak, which at the utmost had been cut down about twelve years, and was covered by a hard bark. But upon taking off this bark, the wood below it was almost entirely rotten, and like flour, so that I could rub it into powder between my fingers. How much longer will not ourEuropeanoak stand before it moulders?At night we returned toPhiladelphia.Septemberthe 23d. There are noHaresin this country, but some animals, which are a medium between ourHaresandRabbets, and make a great devastation whenever they get into fields of cabbage and turneps.Many people have not been able to find out why theNorth Americanplants which are carried toEuropeand planted there, for[106]the greatest part flower so late, and do not get ripe fruit before the frost overtakes them, although it appears from several accounts of travels, that the winters inPensylvania, and more so those inNew York,New England, andCanada, are full as severe as ourSwedishwinters, and therefore are much severer than those which are felt inEngland. Several men of judgment charged me for this reason to examine and enquire into this phœnomenon with all possible care. But I shall instead of an answer, rather give a few remarks which I made upon the climate and upon the plants ofNorth America, and leave my readers at liberty to draw the conclusions themselves.1. It is true, that the winters inPensylvania, and much more those in the more northern provinces, are frequently as severe as ourSwedishwinters, and much colder than theEnglishones, or those of the southern parts ofEurope. For I found atPhiladelphia, which is above twenty deg. more southerly than several provinces inSweden, that the thermometer of professorCelsius, fell twenty-four deg. below the freezing point in winter. Yet I was assured that the winters I spent here, were none of the coldest, but only common ones, which I could likewise conclude from theDelaware’s[107]not being frozen strong enough to bear a carriage atPhiladelphiaduring my stay, though this often happens. On considering the breadth of the river which I have already mentioned in my description ofPhiladelphia, and the difference between high and low water, which is eightEnglishfeet; it will pretty plainly appear that a very intense frost is required to cover theDelawarewith such thick ice.2. But it is likewise true, that though the winters are severe here, yet they are commonly of no long duration, and I can justly say, that they do not continue above two months and sometimes even less, atPhiladelphia; and it is something very uncommon when they continue for three months together, in so much that it is put into the gazettes. Nearer the pole the winters are somewhat longer, and in the quite northern parts they are as long as theSwedishwinters. The daily meteorological observations which I have made during my stay inAmerica, and which I intend to annex at the end of each volume of this work, will give more light in this matter.3. The heat in summer is excessive, and without intermission. I own I have seen the thermometer rise to nearly the same degree atAoboinFinland. But the difference[108]is, that when the thermometer of professorCelsiusrose to thirty deg. above the freezing point once in two or three summers atAobo, the same thermometer did not only for three months together stand at the same degree, but even sometimes rose higher; not only inPensylvania, but likewise inNew York,Albany, and a great part ofCanada. During the summers which I spent atPhiladelphia, the thermometer has two or three times risen to thirty-six deg. above the freezing point. It may therefore with great certainty be said, that inPensylvaniathe greatest part ofApril, the wholeMay, and all the following months tillOctober, are like ourSwedishmonths ofJuneandJuly. So excessive and continued a heat must certainly have very great effects. I here again refer to my meteorological observations. It must likewise be ascribed to the effects of this heat that the common melons, the water melons, and the pumpions of different sorts are sown in the fields without any bells or the like put over them, and yet are ripe as early asJuly; further, that cherries are ripe atPhiladelphiaabout the 25th. ofMay, and that inPensylvaniathe wheat is frequently reaped in the middle ofJune.4. The whole ofSeptember, and half, if[109]not the whole ofOctober, are the finest months inPensylvania, for the preceding ones are too hot. But these represent ourJulyand half ofAugust. The greatest part of the plants are in flower inSeptember, and many do not begin to open their flowers before the latter end of this month. I make no doubt that the goodness of the season, which is enlivened by a clear sky, and a tolerably hot sun-shine, greatly contributes towards this last effort of Flora. Yet though these plants come out so late, they are quite ripe before the middle ofOctober. But I am not able to account for their coming up so late in autumn, and I rather ask, why do not theCentaurea Jacea, theGentiana,AmarellaandCentauriumofLinnæus, and the common golden rod, orSolidago Virgaureaflower before the end of summer? or why do the common noble liverwort, orAnemone Hepatica, the wild violets (Viola martia, Linn.) the mezereon (Daphne Mezereum, Linn.) and other plants shew their flowers so early in spring? It has pleased the Almighty Creator to give to them this disposition. The weather atPhiladelphiaduring these months, is shewn by my meteorological tables. I have taken the greatest care in my observations, and have always avoided putting the thermometer[110]into any place where the sun could shine upon it, or where he had before heated the wall by his beams; for in those cases my observations would certainly not have been exact. The weather during ourSeptemberandOctoberis too well known to want an explanation.155. However there are some spontaneous plants inPensylvania, which do not every year bring their seeds to maturity before the cold begins. To these belong some species ofGentiana, ofAsters, and others. But in these too the wisdom of the Creator has wisely ordered every thing in its turn. For almost all the plants which have the quality of flowering so late in autumn, are perennial, or such as, though they have no seed to propagate themselves, can revive by shooting new branches and stalks from the same root every year. But perhaps a natural cause may be given to account for the late growth of these plants. Before theEuropeanscame into this country, it was inhabited by savage nations, who practised agriculture but little or not at all, and chiefly[111]lived upon hunting and fishing. The woods therefore have never been meddled with, except that sometimes a small part was destroyed by fire. The accounts which we have of the first landing of theEuropeanshere, shew that they found the country all over covered with thick forests.16From hence it follows, that excepting the higher trees, and the plants which grow in the water or near the shore, the rest must for the greatest part have been obliged to grow perhaps for a thousand years together, in a shade, either below or between the trees, and they therefore naturally belong to those which are only peculiar to woody and shady places. The trees in this country drop their leaves in such quantities in autumn, that the ground is covered with them to the depth of four or five inches. These leaves lie a good while in the next summer before they moulder, and this must of course hinder the growth of the plants which are under the trees, at the same time depriving them of the few rays of the sun which can come down to them through the thick leaves at the top of the trees. These causes joined together make such plants flower much later than they would otherwise do. May[112]it not therefore be said, that in so many centuries these plants had at last contracted ahabitof coming up very late, and that it would now require a great space of time to make them lose this habit, and use them to quicken their growth?Septemberthe 24th. We employed this whole day in gathering the seeds of plants of all kinds, and in putting scarce plants into the herbal.Septemberthe 25th. Mr.Hesseliusmade me a present of a little piece of petrified wood, which was found in the ground here. It was four inches long, one inch broad, and three lines thick. It might plainly be seen that it had formerly been wood. For in the places where it had been polished, all the longitudinal fibres were easily distinguishable, so that it might have been taken for a piece of oak which was cut smooth. My piece was part of a still greater piece. It was here thought to be petrified hiccory. I afterwards got more of it from other people. Mr.Lewis Evanstold me that on the boundaries ofVirginia, a great petrified block of hiccory had been found in the ground, with the bark on it, which was likewise petrified.Mr.John Bartramis anEnglishman, who lives in the country about four miles[113]fromPhiladelphia. He has acquired a great knowledge of natural philosophy and history, and seems to be born with a peculiar genius for these sciences. In his youth he had no opportunity of going to school. But by his own diligence and indefatigable application he got, without instruction, so far in Latin, as to understand all Latin books, and even those which were filled with botanical terms. He has in several successive years made frequent excursions into different distant parts ofNorth America, with an intention of gathering all sorts of plants which are scarce and little known. Those which he found he has planted in his own botanical garden, and likewise sent over their seeds or fresh roots toEngland. We owe to him the knowledge of many scarce plants, which he first found, and which were never known before. He has shewn great judgment, and an attention which lets nothing escape unnoticed. Yet with all these great qualities, he is to be blamed for his negligence; for he did not care to write down his numerous and useful observations. His friends atLondononce obliged him to send them a short account of one of his travels, and they were very ready, with a good intention, though not with sufficient judgment, to get this account printed.[114]But this book, did Mr.Bartrammore harm than good; for as he is rather backward in writing down what he knows, this publication was found to contain but few new observations. It would not however be doing justice to Mr.Bartram’s merit, if it were to be judged of by this performance. He has not filled it with a thousandth part of the great knowledge, which he has acquired in natural philosophy and history, especially in regard toNorth America. I have often been at a loss to think of the sources, from whence he got many things which came to his knowledge. I likewise owe him many things, for he possessed that great quality of communicating every thing he knew. I shall therefore in the sequel, frequently mention this gentleman. For I should never forgive myself, if I were to omit the name of the first inventor, and claim that as my own invention, which I learnt from another person.ManyMuscle shells, orMytili anatini, are to be met with on the north-west side of the town in the clay-pits, which were at present filled with water from a little brook in the neighbourhood. These muscles seem to have been washed into that place by the tide, when the water in the brook was high. For these clay-pits are not old, but were[115]lately made. Poor boys sometimes go out of town, wade in the water, and gather great quantities of these shells, which they sell very easily, they being reckoned a dainty.TheVirginian Azarolewith a red fruit, orLinnæus’sCratægus Crus galli, is a species of hawthorn, and they plant it in hedges, for want of that hawthorn, which is commonly used for this purpose inEurope. Its berries are red, and of the same size, shape, and taste with those of our hawthorn. Yet this tree does not seem to make a good hedge, for its leaves were already fallen, whilst other trees still preserved theirs. Its spines are very long and sharp; their length being two or three inches. These spines are applied to some inconsiderable use. Each berry contains two stones.Mr.Bartramassured me, that theNorth Americanoak, cannot resist putrefaction for near such a space of time, as theEuropean. For this reason, the boats (which carry all sorts of goods down from the upper parts of the country) upon the riverHudson, which is one of the greatest in these parts, are made of two kinds of wood. That part which must always be under water, is made of black oak; but[116]the upper part, which is now above and now under water, and is therefore more exposed to putrefaction, is made of red cedar orJuniperus Virginiana, which is reckoned the most hardy wood in the country. The bottom is made of black oak, because that wood is very tough. For the river being full of stones, and the boats frequently running against them, the black oak gives way, and therefore does not easily crack. But the cedar would not do for this purpose; because it is hard and brittle. The oak likewise is not so much attacked by putrefaction, when it is always kept under water.In autumn, I could always get good pears here; but every body acknowledged, that this fruit would not succeed well in the country.All my observations and remarks on the qualities of theRattle-snake, are inserted in the Memoirs of theSwedishAcademy of Sciences, for the year 1752, p. 316, and for the year 1753, p. 54, and thither I refer the reader.17Bearsare very numerous higher up in the country, and do much mischief. Mr.Bartramtold me, that when a bear catches[117]a cow, kills her in the following manner: he bites a hole into the hide, and blows with all his power into it, till the animal swells excessively and dies; for the air expands greatly between the flesh and the hide.18An oldSwedecalledNils Gustave’sson, who was ninety-one years of age, said, that in his youth, the bears had been very frequent hereabouts, but that they had seldom attacked the cattle: that whenever a bear was killed, its flesh was prepared like pork, and that it had a very good taste. And the flesh of bears is still prepared like ham, on the riverMorris. The environs ofPhiladelphia, and even the whole province ofPensylvaniain general contain very few bears, they having been extirpated by degrees. InVirginiathey kill them in several different ways. Their flesh is eaten by both rich and poor, since it is reckoned equal in goodness to pork. In[118]some parts of this province, where no hogs can be kept on account of the great numbers of bears, the people are used to catch and kill them, and to use them instead of hogs. TheAmericanbears however, are said to be less fierce and dangerous, than theEuropeanones.Septemberthe 26th. The broad plantain, orPlantago major, grows on the highroads, foot paths, meadows, and in gardens in great plenty. Mr.Bartramhad found this plant in many places on his travels, but he did not know whether it was an originalAmericanplant, or whether theEuropeanshad brought it over. This doubt had its rise from the savages (who always had an extensive knowledge of the plants of the country) pretending that this plant never grew here before the arrival of theEuropeans., They therefore give it a name which signifies, theEnglishman’sfoot, for they say that where aEuropeanhad walked, there this plant grew in his foot steps.TheChenopodium album, orGoosefootwith sinuated leaves, grows in plenty in the gardens. But it is more scarce near the houses, in the streets, on dunghills and corn-fields. This seems to shew, that it is not a native ofAmerica, but has been brought over amongst other seeds fromEurope. In the[119]same manner it is thought that theTansey(Tanacetum vulgare, Linn.) which grows here and there in the hedges, on the roads, and near houses, was produced fromEuropeanseeds.Thecommon vervain, with blue flowers, orverbena officinalis, was shewn to me by Mr.Bartram, not far from his house in a little plain nearPhiladelphia. It was the only place where he had found it inAmerica. And for this reason I suppose it was likewise sown here amongst otherEuropeanseeds.Mr.Bartramwas at this time-building a house inPhiladelphia, and had sunk a cellar to a considerable depth, the soil of which was thrown out. I here observed the following strata. The upper loose soil was only half a foot deep, and of a dark brown colour. Under it was a stratum of clay so much blended with sand, that it was in greater quantity than the clay itself; and this stratum was eight feet deep. These were both brick coloured. The next stratum consisted of little pebbles mixed with a coarse sand. The stones consisted either of aclear, or of adark Quartz;19they were[120]quite smooth and roundish on the outside, and lay in a stratum which was a foot deep. Then the brick-coloured clay mixed with sand appeared again. But the depth of this stratum could not be determined. Query, could the river formerly have reached to this place and formed these strata?Mr.Bartramhas not only frequently found oyster-shells in the ground, but likewise met with such shells and snails, as undoubtedly belong to the sea, at the distance of a hundred and moreEnglishmiles from the shore. He has even found them on the ridge of mountains which separate theEnglishplantations from the habitations of the savages. These mountains which theEnglishcall theblue mountains, are of considerable height, and extend, in one continued chain from north to south, or fromCanadatoCarolina. Yet in some places they have gaps, which are as it were broke through, to afford a passage for the great rivers, which roll down into the lower country.TheCassia Chamæcristagrew on the roads the woods, and sometimes[121]on uncultivated fields, especially when shrubs grew in them. Its leaves are like those of theSensitive plant, orMimosa, and have likewise the quality of contracting when touched, in common with the leaves of the latter.TheCrowsin this country are little different from our common crows inSweden. Their size is the same with that of our crows, and they are as black as jet in every part of their body. I saw them flying to day in great numbers together. Their voice is not quite like that of our crows, but has rather more of the cry of the rook, orLinnæus’sCorvus frugilegus.Mr.Bartramrelated, that on his journeys to the northernEnglishcolonies, he had discovered great holes in the mountains on the banks of rivers, which according to his description, must exactly have been suchgiants pots,20as are to be met with inSweden, and which I have described in a particular dissertation read in the RoyalSwedishAcademy of Sciences. Mr.Bartramhas likewise addressed some letters to the Royal Society atLondonupon this subject. For[122]some people pretended, that these holes were made by the savages, that they might in time of war hide their corn and other valuable effects in them. But he wrote against this opinion, and accounted for the origin of these cavities in the following manner. When the ice settles, many pebbles stick in it. In spring when the snow melts, the water in the rivers swells so high that it reaches above the place where these holes are now found in the mountains. The ice therefore will of course float as high. And then it often happens, that the pebbles which were contained in it, ever since autumn when it first settled on the banks of the river, fall out of the ice upon the rocky bank, and are from thence carried into a cleft or crack by the water. These pebbles are then continually turned about by the water, which comes in upon them, and by this means they gradually form the hole. The water at the same time polishes the stone by its circular motion round it, and helps to make the hole or cavity round. It is certain that by this turning and tossing, the stone is at last unfit for this purpose; but the river throws commonly every spring other stones instead of it into the cavity, and they are turned round in the same manner. By this whirling both the mountain[123]and the stone afford either a fine or a coarse sand, which is washed away by the water when in spring, or at other times it is high enough to throw its waves into the cavity. This was the opinion of Mr.Bartramabout the origin of these cavities. The Royal Society of Sciences atLondon, has given a favourable reception to, and approved of them.21The remarks which I made in the summer of the year 1743, during my stay atLand’s-Ort, in my country, will prove that I was at that time of the same opinion, in regard to these holes. I have since further explained this opinion in a letter to the Royal Academy of Sciences; and this letter is still preserved in the Academy’s Memoirs, which have not yet been published. But there is great reason to doubt, whether all cavities of this kind in mountains, have the same origin.Here are different species ofMulberry trees, which grow wild in the forests ofnorthandsouth America. In these parts the red mulberry trees are more plentiful than any other. However Mr.Bartramassured me that he had likewise seen the[124]white mulberry trees growing wild, but that they were more scarce. I asked him and several other people of this country, why they did not set up silk manufactures, having such a quantity of mulberries, which succeed so easily? For it has been observed that when the berries fall upon the ground where it is not compact but loose, they soon put out several fine delicate shoots. But they replied that it would not be worth while to erect any silk manufactures here, because labour is so dear. For a man gets from eighteen pence to three shillings and upwards, for one day’s work, and the women are paid in proportion. They were therefore of opinion that the cultivation of all sorts of corn, of hemp, and of flax, would be of greater advantage, and that at the same time it did not require near so much care as the feeding of silk worms. By the trials of a governor inConnecticut, which is a more northern province thanNew York, it is evident however, that silk worms succeed very well here, and that this kind of mulberry trees is very good for them. The governor brought up a great quantity of silk worms in his court yard; and they succeeded so well, and spun so much silk, as to afford him a sufficient quantity for cloathing himself and all his family.[125]Several sorts ofVineslikewise grow wild hereabouts. Whenever I made a little excursion out of town, I saw them in numerous places climbing up trees and hedges. They clasp around them, and cover them sometimes entirely, and even hang down on the sides. This has the same appearance at a distance, as the tendrils of hops climbing along trees. I enquired of Mr.Bartramwhy they did not plant vineyards, or press wine from the grapes of the wild vine. But they answered, that the same objection lay against it, which lies against the erection of a silk manufacture, that the necessary hands were too scarce, and it therefore was more rational to make agriculture their chief employment. But the true reason undoubtedly is, that the wine which is pressed out of most of theNorth Americanwild grapes is sour and sharp, and has not near such an agreeable taste, as that which is made fromEuropeangrapes.TheVirginian Wake robin, orArum Virginicum, grows in wet places. Mr.Bartramtold me, that the savages boiled thespadixand the berries of this flower, and devoured it as a great dainty. When the berries are raw, they have a harsh, pungent[126]taste, which they lose in great measure upon boiling.TheSarothra Gentianoides, grows abundantly in the fields and under the bushes, in a dry sandy ground nearPhiladelphia. It looks extremely like our whortleberry bushes when they first begin to green, and when the points of the leaves are yet red. Mr.Bartramhas sent this plant to Dr.Dillenius, but that gentleman did not know where he should range it. It is reckoned a very good traumatic, and this quality Mr.Bartramhimself experienced; for being thrown and kicked by a vicious horse, in such a manner as to have both his thighs greatly hurt, he boiled theSarothraand applied it to his wounds. It not only immediately appeased his pain, which before had been very violent, but he likewise by its assistance recovered in a short time.Having read in Mr.Miller’sBotanical Dictionary, that Mr.Peter Collinsonhad a particularLarch treefromAmericain his garden, I asked Mr.Bartramwhether he was acquainted with it, he answered, that he had sent it himself to Mr.Collinson, that it only grew in the eastern parts ofNew Jersey, and that he had met with it in no otherEnglishplantation. It differs from the other species ofLarch trees, its[127]cones being much less. I afterwards saw this tree in great plenty inCanada.Mr.Bartramwas of opinion, that the apple tree was brought intoAmericaby theEuropeans, and that it never was there before their arrival. But he looked upon peaches as an originalAmericanfruit, and as growing wild in the greatest part ofAmerica. Others again were of opinion, that they were first brought over by theEuropeans. But all theFrenchinCanadaagreed, that on the banks of the riverMissisippiand in the country thereabouts peaches were found growing wild in great quantity.22Septemberthe 27th. The tree which theEnglishhere callPersimon, is theDiospyros VirginianaofLinnæus. It grows for the greatest part in wet places, round the water pits. I have already mentioned that the fruits of this tree are extremely bitter and sharp before they are quite ripe, and that being eaten in that state they quite[128]contract ones mouth, and have a very disagreeable taste. But as soon as they are ripe, which does not happen till they have been quite softened by the frost, they are a very agreeable fruit. They are here eaten raw, and seldom any other way. But in a great book, which contains a description ofVirginia, you meet with different ways of preparing thePersimon, under the article of that name. Mr.Bartram, related that they were commonly put upon the table amongst the sweet-meats, and that some people made a tolerably good wine of them. Some of these Persimon fruits were dropped on the ground in his garden, and were almost quite ripe, having been exposed to a great degree of the heat of the sun. We picked up a few and tasted them, and I must own that those who praised this fruit as an agreeable one, have but done it justice. It really deserves a place among the most palatable fruit of this country, when the frost has thoroughly conquered its acrimony.TheVerbascum Thapsus, orgreat white Mullein, grows in great quantity on roads, in hedges, on dry fields, and high meadows of a ground mixed with sand. TheSwedeshere call it thetobacco of the savages, but owned, that they did not know whether[129]or no the Indians really used this plant instead of tobacco. TheSwedesare used to tie the leaves round their feet and arms, when they have the ague. Some of them prepared a tea from the leaves, for the dysentery. ASwedelikewise told me, that a decoction of the roots was injected into the wounds of the cattle which are full of worms, which killed these worms, and made them fall out.23Septemberthe 28th. The meadows which are surrounded by wood, and were at present mown, have a fine lively verdure. On the contrary when they lie on hills, or in open fields, or in some elevated situation, especially so that the sun may be able to act upon them without any obstacles, their grass looks brown and dry. Several people fromVirginiatold me, that on account of the great heat and drought, the meadows and pastures almost always had a brown colour, and looked as if they were burnt. The inhabitants of those parts do not therefore enjoy the pleasure which aEuropean[130]feels at the sight of our verdant, odoriferous meadows.TheAmerican Nightshade, or thePhytolacca decandra, grows abundantly in the fields, and under the trees, on little hills. Its black berries are now ripe. We observed to day some little birds with a blue plumage, and of the size of ourHortulansandYellow Hammers(Emberiza CitrinellaandEmberiza Hortulanus) flying down from the trees, in order to settle upon the nightshade and eat its berries.Towards night I went to Mr.Bartram’s country seat.Septemberthe 29th. TheGnaphalium margaritaceum, grows in astonishing quantities upon all uncultivated fields, glades, hills, and the like. Its height is different according to its different soil and situation. Sometimes it is very ramose, and sometimes very little. It has a strong, but agreeable smell. TheEnglishcall itLife everlasting; for its flowers, which consist chiefly of dry, shining, silvery leaves (Folia calycina) do not change when dried. This plant is now every where in full blossom. But some have already lost the flowers, and are beginning to drop the seeds. TheEnglishladies were used to gather great quantities of thisLife everlasting, and to pluck them[131]with the stalks. For they put them into pots with or without water, amongst other fine flowers which they had gathered both in the gardens and in the fields, and placed them as an ornament in the rooms. TheEnglishladies in general are much inclined to have fine flowers all the summer long, in or upon the chimneys, sometimes upon a table, or before the windows, either on account of their fine appearance, or for the sake of their sweet scent. TheGnaphaliumabove-mentioned, was one of those, which they kept in their rooms during the winter, because its flowers never altered from what they were when they stood in the ground. Mr.Bartramtold me another use of this plant. A decoction of the flowers and stalks is used to bathe any pained or bruised part, or it is rubbed with the plant itself tied up in a bag.Instead of flax several people made use of a kind ofDog’sbane, orLinnæus’sApocynum cannabinum. The people prepared the stalks of this plant, in the same manner as we prepare those of hemp or flax. It was spun and several kinds of stuffs were woven from it. The savages are said to have had the art of making bags, fishing-nets, and the like, for many centuries together, before the arrival of theEuropeans.[132]I asked Mr.Bartram, whether he had observed in his travels, that the water was fallen, and that the sea had formerly covered any places which were now land. He told me, that from what he had experienced, he was convinced that the greatest part of this country, even for several miles together, had formerly been under water. The reasons which led him to give credit to this opinion, were the following.1. On digging in the blue mountains, which are above three hundredEnglishmiles distant from the sea, you find loose oyster and other sorts of shells, and they are also likewise to be met with in the vallies formed by these mountains.2. A vast quantity of petrified shells are found in limestone, flint, and sandstone, on the same mountains. Mr.Bartramassured me at the same time, that it was incredible what quantities of them there were in the different kinds of stones of which the mountains consist.3. The same shells are likewise dug in great quantity, quite entire and not mouldered, in the provinces ofVirginiaandMaryland, as also inPhiladelphiaand inNew York.4. On digging wells (not only inPhiladelphia, but likewise in other places) the[133]people have met with trees, roots, and leaves of oak, for the greatest part, not yet rotten, at the depth of eighteen feet.5. The best soil and the richest mould is to be met with in the vallies hereabouts. These vallies are commonly crossed by a rivulet or brook. And on their declivity, a mountain commonly rises, which in those places where the brook passes close to it, looks as if it were cut on purpose. Mr.Bartrambelieved, that all these vallies formerly were lakes; that the water had by degrees hollowed out the mountain, and opened a passage for itself through it; and that the great quantity of slime which is contained in the water, and which had subsided to the bottom of the lake, was the rich soil which is at present in the vallies, and the cause of their great fertility. But such vallies and cloven mountains are very frequent in the country, and of this kind is the peculiar gap between two mountains, through which a river takes its course or boundaries ofNew YorkandPennsylvania. The people in a jest say, that this opening by the D—l, as he wanted to go out ofPennsylvaniaintoNew York.6. The whole appearance of the blue mountains, plainly shews that the water[134]formerly covered at part of them. For many are broken in a peculiar manner, but the highest are plain.7. When the savages are told, that shells are found on these high mountains, and that from thence there is reason to believe that the sea must formerly have extended to them, and even in part flown over them; they answer that this is not new to them, they having a tradition from their ancestors among them, that the sea formerly surrounded these mountains.8. The water in rivers and brooks likewise decreases. Mills, which sixty years ago were built on rivers, and at that time had a sufficient supply of water almost all the year long, have at present so little, that they cannot be used, but after a heavy rain, or when the snow melts in spring. This decrease of water in part arises from the great quantity of land which is now cultivated, and from the extirpation of great forests for that purpose.9. The sea-shore increases likewise in time. This arises from the quantity of sand continually thrown on shore from the bottom of the sea, by the waves.Mr.Bartramthought that some peculiar attention should be paid to another thing relating to these observations. The shells[135]which are to be found petrified on the northern mountains, are of such kinds as at present are not to be got in the sea, in the same latitude, and they are not fished on the shore, till you come toSouth Carolina. Mr.Bartramfrom hence took an occasion to defend Dr.Thomas Burnet’s opinion, that the earth before the deluge was in a different position towards the sun. He likewise asked whether the great bones which are sometimes found in the ground in Siberia, and which are supposed to be elephant’s bones and tusks, did not confirm this opinion. For at present those animals cannot live in such cold countries; but if according to Dr.Burnet, the sun once formed different zones about our earth, from those it now makes, the elephant may easily be supposed to have lived inSiberia.24However it[136]seems that all which we have hitherto mentioned, may have been the effect of different causes. To those belong the universal deluge, the increase of land which is merely[137]the work of time, and the changes of the course of rivers, which when the snow melts and in great floods, leave their first beds, and form new ones.At some distance from Mr.Bartram’s country house, a little brook flowed through the wood, and likewise ran over a rock. The attentive Mr.Bartramhere shewed me several little cavities in the rock, and we plainly saw that they must have been generated in the manner I before described, that is, by supposing a pebble to have remained in a cleft of the rock, and to have been turned round by the violence of the water, till it had formed such cavity in the mountain. For on putting our hands into one of these cavities, we found that it contained numerous small pebbles, whose surface was quite smooth and round. And these stones we found in each of the holes.Mr.Bartramshewed me a number of[138]plants which he had collected into a herbal on his travels. Among these were the following, which likewise grow in the northern parts ofEurope, of which he had either got the whole plants, or only broken branches.1.Betula alba.Thecommon birch tree, which he had found on thecats-hills.2.Betula nana.This species of birch grows in several low places towards the hills.3.Comarum palustre, in the meadows, between the hills inNew Jersey.4.Gentiana lutea, the greatGentian, from the fields near the mountains. It was very like our variety, but had not so many flowers under each leaf.5.Linnæa borealis, from the mountains inCanada. It creeps along the ground.6.Myrica Gale, from the neighbourhood of the riverSusquehanna, where it grows in a wet soil.7.Potentilla fruticosa, from the swampy fields and low meadows, between the riverDelaware, and the riverNew York.8.Trientalis Europæa, from thecats-hills.9.Triglochin maritimum, from the salt springs towards the country of the five nations.[139]Mr.Bartramshewed me a letter fromEast Jersey, in which he got the following account of the discovery of an Indian grave. In theAprilof the year 1744, as some people were digging a cellar, they came upon a great stone, like a tombstone, which was at last got out with great difficulty, and about four feet deeper under it, they met with a large quantity of human bones and a cake of maize. The latter was yet quite untouched, and several of the people present tasted it out of curiosity. From these circumstances it was concluded that this was a grave of a person of note among the savages. For it is their custom to bury along with the deceased, meat any other things which he liked best. The stone was eight feet long, four feet broad, and even some inches more where it was broadest, and fifteen inches thick at one end, but only twelve inches at the other end. It consisted of the same coarse kind of stone, that is to be got in this country. There were no letters nor other characters visible on it.The corn which theIndianschiefly cultivate is theMaize, orZea Mays,Linn.Then have little corn fields for that purpose. But besides this, they likewise plant a great quantity ofSquashes, a species of[140]pumpions or melons, which they have always cultivated, even in the remotest ages. TheEuropeanssettled inAmerica, got the seeds of this plant, and at present their gardens are full of it, the fruit has an agreeable taste when it is well prepared. They are commonly boiled, then crushed (as we are used to do with turneps when we make apulseof them) and some pepper or other spice thrown upon them, and the dish is ready. The Indians likewise sow several kinds of beans, which for the greatest part they have got from theEuropeans. But pease which they likewise sow, they have always had amongst them, before any foreigners came into the country. The squashes of the Indians, which now are likewise cultivated by theEuropeans, belong to those kinds of gourds (cucurbita,) which ripen before any other. They are a very delicious fruit, but will not keep. I have however seen them kept till pretty laid In winter.Septemberthe 30th. Wheat and rye are sown in autumn about this time, and commonly reaped towards the end ofJune, or in the beginning ofJuly. These kinds of corn, however, are sometimes ready to be reaped in the middle ofJune, and there are even examples that they have been[141]mown in the beginning of that month. Barley and oats are sown inApril, and they commonly begin to grow ripe towards the end ofJuly. Buck-wheat is sown in the middle or at the end ofJuly, and is about this time, or somewhat later, ready to be reaped. If it be sown before the above-mentioned time, as inMay, or inJune, it only gives flowers, and little or no corn.Mr.Bartramand other people assured me, that most of the cows which theEnglishhave here, are the offspring of those which they bought of theSwedeswhen they were masters of the country. TheEnglishthemselves are said to have brought over but few. TheSwedeseither brought their cattle from home, or bought them of theDutch, who were then settled here.Near the town, I saw anIvyorHedera Helix, planted against the wall of a stone building, which was so covered by the fine green leaves of this plant, as almost to conceal the whole. It was doubtless brought over fromEurope, for I have never perceived it any where else on my travels throughNorth-America. But in its stead I have often seen wild vines made to run up the walls.I asked Mr.Bartram, whether he had[142]observed, that trees and plants decreased in proportion as they were brought further to theNorth, asCatesbypretends? He answered, that the question should be more limited, and then his opinion would prove the true one. There are some trees which grow better in southern countries, and become less as you advance to the north. Their seeds or berries are sometimes brought into colder climates by birds and by other accidents. They gradually decrease in growth, till at last they will not grow at all. On the other hand, there are other trees and herbs which the wise Creator destined for the northern countries, and they grow there to an amazing size. But the further they are transplanted to the south, the less they grow; till at last they degenerate so much as not to be able to grow at all. Other plants love a temperate climate, and if they be carried either south or north, they will not succeed well, but always decrease. Thus for examplePensylvaniacontains some trees which grow exceedingly well, but always decrease in proportion as they are carried further off either to the north, or to the south.I afterwards on my travels, had frequent proofs of this truth. TheSassafras, which grows inPensylvania, under[143]forty deg. of lat. and becomes a pretty tall and thick tree, was so little atOswegoandFort Nicholson, between forty-three. and forty-four deg. of lat. that it hardly reached the height of two or four feet, and was seldom so thick as the little finger of a full grown person. This was likewise the case with theTulip tree. For inPensylvaniait grows as high as our tallest oaks and firs, and its thickness is proportionable to its height. But aboutOswegoit was not above twelve feet high, and no thicker than a man’s arm. TheSugar Maple, orAcer saccharinum, is one of the most common trees in the woods ofCanada, and grows very tall. But in the southern provinces, asNew JerseyandPensylvania, it only grows on the northern side of the blue mountains, and on the steep hills which are on the banks of the river, and which are turned to the north. Yet there it does not attain to a third or fourth part of the height which it has inCanada. It is needless to mention more examples.Octoberthe 1st. The gnats which are very troublesome at night here, are calledMusquetoes. They are exactly like the gnats inSweden, only somewhat less, and the description which is to be met with in Dr.Linnæus’sSystema Naturæ, andFauna[144]Suecica, fully agrees with them, and they are called by himCulex pipiens. In day time or at night they come into the houses, and when the people are gone to bed they begin their disagreeable humming, approach always nearer to the bed, and at last suck up so much blood, that they can hardly fly away. Their bite causes blisters in people of a delicate complexion. When the weather has been cool for some days, the musquetoes disappear. But when it changes again, and especially after a rain, they gather frequently in such quantities about the houses, that their numbers are astonishing. The chimneys of theEnglishwhich have no valves for shutting them up, afford the gnats a free entrance into the houses. In sultry evenings, they accompany the cattle in great swarms, from the woods to the houses or to town, and when they are drove before the houses, the gnats fly in wherever they can. In the greatest heat of summer, they are so numerous in some places, that the air seems to be quite full of them, especially near swamps and stagnant waters, such as the riverMorrisinNew Jersey. The inhabitants therefore make a fire before their houses to expell these disagreeableguestsby the smoak. The oldSwedeshere, said that gnats had formerly been[145]much more numerous; that even at present they swarmed in vast quantities on the sea shore near the salt water, and that those which troubled us this autumn inPhiladelphiawere of a more venomous kind, than they commonly used to be. This last quality appeared from the blisters, which were formed on the spots, where the gnats had inserted their sting. InSwedenI never felt any other inconvenience from their sting, than a little itching; whilst they sucked. But when they stung me here at night, my face was so disfigured by little red spots and blisters, that I was almost ashamed to shew myself.I have already mentioned somewhat about the enclosures usual here; I now add, that most of the planks which are put horizontally, and of which the enclosures in the environs ofPhiladelphiachiefly consist, are of the red cedar wood, which is here reckoned more durable than any other. But where this could not be got, either white or black oak supplied its place. The people were likewise very glad if they could get cedar wood for the posts, or else they took white oak, or chesnut, as I was told by Mr.Bartram. But it seems that that kind of wood in general does not keep well in the ground for a considerable time. I[146]saw some posts made of chesnut wood, and put into the ground only the year before, which were already for the greatest part rotten below.TheSassafras tree, orLaurus Sassafras,Linn.grows in abundance in the country, and stands scattered up and down the woods, and near bushes and enclosures. On old grounds, which are left uncultivated, it is one of the first that comes up, and is as plentiful as young birches are on thoseSwedishfields, which are formed by burning the trees which grew on them.25The sassafras grows in a dry loose ground, of a pale brick colour, which consists for the greatest part of sand, mixed with some clay. It seems to be but a poor soil. The mountains roundGothenburgh, inSweden, would afford many places rich enough for theSassafrasto grow in, and I even fear they would be too rich. I here saw it both in the woods amidst other trees, and more frequently by itself along the enclosures.[147]In both it looks equally fresh. I have never seen it on wet or low places. The people here gather its flowers, and use them instead of tea. But the wood itself is of no use in œconomy; for when it is set on fire, it causes a continual crackling, without making any good fire. The tree spreads its roots very much, and new shoots come up from them in some places; but these shoots are not good for transplanting, because they have so few fibres besides the root, which connects them to the main stem, that they cannot well strike into the ground. If therefore any one would plantSassafrastrees he must endeavour to get their berries, which however is difficult, since the birds eat them before they are half ripe. The cows are very greedy after the tender new shoots, and look for them every where.The bark of this tree is used by the women here in dying worsted a fine lasting orange colour, which does not fade in the sun. They use urine instead of alum in dying, and boil the dye in a brass boiler, because in an iron vessel it does not yield so fine a colour. A woman inVirginiahas successfully employed the berries of the Sassafras against a great pain in one of her feet, which for three years together she had to such a degree, that it almost hindered[148]her from walking. She was advised to broil the berries of sassafras, and to rub the painful parts of her foot with the oil, which by this means would be got from the berries. She did so, but at the same time it made her vomit; yet this was not sufficient to keep her from following the prescription three times more, though as often as she made use thereof, it always had the same effect. However she was entirely freed from that pain, and perfectly recovered.A blackWoodpeckerwith a red head, or thePicus pileatus,Linn.is frequent in thePensylvanianforests, and stays the winter, as I know from my own experience. It is reckoned among those birds which destroy the maize; because it settles on the ripe ears, and destroys them with its bill. TheSwedescall itTillkroka, but all other woodpeckers, those with gold yellow wings excepted, are calledHackspickarin theSwedishlanguage. I intend to describe them altogether more exactly in a particular work. I only observe here, that almost all the different species of woodpeckers are very noxious to the maize, when it begins to ripen: for by picking holes in the membrane round the ear, the rain gets into it, and causes the ear with all the corn it contains to rot.[149]Octoberthe 3d. In the morning I set out forWilmington, which was formerly calledChristinaby theSwedes, and is thirtyEnglishmiles to the south west ofPhiladelphia. Three miles behindPhiladelphiaI passed the riverSkulkillin a ferry, beyond which the country appears almost a continual chain of mountains and vallies. The mountains have an easy slope on all sides, and the vallies are commonly crossed by brooks with crystal streams. The greater part of the country is covered with several kinds of deciduous trees; for I scarcely saw a single tree of the fir kind, if I except a few red cedars. The forest was high, but open below, so that it left a free prospect to the eye, and no under-wood obstructed the passage between the trees. It would have been easy in some places to have gone under the branches with a carriage for a quarter of a mile, the trees standing at great distances from each other, and the ground being very level. In some places little glades opened, which were either meadows, pastures, or corn-fields; of which latter some were cultivated and others not. In a few places, several houses were built close to each other. But for the greatest part they were single. In part of the fields the wheat was already sown, in theEnglish[150]manner without trenches, but with furrows pretty close together. I sometimes saw the country people very busy in sowing their rye. Near every farm-house was a little field with maize. The inhabitants hereabouts were commonly eitherEnglishorSwedes.All the day long I saw a continual variety of trees; walnut trees of different sorts, which were all full of nuts; chesnut trees quite covered with fine chesnuts; mulberries, sassafras, liquidambar, tulip trees, and many others.Several species of vines grew wild hereabouts. They run up to the summits of the trees, their clusters of grapes and their leaves covering the stems. I even saw some young oaks five or six fathoms high, whose tops were crowned with vines. The ground is that which is so common hereabouts, which I have already described, viz. a clay mixed with a great quantity of sand, and covered with a rich soil or vegetable earth. The vines are principally seen on trees which stand single in corn-fields, and at the end of woods, where the meadows, pastures, and fields begin, and likewise along the enclosures, where they cling with their tendrils round the trees which stand there. The lower parts of the plant are[151]full of grapes, which hang below the leaves, and were now almost ripe, and had a pleasant sourish taste. The country people gather them in great quantities, and sell them in the town. They are eaten without further preparation, and commonly people are presented with them when they come to pay a visit.The soil does not seem to be deep hereabouts; for the upper black stratum is hardly two inches. This I had an occasion to see both in such places where the ground is dug up, and in such where the water, during heavy flowers of rain, has made cuts, which are pretty numerous here. The upper soil has a dark colour, and the next a pale colour like bricks. I have observed everywhere inAmerica, that the depth of the upper soil does not by far agree with the computation of some people, though we can almost be sure, that in some places it never was stirred since the deluge. I shall be more particular in this respect afterwards.26[152]TheDatura Stramonium, orThorn Apple, grows in great quantities near all the villages. Its height is different according to the soil it is in. For in a rich soil it[153]grows eight or ten feet high, but in a hard and poor ground, it will seldom come up to six inches. ThisDatura, together with thePhytolacca, orAmerican Nightshade, grow here in those places near the gardens,[154]houses, and roads, which inSwedenare covered with nettles and goose-foot, whichEuropeanplants are very scarce inAmerica. But theDaturaandPhytolaccaare the worst weeds here, nobody knowing any particular use of them.Turnep-fields are sometimes to be seen. In the middle of the highroad I perceived a dead black snake, which was four feet six inches long, and an inch and a half in thickness. It belonged to the viper kind.
The quadruped, which Dr.Linnæusin[97]the memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences, has described by the name ofUrsus cauda elongata, and which he callsUrsus Lotor, in hisSystema Naturæ, is here calledRaccoon. It is found very frequently, and destroys many chickens. It is hunted by dogs, and when it runs upon a tree to save itself, a man climbs upon the tree after it, and shakes it down to the ground, where the dogs kill it. The flesh is eaten, and is reputed to taste well. The bone of its male parts is made use of for a tobacco-stopper. The hatters purchase their skins, and make hats out of the hair, which are next in goodness to beavers. The tail is worn round the neck in winter, and therefore is likewise valuable. TheRaccoonis frequently the food of snakes.
SomeEnglishmenasserted that near the riverPotomackinVirginia, a great quantity of oyster shells were to be met with, and that they themselves had seen whole mountains of them. The place where they are found is said to be about twoEnglishmiles distant from the sea-shore. The proprietor of that ground burns lime out of them. This stratum of oyster-shells is two fathom and more deep. Such quantities of shells have likewise been found in other places, especially inNew York, on digging in the[98]ground; and in one place, at the distance of someEnglishmiles from the sea, avast quantity of oyster-shells, and of other shells was found. Some people conjectured that the natives had formerly lived in that place, and had left the shells of the oysters which they had consumed, in such great heaps. But others could not conceive how it happened that they were thrown in such immense quantities all into one place.
Every one is of opinion that theAmericansavages were a very good-natured people, if they were not attacked. No body is so strict in keeping his word as a savage. If any one of their allies come to visit them, they shew him more kindness, and greater endeavours to serve him, than he could have expected from his own countrymen. Mr.Cockgave me the following relation, as a proof of their integrity. About two years ago, anEnglishmerchant travelling amongst the savages, in order to sell them necessaries, and to buy other goods, was secretly killed, without the murderer’s being found out. But about a year after, the savages found out the guilty person amongst themselves. They immediately took him up, bound his hands on his back, and thus sent him with a guard to the governor atPhiladelphia, and sent him word, that they could[99]no longer acknowledge this wretch (who had been so wicked towards anEnglishman) as their countryman, and therefore would have nothing more to do with him, and that they delivered him up to the governor, to be punished for his villainy as the laws ofEnglanddirect. This Indian was afterwards hanged atPhiladelphia.
Their good natural parts are proved by the following account, which many people have given me as a true one. When they send their ambassadors to theEnglishcolonies, in order to settle things of consequence with the governor, they sit down on the ground, as soon as they come to his audience, and hear with great attention the governor’s demands which they are to make an answer to. His demands are sometimes many. Yet they have only a stick in their hand, and make their marks on it with a knife, without writing any thing else down. But when they return the next day to give in their resolutions, they answer all the governor’s articles in the same order, in which he delivered them, without leaving one out, or changing the order, and give such accurate answers, as if they had an account of them at full length in writing.
Mr.Sleidornrelated another story, which gave me great pleasure. He said he had[100]been atNew York, and had found a venerable oldAmericansavage amongst several others in an inn. This old man began to talk withSleidornas soon as the liquor was getting the better of his head, and boasted that he could write and read inEnglish.Sleidorntherefore desired leave to ask a question, which the old man readily granted.Sleidornthen asked him, whether he knew who was first circumcised? and the old man immediately answered,Father Abraham; but at the same time asked leave to propose a question in his turn, whichSleidorngranted; the old man then said, who was the first quaker?Sleidornsaid it was uncertain, that some took one person for it, and some another; but the cunning old fellow told him, you are mistaken, sir;Mordecaiwas the first quaker, for he would not take off his hat toHaman. Many of the savages, who are yet heathens, are said to have some obscure notion of the deluge. But I am convinced from my own experience, that they are not at all acquainted with it.
I met with people here who maintained that giants had formerly lived in these parts, and the following particulars confirmed them in this opinion. A few years ago some people digging in the ground, met with a grave which contained human bones of an[101]astonishing size. TheTibiais said to have been fourteen feet long, and theos femoristo have measured as much. The teeth are likewise said to have been of a size proportioned to the rest, But more bones of this kind have not yet been found. Persons skilled in anatomy, who have seen these bones, have declared that they were human bones. One of the teeth has been sent toHamburgh, to a person who collected natural curiosities. Among the savages, in the neighbourhood of the place where the bones were found, there is an account handed down through many generations from fathers to children, that in this neighbourhood, on the banks of a river, there lived a very tall and strong man, in ancient times, who carried the people over the river on his back, and waded in the water, though it was very deep. Every body to whom he did this service gave him some maize, some skins of animals, or the like. In fine he got his livelyhood by this means, and was as it were the ferryman of those who wanted to pass the river.
The soil here consists for the greatest part of sand, which is more or less mixed with clay. Both the sand and the clay, are of the colour of pale bricks. To judge by[102]appearance the ground was none of the best; and this conjecture was verified by the inhabitants of the country. When a corn-field has been obliged to bear the same kind of corn for three years together, it does not after that produce any thing at all if it be not well manured, or fallowed for some years. Manure is very difficult to be got, and therefore people rather leave the field uncultivated. In that interval it is covered with all sorts of plants and trees; and the countryman in the mean while, cultivates a piece of ground which has till then been fallow, or he chuses a part of the ground which has never been ploughed before, and he can in both cases be pretty sure of a plentiful crop. This method can here be used with great convenience. For the soil is loose, so that it can easily be ploughed, and every countryman has commonly a great deal of land for his property. The cattle here are neither housed in winter, nor tended in the fields, and for this reason they cannot gather a sufficient quantity of dung.
All the cattle has been originally brought over fromEurope. The natives have never had any, and at present few of them care to get any. But the cattle degenerates[103]by degrees here, and becomes smaller. For the cows, horses, sheep, and hogs, are all larger inEngland, though those which are brought over are of that breed. But the first generation decreases a little, and the third and fourth is of the same size with the cattle already common here. The climate, the soil, and the food, altogether contribute their share towards producing this change.
It is remarkable that the inhabitants of the country, commonly sooner acquire understanding, but likewise grow sooner old than the people inEurope. It is nothing uncommon to see little children, giving sprightly and ready answers to questions that are proposed to them, so that they seem to have as much understanding as old men. But they do not attain to such an age as theEuropeans, and it is almost an unheard of thing, that a person born in this country, should live to be eighty or ninety years of age. But I only speak of theEuropeansthat settled here. For the savages, or first inhabitants, frequently attained a great age, though at present such examples are uncommon, which is chiefly attributed to the great use of brandy, which the savages have learnt of theEuropeans. Those who are born inEuropeattain a greater age here,[104]than those who are born here, ofEuropeanparents. In the last war, it plainly appeared that these newAmericanswere by far less hardy than theEuropeansin expeditions, sieges, and long sea voyages, and died in numbers. It is very difficult for them to use themselves to a climate different from their own. The women cease bearing children sooner than inEurope. They seldom or never have children, after they are forty or forty-five years old, and some leave off in the thirtieth year of their age. I enquired into the causes of this, but no one could give me a good one. Some said it was owing to the affluence in which the people live here. Some ascribed it to the inconstancy and changeableness of the weather, and believed that there hardly was a country on earth in which the weather changes so often in a day, as it does here. For if it were ever so hot, one could not be certain whether in twenty-four hours there would not be a piercing cold. Nay, sometimes the weather will change five or six times a day.
The trees in this country have the same qualities as its inhabitants. For the ships which are built ofAmericanwood, are by no means equal in point of strength, to those which are built inEurope. This is[105]what nobody attempts to contradict. When a ship which is built here, has served eight or twelve years it is worth little; and if one is to be met with, which has been in use longer and is yet serviceable, it is reckoned very astonishing. It is difficult to find out the causes from whence this happens. Some lay the fault to the badness of the wood: others condemn the method of building the ships, which is to make them of trees which are yet green, and have had no time to dry. I believe both causes are joined. For I found oak, which at the utmost had been cut down about twelve years, and was covered by a hard bark. But upon taking off this bark, the wood below it was almost entirely rotten, and like flour, so that I could rub it into powder between my fingers. How much longer will not ourEuropeanoak stand before it moulders?
At night we returned toPhiladelphia.
Septemberthe 23d. There are noHaresin this country, but some animals, which are a medium between ourHaresandRabbets, and make a great devastation whenever they get into fields of cabbage and turneps.
Many people have not been able to find out why theNorth Americanplants which are carried toEuropeand planted there, for[106]the greatest part flower so late, and do not get ripe fruit before the frost overtakes them, although it appears from several accounts of travels, that the winters inPensylvania, and more so those inNew York,New England, andCanada, are full as severe as ourSwedishwinters, and therefore are much severer than those which are felt inEngland. Several men of judgment charged me for this reason to examine and enquire into this phœnomenon with all possible care. But I shall instead of an answer, rather give a few remarks which I made upon the climate and upon the plants ofNorth America, and leave my readers at liberty to draw the conclusions themselves.
1. It is true, that the winters inPensylvania, and much more those in the more northern provinces, are frequently as severe as ourSwedishwinters, and much colder than theEnglishones, or those of the southern parts ofEurope. For I found atPhiladelphia, which is above twenty deg. more southerly than several provinces inSweden, that the thermometer of professorCelsius, fell twenty-four deg. below the freezing point in winter. Yet I was assured that the winters I spent here, were none of the coldest, but only common ones, which I could likewise conclude from theDelaware’s[107]not being frozen strong enough to bear a carriage atPhiladelphiaduring my stay, though this often happens. On considering the breadth of the river which I have already mentioned in my description ofPhiladelphia, and the difference between high and low water, which is eightEnglishfeet; it will pretty plainly appear that a very intense frost is required to cover theDelawarewith such thick ice.
2. But it is likewise true, that though the winters are severe here, yet they are commonly of no long duration, and I can justly say, that they do not continue above two months and sometimes even less, atPhiladelphia; and it is something very uncommon when they continue for three months together, in so much that it is put into the gazettes. Nearer the pole the winters are somewhat longer, and in the quite northern parts they are as long as theSwedishwinters. The daily meteorological observations which I have made during my stay inAmerica, and which I intend to annex at the end of each volume of this work, will give more light in this matter.
3. The heat in summer is excessive, and without intermission. I own I have seen the thermometer rise to nearly the same degree atAoboinFinland. But the difference[108]is, that when the thermometer of professorCelsiusrose to thirty deg. above the freezing point once in two or three summers atAobo, the same thermometer did not only for three months together stand at the same degree, but even sometimes rose higher; not only inPensylvania, but likewise inNew York,Albany, and a great part ofCanada. During the summers which I spent atPhiladelphia, the thermometer has two or three times risen to thirty-six deg. above the freezing point. It may therefore with great certainty be said, that inPensylvaniathe greatest part ofApril, the wholeMay, and all the following months tillOctober, are like ourSwedishmonths ofJuneandJuly. So excessive and continued a heat must certainly have very great effects. I here again refer to my meteorological observations. It must likewise be ascribed to the effects of this heat that the common melons, the water melons, and the pumpions of different sorts are sown in the fields without any bells or the like put over them, and yet are ripe as early asJuly; further, that cherries are ripe atPhiladelphiaabout the 25th. ofMay, and that inPensylvaniathe wheat is frequently reaped in the middle ofJune.
4. The whole ofSeptember, and half, if[109]not the whole ofOctober, are the finest months inPensylvania, for the preceding ones are too hot. But these represent ourJulyand half ofAugust. The greatest part of the plants are in flower inSeptember, and many do not begin to open their flowers before the latter end of this month. I make no doubt that the goodness of the season, which is enlivened by a clear sky, and a tolerably hot sun-shine, greatly contributes towards this last effort of Flora. Yet though these plants come out so late, they are quite ripe before the middle ofOctober. But I am not able to account for their coming up so late in autumn, and I rather ask, why do not theCentaurea Jacea, theGentiana,AmarellaandCentauriumofLinnæus, and the common golden rod, orSolidago Virgaureaflower before the end of summer? or why do the common noble liverwort, orAnemone Hepatica, the wild violets (Viola martia, Linn.) the mezereon (Daphne Mezereum, Linn.) and other plants shew their flowers so early in spring? It has pleased the Almighty Creator to give to them this disposition. The weather atPhiladelphiaduring these months, is shewn by my meteorological tables. I have taken the greatest care in my observations, and have always avoided putting the thermometer[110]into any place where the sun could shine upon it, or where he had before heated the wall by his beams; for in those cases my observations would certainly not have been exact. The weather during ourSeptemberandOctoberis too well known to want an explanation.15
5. However there are some spontaneous plants inPensylvania, which do not every year bring their seeds to maturity before the cold begins. To these belong some species ofGentiana, ofAsters, and others. But in these too the wisdom of the Creator has wisely ordered every thing in its turn. For almost all the plants which have the quality of flowering so late in autumn, are perennial, or such as, though they have no seed to propagate themselves, can revive by shooting new branches and stalks from the same root every year. But perhaps a natural cause may be given to account for the late growth of these plants. Before theEuropeanscame into this country, it was inhabited by savage nations, who practised agriculture but little or not at all, and chiefly[111]lived upon hunting and fishing. The woods therefore have never been meddled with, except that sometimes a small part was destroyed by fire. The accounts which we have of the first landing of theEuropeanshere, shew that they found the country all over covered with thick forests.16From hence it follows, that excepting the higher trees, and the plants which grow in the water or near the shore, the rest must for the greatest part have been obliged to grow perhaps for a thousand years together, in a shade, either below or between the trees, and they therefore naturally belong to those which are only peculiar to woody and shady places. The trees in this country drop their leaves in such quantities in autumn, that the ground is covered with them to the depth of four or five inches. These leaves lie a good while in the next summer before they moulder, and this must of course hinder the growth of the plants which are under the trees, at the same time depriving them of the few rays of the sun which can come down to them through the thick leaves at the top of the trees. These causes joined together make such plants flower much later than they would otherwise do. May[112]it not therefore be said, that in so many centuries these plants had at last contracted ahabitof coming up very late, and that it would now require a great space of time to make them lose this habit, and use them to quicken their growth?
Septemberthe 24th. We employed this whole day in gathering the seeds of plants of all kinds, and in putting scarce plants into the herbal.
Septemberthe 25th. Mr.Hesseliusmade me a present of a little piece of petrified wood, which was found in the ground here. It was four inches long, one inch broad, and three lines thick. It might plainly be seen that it had formerly been wood. For in the places where it had been polished, all the longitudinal fibres were easily distinguishable, so that it might have been taken for a piece of oak which was cut smooth. My piece was part of a still greater piece. It was here thought to be petrified hiccory. I afterwards got more of it from other people. Mr.Lewis Evanstold me that on the boundaries ofVirginia, a great petrified block of hiccory had been found in the ground, with the bark on it, which was likewise petrified.
Mr.John Bartramis anEnglishman, who lives in the country about four miles[113]fromPhiladelphia. He has acquired a great knowledge of natural philosophy and history, and seems to be born with a peculiar genius for these sciences. In his youth he had no opportunity of going to school. But by his own diligence and indefatigable application he got, without instruction, so far in Latin, as to understand all Latin books, and even those which were filled with botanical terms. He has in several successive years made frequent excursions into different distant parts ofNorth America, with an intention of gathering all sorts of plants which are scarce and little known. Those which he found he has planted in his own botanical garden, and likewise sent over their seeds or fresh roots toEngland. We owe to him the knowledge of many scarce plants, which he first found, and which were never known before. He has shewn great judgment, and an attention which lets nothing escape unnoticed. Yet with all these great qualities, he is to be blamed for his negligence; for he did not care to write down his numerous and useful observations. His friends atLondononce obliged him to send them a short account of one of his travels, and they were very ready, with a good intention, though not with sufficient judgment, to get this account printed.[114]But this book, did Mr.Bartrammore harm than good; for as he is rather backward in writing down what he knows, this publication was found to contain but few new observations. It would not however be doing justice to Mr.Bartram’s merit, if it were to be judged of by this performance. He has not filled it with a thousandth part of the great knowledge, which he has acquired in natural philosophy and history, especially in regard toNorth America. I have often been at a loss to think of the sources, from whence he got many things which came to his knowledge. I likewise owe him many things, for he possessed that great quality of communicating every thing he knew. I shall therefore in the sequel, frequently mention this gentleman. For I should never forgive myself, if I were to omit the name of the first inventor, and claim that as my own invention, which I learnt from another person.
ManyMuscle shells, orMytili anatini, are to be met with on the north-west side of the town in the clay-pits, which were at present filled with water from a little brook in the neighbourhood. These muscles seem to have been washed into that place by the tide, when the water in the brook was high. For these clay-pits are not old, but were[115]lately made. Poor boys sometimes go out of town, wade in the water, and gather great quantities of these shells, which they sell very easily, they being reckoned a dainty.
TheVirginian Azarolewith a red fruit, orLinnæus’sCratægus Crus galli, is a species of hawthorn, and they plant it in hedges, for want of that hawthorn, which is commonly used for this purpose inEurope. Its berries are red, and of the same size, shape, and taste with those of our hawthorn. Yet this tree does not seem to make a good hedge, for its leaves were already fallen, whilst other trees still preserved theirs. Its spines are very long and sharp; their length being two or three inches. These spines are applied to some inconsiderable use. Each berry contains two stones.
Mr.Bartramassured me, that theNorth Americanoak, cannot resist putrefaction for near such a space of time, as theEuropean. For this reason, the boats (which carry all sorts of goods down from the upper parts of the country) upon the riverHudson, which is one of the greatest in these parts, are made of two kinds of wood. That part which must always be under water, is made of black oak; but[116]the upper part, which is now above and now under water, and is therefore more exposed to putrefaction, is made of red cedar orJuniperus Virginiana, which is reckoned the most hardy wood in the country. The bottom is made of black oak, because that wood is very tough. For the river being full of stones, and the boats frequently running against them, the black oak gives way, and therefore does not easily crack. But the cedar would not do for this purpose; because it is hard and brittle. The oak likewise is not so much attacked by putrefaction, when it is always kept under water.
In autumn, I could always get good pears here; but every body acknowledged, that this fruit would not succeed well in the country.
All my observations and remarks on the qualities of theRattle-snake, are inserted in the Memoirs of theSwedishAcademy of Sciences, for the year 1752, p. 316, and for the year 1753, p. 54, and thither I refer the reader.17
Bearsare very numerous higher up in the country, and do much mischief. Mr.Bartramtold me, that when a bear catches[117]a cow, kills her in the following manner: he bites a hole into the hide, and blows with all his power into it, till the animal swells excessively and dies; for the air expands greatly between the flesh and the hide.18An oldSwedecalledNils Gustave’sson, who was ninety-one years of age, said, that in his youth, the bears had been very frequent hereabouts, but that they had seldom attacked the cattle: that whenever a bear was killed, its flesh was prepared like pork, and that it had a very good taste. And the flesh of bears is still prepared like ham, on the riverMorris. The environs ofPhiladelphia, and even the whole province ofPensylvaniain general contain very few bears, they having been extirpated by degrees. InVirginiathey kill them in several different ways. Their flesh is eaten by both rich and poor, since it is reckoned equal in goodness to pork. In[118]some parts of this province, where no hogs can be kept on account of the great numbers of bears, the people are used to catch and kill them, and to use them instead of hogs. TheAmericanbears however, are said to be less fierce and dangerous, than theEuropeanones.
Septemberthe 26th. The broad plantain, orPlantago major, grows on the highroads, foot paths, meadows, and in gardens in great plenty. Mr.Bartramhad found this plant in many places on his travels, but he did not know whether it was an originalAmericanplant, or whether theEuropeanshad brought it over. This doubt had its rise from the savages (who always had an extensive knowledge of the plants of the country) pretending that this plant never grew here before the arrival of theEuropeans., They therefore give it a name which signifies, theEnglishman’sfoot, for they say that where aEuropeanhad walked, there this plant grew in his foot steps.
TheChenopodium album, orGoosefootwith sinuated leaves, grows in plenty in the gardens. But it is more scarce near the houses, in the streets, on dunghills and corn-fields. This seems to shew, that it is not a native ofAmerica, but has been brought over amongst other seeds fromEurope. In the[119]same manner it is thought that theTansey(Tanacetum vulgare, Linn.) which grows here and there in the hedges, on the roads, and near houses, was produced fromEuropeanseeds.
Thecommon vervain, with blue flowers, orverbena officinalis, was shewn to me by Mr.Bartram, not far from his house in a little plain nearPhiladelphia. It was the only place where he had found it inAmerica. And for this reason I suppose it was likewise sown here amongst otherEuropeanseeds.
Mr.Bartramwas at this time-building a house inPhiladelphia, and had sunk a cellar to a considerable depth, the soil of which was thrown out. I here observed the following strata. The upper loose soil was only half a foot deep, and of a dark brown colour. Under it was a stratum of clay so much blended with sand, that it was in greater quantity than the clay itself; and this stratum was eight feet deep. These were both brick coloured. The next stratum consisted of little pebbles mixed with a coarse sand. The stones consisted either of aclear, or of adark Quartz;19they were[120]quite smooth and roundish on the outside, and lay in a stratum which was a foot deep. Then the brick-coloured clay mixed with sand appeared again. But the depth of this stratum could not be determined. Query, could the river formerly have reached to this place and formed these strata?
Mr.Bartramhas not only frequently found oyster-shells in the ground, but likewise met with such shells and snails, as undoubtedly belong to the sea, at the distance of a hundred and moreEnglishmiles from the shore. He has even found them on the ridge of mountains which separate theEnglishplantations from the habitations of the savages. These mountains which theEnglishcall theblue mountains, are of considerable height, and extend, in one continued chain from north to south, or fromCanadatoCarolina. Yet in some places they have gaps, which are as it were broke through, to afford a passage for the great rivers, which roll down into the lower country.
TheCassia Chamæcristagrew on the roads the woods, and sometimes[121]on uncultivated fields, especially when shrubs grew in them. Its leaves are like those of theSensitive plant, orMimosa, and have likewise the quality of contracting when touched, in common with the leaves of the latter.
TheCrowsin this country are little different from our common crows inSweden. Their size is the same with that of our crows, and they are as black as jet in every part of their body. I saw them flying to day in great numbers together. Their voice is not quite like that of our crows, but has rather more of the cry of the rook, orLinnæus’sCorvus frugilegus.
Mr.Bartramrelated, that on his journeys to the northernEnglishcolonies, he had discovered great holes in the mountains on the banks of rivers, which according to his description, must exactly have been suchgiants pots,20as are to be met with inSweden, and which I have described in a particular dissertation read in the RoyalSwedishAcademy of Sciences. Mr.Bartramhas likewise addressed some letters to the Royal Society atLondonupon this subject. For[122]some people pretended, that these holes were made by the savages, that they might in time of war hide their corn and other valuable effects in them. But he wrote against this opinion, and accounted for the origin of these cavities in the following manner. When the ice settles, many pebbles stick in it. In spring when the snow melts, the water in the rivers swells so high that it reaches above the place where these holes are now found in the mountains. The ice therefore will of course float as high. And then it often happens, that the pebbles which were contained in it, ever since autumn when it first settled on the banks of the river, fall out of the ice upon the rocky bank, and are from thence carried into a cleft or crack by the water. These pebbles are then continually turned about by the water, which comes in upon them, and by this means they gradually form the hole. The water at the same time polishes the stone by its circular motion round it, and helps to make the hole or cavity round. It is certain that by this turning and tossing, the stone is at last unfit for this purpose; but the river throws commonly every spring other stones instead of it into the cavity, and they are turned round in the same manner. By this whirling both the mountain[123]and the stone afford either a fine or a coarse sand, which is washed away by the water when in spring, or at other times it is high enough to throw its waves into the cavity. This was the opinion of Mr.Bartramabout the origin of these cavities. The Royal Society of Sciences atLondon, has given a favourable reception to, and approved of them.21The remarks which I made in the summer of the year 1743, during my stay atLand’s-Ort, in my country, will prove that I was at that time of the same opinion, in regard to these holes. I have since further explained this opinion in a letter to the Royal Academy of Sciences; and this letter is still preserved in the Academy’s Memoirs, which have not yet been published. But there is great reason to doubt, whether all cavities of this kind in mountains, have the same origin.
Here are different species ofMulberry trees, which grow wild in the forests ofnorthandsouth America. In these parts the red mulberry trees are more plentiful than any other. However Mr.Bartramassured me that he had likewise seen the[124]white mulberry trees growing wild, but that they were more scarce. I asked him and several other people of this country, why they did not set up silk manufactures, having such a quantity of mulberries, which succeed so easily? For it has been observed that when the berries fall upon the ground where it is not compact but loose, they soon put out several fine delicate shoots. But they replied that it would not be worth while to erect any silk manufactures here, because labour is so dear. For a man gets from eighteen pence to three shillings and upwards, for one day’s work, and the women are paid in proportion. They were therefore of opinion that the cultivation of all sorts of corn, of hemp, and of flax, would be of greater advantage, and that at the same time it did not require near so much care as the feeding of silk worms. By the trials of a governor inConnecticut, which is a more northern province thanNew York, it is evident however, that silk worms succeed very well here, and that this kind of mulberry trees is very good for them. The governor brought up a great quantity of silk worms in his court yard; and they succeeded so well, and spun so much silk, as to afford him a sufficient quantity for cloathing himself and all his family.[125]
Several sorts ofVineslikewise grow wild hereabouts. Whenever I made a little excursion out of town, I saw them in numerous places climbing up trees and hedges. They clasp around them, and cover them sometimes entirely, and even hang down on the sides. This has the same appearance at a distance, as the tendrils of hops climbing along trees. I enquired of Mr.Bartramwhy they did not plant vineyards, or press wine from the grapes of the wild vine. But they answered, that the same objection lay against it, which lies against the erection of a silk manufacture, that the necessary hands were too scarce, and it therefore was more rational to make agriculture their chief employment. But the true reason undoubtedly is, that the wine which is pressed out of most of theNorth Americanwild grapes is sour and sharp, and has not near such an agreeable taste, as that which is made fromEuropeangrapes.
TheVirginian Wake robin, orArum Virginicum, grows in wet places. Mr.Bartramtold me, that the savages boiled thespadixand the berries of this flower, and devoured it as a great dainty. When the berries are raw, they have a harsh, pungent[126]taste, which they lose in great measure upon boiling.
TheSarothra Gentianoides, grows abundantly in the fields and under the bushes, in a dry sandy ground nearPhiladelphia. It looks extremely like our whortleberry bushes when they first begin to green, and when the points of the leaves are yet red. Mr.Bartramhas sent this plant to Dr.Dillenius, but that gentleman did not know where he should range it. It is reckoned a very good traumatic, and this quality Mr.Bartramhimself experienced; for being thrown and kicked by a vicious horse, in such a manner as to have both his thighs greatly hurt, he boiled theSarothraand applied it to his wounds. It not only immediately appeased his pain, which before had been very violent, but he likewise by its assistance recovered in a short time.
Having read in Mr.Miller’sBotanical Dictionary, that Mr.Peter Collinsonhad a particularLarch treefromAmericain his garden, I asked Mr.Bartramwhether he was acquainted with it, he answered, that he had sent it himself to Mr.Collinson, that it only grew in the eastern parts ofNew Jersey, and that he had met with it in no otherEnglishplantation. It differs from the other species ofLarch trees, its[127]cones being much less. I afterwards saw this tree in great plenty inCanada.
Mr.Bartramwas of opinion, that the apple tree was brought intoAmericaby theEuropeans, and that it never was there before their arrival. But he looked upon peaches as an originalAmericanfruit, and as growing wild in the greatest part ofAmerica. Others again were of opinion, that they were first brought over by theEuropeans. But all theFrenchinCanadaagreed, that on the banks of the riverMissisippiand in the country thereabouts peaches were found growing wild in great quantity.22
Septemberthe 27th. The tree which theEnglishhere callPersimon, is theDiospyros VirginianaofLinnæus. It grows for the greatest part in wet places, round the water pits. I have already mentioned that the fruits of this tree are extremely bitter and sharp before they are quite ripe, and that being eaten in that state they quite[128]contract ones mouth, and have a very disagreeable taste. But as soon as they are ripe, which does not happen till they have been quite softened by the frost, they are a very agreeable fruit. They are here eaten raw, and seldom any other way. But in a great book, which contains a description ofVirginia, you meet with different ways of preparing thePersimon, under the article of that name. Mr.Bartram, related that they were commonly put upon the table amongst the sweet-meats, and that some people made a tolerably good wine of them. Some of these Persimon fruits were dropped on the ground in his garden, and were almost quite ripe, having been exposed to a great degree of the heat of the sun. We picked up a few and tasted them, and I must own that those who praised this fruit as an agreeable one, have but done it justice. It really deserves a place among the most palatable fruit of this country, when the frost has thoroughly conquered its acrimony.
TheVerbascum Thapsus, orgreat white Mullein, grows in great quantity on roads, in hedges, on dry fields, and high meadows of a ground mixed with sand. TheSwedeshere call it thetobacco of the savages, but owned, that they did not know whether[129]or no the Indians really used this plant instead of tobacco. TheSwedesare used to tie the leaves round their feet and arms, when they have the ague. Some of them prepared a tea from the leaves, for the dysentery. ASwedelikewise told me, that a decoction of the roots was injected into the wounds of the cattle which are full of worms, which killed these worms, and made them fall out.23
Septemberthe 28th. The meadows which are surrounded by wood, and were at present mown, have a fine lively verdure. On the contrary when they lie on hills, or in open fields, or in some elevated situation, especially so that the sun may be able to act upon them without any obstacles, their grass looks brown and dry. Several people fromVirginiatold me, that on account of the great heat and drought, the meadows and pastures almost always had a brown colour, and looked as if they were burnt. The inhabitants of those parts do not therefore enjoy the pleasure which aEuropean[130]feels at the sight of our verdant, odoriferous meadows.
TheAmerican Nightshade, or thePhytolacca decandra, grows abundantly in the fields, and under the trees, on little hills. Its black berries are now ripe. We observed to day some little birds with a blue plumage, and of the size of ourHortulansandYellow Hammers(Emberiza CitrinellaandEmberiza Hortulanus) flying down from the trees, in order to settle upon the nightshade and eat its berries.
Towards night I went to Mr.Bartram’s country seat.
Septemberthe 29th. TheGnaphalium margaritaceum, grows in astonishing quantities upon all uncultivated fields, glades, hills, and the like. Its height is different according to its different soil and situation. Sometimes it is very ramose, and sometimes very little. It has a strong, but agreeable smell. TheEnglishcall itLife everlasting; for its flowers, which consist chiefly of dry, shining, silvery leaves (Folia calycina) do not change when dried. This plant is now every where in full blossom. But some have already lost the flowers, and are beginning to drop the seeds. TheEnglishladies were used to gather great quantities of thisLife everlasting, and to pluck them[131]with the stalks. For they put them into pots with or without water, amongst other fine flowers which they had gathered both in the gardens and in the fields, and placed them as an ornament in the rooms. TheEnglishladies in general are much inclined to have fine flowers all the summer long, in or upon the chimneys, sometimes upon a table, or before the windows, either on account of their fine appearance, or for the sake of their sweet scent. TheGnaphaliumabove-mentioned, was one of those, which they kept in their rooms during the winter, because its flowers never altered from what they were when they stood in the ground. Mr.Bartramtold me another use of this plant. A decoction of the flowers and stalks is used to bathe any pained or bruised part, or it is rubbed with the plant itself tied up in a bag.
Instead of flax several people made use of a kind ofDog’sbane, orLinnæus’sApocynum cannabinum. The people prepared the stalks of this plant, in the same manner as we prepare those of hemp or flax. It was spun and several kinds of stuffs were woven from it. The savages are said to have had the art of making bags, fishing-nets, and the like, for many centuries together, before the arrival of theEuropeans.[132]
I asked Mr.Bartram, whether he had observed in his travels, that the water was fallen, and that the sea had formerly covered any places which were now land. He told me, that from what he had experienced, he was convinced that the greatest part of this country, even for several miles together, had formerly been under water. The reasons which led him to give credit to this opinion, were the following.
1. On digging in the blue mountains, which are above three hundredEnglishmiles distant from the sea, you find loose oyster and other sorts of shells, and they are also likewise to be met with in the vallies formed by these mountains.
2. A vast quantity of petrified shells are found in limestone, flint, and sandstone, on the same mountains. Mr.Bartramassured me at the same time, that it was incredible what quantities of them there were in the different kinds of stones of which the mountains consist.
3. The same shells are likewise dug in great quantity, quite entire and not mouldered, in the provinces ofVirginiaandMaryland, as also inPhiladelphiaand inNew York.
4. On digging wells (not only inPhiladelphia, but likewise in other places) the[133]people have met with trees, roots, and leaves of oak, for the greatest part, not yet rotten, at the depth of eighteen feet.
5. The best soil and the richest mould is to be met with in the vallies hereabouts. These vallies are commonly crossed by a rivulet or brook. And on their declivity, a mountain commonly rises, which in those places where the brook passes close to it, looks as if it were cut on purpose. Mr.Bartrambelieved, that all these vallies formerly were lakes; that the water had by degrees hollowed out the mountain, and opened a passage for itself through it; and that the great quantity of slime which is contained in the water, and which had subsided to the bottom of the lake, was the rich soil which is at present in the vallies, and the cause of their great fertility. But such vallies and cloven mountains are very frequent in the country, and of this kind is the peculiar gap between two mountains, through which a river takes its course or boundaries ofNew YorkandPennsylvania. The people in a jest say, that this opening by the D—l, as he wanted to go out ofPennsylvaniaintoNew York.
6. The whole appearance of the blue mountains, plainly shews that the water[134]formerly covered at part of them. For many are broken in a peculiar manner, but the highest are plain.
7. When the savages are told, that shells are found on these high mountains, and that from thence there is reason to believe that the sea must formerly have extended to them, and even in part flown over them; they answer that this is not new to them, they having a tradition from their ancestors among them, that the sea formerly surrounded these mountains.
8. The water in rivers and brooks likewise decreases. Mills, which sixty years ago were built on rivers, and at that time had a sufficient supply of water almost all the year long, have at present so little, that they cannot be used, but after a heavy rain, or when the snow melts in spring. This decrease of water in part arises from the great quantity of land which is now cultivated, and from the extirpation of great forests for that purpose.
9. The sea-shore increases likewise in time. This arises from the quantity of sand continually thrown on shore from the bottom of the sea, by the waves.
Mr.Bartramthought that some peculiar attention should be paid to another thing relating to these observations. The shells[135]which are to be found petrified on the northern mountains, are of such kinds as at present are not to be got in the sea, in the same latitude, and they are not fished on the shore, till you come toSouth Carolina. Mr.Bartramfrom hence took an occasion to defend Dr.Thomas Burnet’s opinion, that the earth before the deluge was in a different position towards the sun. He likewise asked whether the great bones which are sometimes found in the ground in Siberia, and which are supposed to be elephant’s bones and tusks, did not confirm this opinion. For at present those animals cannot live in such cold countries; but if according to Dr.Burnet, the sun once formed different zones about our earth, from those it now makes, the elephant may easily be supposed to have lived inSiberia.24However it[136]seems that all which we have hitherto mentioned, may have been the effect of different causes. To those belong the universal deluge, the increase of land which is merely[137]the work of time, and the changes of the course of rivers, which when the snow melts and in great floods, leave their first beds, and form new ones.
At some distance from Mr.Bartram’s country house, a little brook flowed through the wood, and likewise ran over a rock. The attentive Mr.Bartramhere shewed me several little cavities in the rock, and we plainly saw that they must have been generated in the manner I before described, that is, by supposing a pebble to have remained in a cleft of the rock, and to have been turned round by the violence of the water, till it had formed such cavity in the mountain. For on putting our hands into one of these cavities, we found that it contained numerous small pebbles, whose surface was quite smooth and round. And these stones we found in each of the holes.
Mr.Bartramshewed me a number of[138]plants which he had collected into a herbal on his travels. Among these were the following, which likewise grow in the northern parts ofEurope, of which he had either got the whole plants, or only broken branches.
[139]
Mr.Bartramshewed me a letter fromEast Jersey, in which he got the following account of the discovery of an Indian grave. In theAprilof the year 1744, as some people were digging a cellar, they came upon a great stone, like a tombstone, which was at last got out with great difficulty, and about four feet deeper under it, they met with a large quantity of human bones and a cake of maize. The latter was yet quite untouched, and several of the people present tasted it out of curiosity. From these circumstances it was concluded that this was a grave of a person of note among the savages. For it is their custom to bury along with the deceased, meat any other things which he liked best. The stone was eight feet long, four feet broad, and even some inches more where it was broadest, and fifteen inches thick at one end, but only twelve inches at the other end. It consisted of the same coarse kind of stone, that is to be got in this country. There were no letters nor other characters visible on it.
The corn which theIndianschiefly cultivate is theMaize, orZea Mays,Linn.Then have little corn fields for that purpose. But besides this, they likewise plant a great quantity ofSquashes, a species of[140]pumpions or melons, which they have always cultivated, even in the remotest ages. TheEuropeanssettled inAmerica, got the seeds of this plant, and at present their gardens are full of it, the fruit has an agreeable taste when it is well prepared. They are commonly boiled, then crushed (as we are used to do with turneps when we make apulseof them) and some pepper or other spice thrown upon them, and the dish is ready. The Indians likewise sow several kinds of beans, which for the greatest part they have got from theEuropeans. But pease which they likewise sow, they have always had amongst them, before any foreigners came into the country. The squashes of the Indians, which now are likewise cultivated by theEuropeans, belong to those kinds of gourds (cucurbita,) which ripen before any other. They are a very delicious fruit, but will not keep. I have however seen them kept till pretty laid In winter.
Septemberthe 30th. Wheat and rye are sown in autumn about this time, and commonly reaped towards the end ofJune, or in the beginning ofJuly. These kinds of corn, however, are sometimes ready to be reaped in the middle ofJune, and there are even examples that they have been[141]mown in the beginning of that month. Barley and oats are sown inApril, and they commonly begin to grow ripe towards the end ofJuly. Buck-wheat is sown in the middle or at the end ofJuly, and is about this time, or somewhat later, ready to be reaped. If it be sown before the above-mentioned time, as inMay, or inJune, it only gives flowers, and little or no corn.
Mr.Bartramand other people assured me, that most of the cows which theEnglishhave here, are the offspring of those which they bought of theSwedeswhen they were masters of the country. TheEnglishthemselves are said to have brought over but few. TheSwedeseither brought their cattle from home, or bought them of theDutch, who were then settled here.
Near the town, I saw anIvyorHedera Helix, planted against the wall of a stone building, which was so covered by the fine green leaves of this plant, as almost to conceal the whole. It was doubtless brought over fromEurope, for I have never perceived it any where else on my travels throughNorth-America. But in its stead I have often seen wild vines made to run up the walls.
I asked Mr.Bartram, whether he had[142]observed, that trees and plants decreased in proportion as they were brought further to theNorth, asCatesbypretends? He answered, that the question should be more limited, and then his opinion would prove the true one. There are some trees which grow better in southern countries, and become less as you advance to the north. Their seeds or berries are sometimes brought into colder climates by birds and by other accidents. They gradually decrease in growth, till at last they will not grow at all. On the other hand, there are other trees and herbs which the wise Creator destined for the northern countries, and they grow there to an amazing size. But the further they are transplanted to the south, the less they grow; till at last they degenerate so much as not to be able to grow at all. Other plants love a temperate climate, and if they be carried either south or north, they will not succeed well, but always decrease. Thus for examplePensylvaniacontains some trees which grow exceedingly well, but always decrease in proportion as they are carried further off either to the north, or to the south.
I afterwards on my travels, had frequent proofs of this truth. TheSassafras, which grows inPensylvania, under[143]forty deg. of lat. and becomes a pretty tall and thick tree, was so little atOswegoandFort Nicholson, between forty-three. and forty-four deg. of lat. that it hardly reached the height of two or four feet, and was seldom so thick as the little finger of a full grown person. This was likewise the case with theTulip tree. For inPensylvaniait grows as high as our tallest oaks and firs, and its thickness is proportionable to its height. But aboutOswegoit was not above twelve feet high, and no thicker than a man’s arm. TheSugar Maple, orAcer saccharinum, is one of the most common trees in the woods ofCanada, and grows very tall. But in the southern provinces, asNew JerseyandPensylvania, it only grows on the northern side of the blue mountains, and on the steep hills which are on the banks of the river, and which are turned to the north. Yet there it does not attain to a third or fourth part of the height which it has inCanada. It is needless to mention more examples.
Octoberthe 1st. The gnats which are very troublesome at night here, are calledMusquetoes. They are exactly like the gnats inSweden, only somewhat less, and the description which is to be met with in Dr.Linnæus’sSystema Naturæ, andFauna[144]Suecica, fully agrees with them, and they are called by himCulex pipiens. In day time or at night they come into the houses, and when the people are gone to bed they begin their disagreeable humming, approach always nearer to the bed, and at last suck up so much blood, that they can hardly fly away. Their bite causes blisters in people of a delicate complexion. When the weather has been cool for some days, the musquetoes disappear. But when it changes again, and especially after a rain, they gather frequently in such quantities about the houses, that their numbers are astonishing. The chimneys of theEnglishwhich have no valves for shutting them up, afford the gnats a free entrance into the houses. In sultry evenings, they accompany the cattle in great swarms, from the woods to the houses or to town, and when they are drove before the houses, the gnats fly in wherever they can. In the greatest heat of summer, they are so numerous in some places, that the air seems to be quite full of them, especially near swamps and stagnant waters, such as the riverMorrisinNew Jersey. The inhabitants therefore make a fire before their houses to expell these disagreeableguestsby the smoak. The oldSwedeshere, said that gnats had formerly been[145]much more numerous; that even at present they swarmed in vast quantities on the sea shore near the salt water, and that those which troubled us this autumn inPhiladelphiawere of a more venomous kind, than they commonly used to be. This last quality appeared from the blisters, which were formed on the spots, where the gnats had inserted their sting. InSwedenI never felt any other inconvenience from their sting, than a little itching; whilst they sucked. But when they stung me here at night, my face was so disfigured by little red spots and blisters, that I was almost ashamed to shew myself.
I have already mentioned somewhat about the enclosures usual here; I now add, that most of the planks which are put horizontally, and of which the enclosures in the environs ofPhiladelphiachiefly consist, are of the red cedar wood, which is here reckoned more durable than any other. But where this could not be got, either white or black oak supplied its place. The people were likewise very glad if they could get cedar wood for the posts, or else they took white oak, or chesnut, as I was told by Mr.Bartram. But it seems that that kind of wood in general does not keep well in the ground for a considerable time. I[146]saw some posts made of chesnut wood, and put into the ground only the year before, which were already for the greatest part rotten below.
TheSassafras tree, orLaurus Sassafras,Linn.grows in abundance in the country, and stands scattered up and down the woods, and near bushes and enclosures. On old grounds, which are left uncultivated, it is one of the first that comes up, and is as plentiful as young birches are on thoseSwedishfields, which are formed by burning the trees which grew on them.25The sassafras grows in a dry loose ground, of a pale brick colour, which consists for the greatest part of sand, mixed with some clay. It seems to be but a poor soil. The mountains roundGothenburgh, inSweden, would afford many places rich enough for theSassafrasto grow in, and I even fear they would be too rich. I here saw it both in the woods amidst other trees, and more frequently by itself along the enclosures.[147]In both it looks equally fresh. I have never seen it on wet or low places. The people here gather its flowers, and use them instead of tea. But the wood itself is of no use in œconomy; for when it is set on fire, it causes a continual crackling, without making any good fire. The tree spreads its roots very much, and new shoots come up from them in some places; but these shoots are not good for transplanting, because they have so few fibres besides the root, which connects them to the main stem, that they cannot well strike into the ground. If therefore any one would plantSassafrastrees he must endeavour to get their berries, which however is difficult, since the birds eat them before they are half ripe. The cows are very greedy after the tender new shoots, and look for them every where.
The bark of this tree is used by the women here in dying worsted a fine lasting orange colour, which does not fade in the sun. They use urine instead of alum in dying, and boil the dye in a brass boiler, because in an iron vessel it does not yield so fine a colour. A woman inVirginiahas successfully employed the berries of the Sassafras against a great pain in one of her feet, which for three years together she had to such a degree, that it almost hindered[148]her from walking. She was advised to broil the berries of sassafras, and to rub the painful parts of her foot with the oil, which by this means would be got from the berries. She did so, but at the same time it made her vomit; yet this was not sufficient to keep her from following the prescription three times more, though as often as she made use thereof, it always had the same effect. However she was entirely freed from that pain, and perfectly recovered.
A blackWoodpeckerwith a red head, or thePicus pileatus,Linn.is frequent in thePensylvanianforests, and stays the winter, as I know from my own experience. It is reckoned among those birds which destroy the maize; because it settles on the ripe ears, and destroys them with its bill. TheSwedescall itTillkroka, but all other woodpeckers, those with gold yellow wings excepted, are calledHackspickarin theSwedishlanguage. I intend to describe them altogether more exactly in a particular work. I only observe here, that almost all the different species of woodpeckers are very noxious to the maize, when it begins to ripen: for by picking holes in the membrane round the ear, the rain gets into it, and causes the ear with all the corn it contains to rot.[149]
Octoberthe 3d. In the morning I set out forWilmington, which was formerly calledChristinaby theSwedes, and is thirtyEnglishmiles to the south west ofPhiladelphia. Three miles behindPhiladelphiaI passed the riverSkulkillin a ferry, beyond which the country appears almost a continual chain of mountains and vallies. The mountains have an easy slope on all sides, and the vallies are commonly crossed by brooks with crystal streams. The greater part of the country is covered with several kinds of deciduous trees; for I scarcely saw a single tree of the fir kind, if I except a few red cedars. The forest was high, but open below, so that it left a free prospect to the eye, and no under-wood obstructed the passage between the trees. It would have been easy in some places to have gone under the branches with a carriage for a quarter of a mile, the trees standing at great distances from each other, and the ground being very level. In some places little glades opened, which were either meadows, pastures, or corn-fields; of which latter some were cultivated and others not. In a few places, several houses were built close to each other. But for the greatest part they were single. In part of the fields the wheat was already sown, in theEnglish[150]manner without trenches, but with furrows pretty close together. I sometimes saw the country people very busy in sowing their rye. Near every farm-house was a little field with maize. The inhabitants hereabouts were commonly eitherEnglishorSwedes.
All the day long I saw a continual variety of trees; walnut trees of different sorts, which were all full of nuts; chesnut trees quite covered with fine chesnuts; mulberries, sassafras, liquidambar, tulip trees, and many others.
Several species of vines grew wild hereabouts. They run up to the summits of the trees, their clusters of grapes and their leaves covering the stems. I even saw some young oaks five or six fathoms high, whose tops were crowned with vines. The ground is that which is so common hereabouts, which I have already described, viz. a clay mixed with a great quantity of sand, and covered with a rich soil or vegetable earth. The vines are principally seen on trees which stand single in corn-fields, and at the end of woods, where the meadows, pastures, and fields begin, and likewise along the enclosures, where they cling with their tendrils round the trees which stand there. The lower parts of the plant are[151]full of grapes, which hang below the leaves, and were now almost ripe, and had a pleasant sourish taste. The country people gather them in great quantities, and sell them in the town. They are eaten without further preparation, and commonly people are presented with them when they come to pay a visit.
The soil does not seem to be deep hereabouts; for the upper black stratum is hardly two inches. This I had an occasion to see both in such places where the ground is dug up, and in such where the water, during heavy flowers of rain, has made cuts, which are pretty numerous here. The upper soil has a dark colour, and the next a pale colour like bricks. I have observed everywhere inAmerica, that the depth of the upper soil does not by far agree with the computation of some people, though we can almost be sure, that in some places it never was stirred since the deluge. I shall be more particular in this respect afterwards.26[152]
TheDatura Stramonium, orThorn Apple, grows in great quantities near all the villages. Its height is different according to the soil it is in. For in a rich soil it[153]grows eight or ten feet high, but in a hard and poor ground, it will seldom come up to six inches. ThisDatura, together with thePhytolacca, orAmerican Nightshade, grow here in those places near the gardens,[154]houses, and roads, which inSwedenare covered with nettles and goose-foot, whichEuropeanplants are very scarce inAmerica. But theDaturaandPhytolaccaare the worst weeds here, nobody knowing any particular use of them.
Turnep-fields are sometimes to be seen. In the middle of the highroad I perceived a dead black snake, which was four feet six inches long, and an inch and a half in thickness. It belonged to the viper kind.