Chapter 4

Beavers were formerly abundant inNew Sweden, as all the oldSwedeshere[60]told me. At that time they saw one bank after another raised in the rivers by beavers. But after theEuropeanscame over in great number, and cultivated the country better, the beavers have been partly killed, and partly extirpated, and partly are removed higher into the country, where the people are not so numerous. Therefore there is but a single place inPensylvaniawhere beavers are to be met with; their chief food is the bark of the beaver-tree, orMagnolia glauca, which they prefer to any other. TheSwedestherefore put branches of this tree near the beaver-dykes, into traps, which they laid for the beavers, whilst they were yet plentiful; and they could almost be certain of good success. Some persons inPhiladelphiahave tamed beavers, so that they go a fishing with them, and they always come back to their masters. MajorRoderfert, inNew York, related that he had a tame beaver above half a year in his house, where he went about quite loose, like a dog. The major gave him bread, and sometimes fish, which he was very greedy of. He got as much water in a bowl as he wanted. All the rags and soft things he could meet with he dragged into a corner, where he was used to sleep, and made a bed of them. The[61]cat in the house, having kittens, took possession of his bed, and he did not hinder her. When the cat went out, the beaver often took the kitten between his fore paws and held it to his breast to warm it, and doated upon it; as soon as the cat returned he gave her the kitten again. Sometimes he grumbled, but never did any hurt, or attempted to bite.TheEnglishand theSwedesgave the name ofMinkto an animal of this country, which likewise lives either in the water, or very near it. I have never had an opportunity to see any more than the skin of this animal. But the shape of the skin, and the unanimous accounts I have heard of it, make me conclude with much certainty, that it belonged to the genus ofweaselsormustelæ. The greatest skin I ever saw, was one foot, eight inches long, a lesser one was about ten inches long, and about three inches, one third broad, before it was cut; the colour was dark brown, and sometimes almost black; the tail was bushy, as that of a marten; the hair was very close; and the ears short, with short hair. The length of the feet belonging to the lesser skin was about two inches long. I am told this animal is so similar to theAmerican polecat, orViverra putorius,[62]that they are hardly distinguishable9. I have had the following accounts given me of its way of living; it seldom appears in day-time, but at night it comes out of the hollow trees, on the banks of rivers. Sometimes it lives in the docks and bridges, atPhiladelphia, where it is a cruel enemy to the rats. Sometimes it gets into the court-yards at night, and creeps into the chicken-house, through a small hole, where it kills all the poultry, and sucks their blood, but seldom eats one. If it meets with geese, fowls, ducks, or other birds on the road, it kills and devours them. It lives upon fish and birds. When a brook is near the houses, it is not easy to keep ducks and geese, for themink, which lives near rivers, kills the young ones. It first kills as many as it can come at, and then it carries them off, and feasts upon them. In banks and dykes near the water, it likewise does mischief, with digging. To catch it the people put up traps, into which they put heads of birds, fishes, or other meat. The skin is sold in the towns, and atPhiladelphia; they give twenty-pence and even two shillings a-piece for them,[63]according to their size. Some of the ladies get muffs made of these skins; but for the greatest part they are sent over toEngland, from whence they are distributed to other countries. The oldSwedestold me that theIndiansformerly used to eat all kinds of flesh, except that of themink.I have already mentioned something of theRaccoon; I shall here add more of the nature of this animal, in a place which is properly its native country10. TheEnglishcall it every where by the name ofRaccoon, which name they have undoubtedly taken from one of theIndiannations; theDutchcall itHespan, theSwedes,Espan, and theIroquese,Attigbro. It commonly lodges in hollow trees, lies close in the day-time, never going out but on a dark, cloudy day; but at night it rambles and seeks its food. I have been told by several people, that in bad weather, especially when it snows and blows a storm, theRaccoonlies in its hole for a week together without coming out once; during that time it lives by sucking and licking its paws. Its food are several sorts of fruit, such as maize, whilst the ears are soft. In gardens it often does a great deal of damage among the apples, chesnuts, plumbs, and[64]wild grapes, which are what it likes best; among the poultry it is very cruel. When it finds the hens on their eggs, it first kills them, and then eats the eggs. It is caught by dogs, which trace it back to its nest, in hollow trees, or by snares and traps, in which a chicken, some other bird, or a fish, is put as a bait. Some people eat its flesh. It leaps with all its feet at once; on account of this and of several other qualities, many people here reckoned it to the genus of bears. The skin sold for eighteen-pence, atPhiladelphia. I was told that theRaccoonswere not near so numerous as they were formerly; yet in the more inland parts they were abundant. I have mentioned the use which the hatters make of their furs; as likewise that they are easily tamed, that they are very greedy of sweet-meats, &c. in the preceding volume. Of all theNorth Americanwild quadrupeds none can be tamed to such a degree as this.Februarythe 10th. In the morning I went toPhiladelphia, where I arrived towards night. On my arrival at the ferry upon the riverDelaware, I found the river quite covered with drifts of ice, which at first prevented our crossing the water. After waiting about an hour, and making an opening near the ferry, I, together with[65]many more passengers, got over, before any more shoals came on. As it began to freeze very hard soon after the twelfth ofJanuary(orNew Year, according to the old style) the riverDelawarewas covered with ice, which by the intenseness of the frost grew so strong, that the people crossed the river with horses atPhiladelphia. The ice continued till the eighth ofFebruary, when it began to get loose, and the violent hurricane, which happened that night, broke it, and it was driven down so fast, that on the twelfth ofFebruarynot a single shoal came down, excepting a piece or two near the shore.Crows flew in great numbers together to-day, and settled on the tops of trees. During the whole winter we hardly observed one, though they are said to winter there. During all this spring they commonly used to sit at the tops of trees in the morning; yet not all together, but in several trees. They belong to the noxious birds in this part of the world, for they chiefly live upon corn. After the maize is planted or sown, they scratch the grains out of the ground and eat them. When the maize begins to ripen, they peck a hole into the involucrum which surrounds the ear, by which means the maize is spoiled, as the rain passes[66]through the hole which they have made, and occasions the putrefaction of the corn. Besides eating corn, they likewise steal chickens. They are very fond of dead carcasses. Some years ago the government ofPensylvaniahad given three-pence, and that ofNew Jerseyfour-pence premium for every head of aCrow, but this law has now been repealed, as the expences are too great. I have seen the youngCrowsof this kind in several places playing with tame ones whose wings were cut. The latter hopped about the fields, near the farm-houses where they belonged to, but always returned again, without endeavouring to escape on any occasion. TheseAmerican Crowsare only avarietyof theRoyston Crow, orLinnæus’sCorvus Cornix.Februarythe 12th. In the afternoon I returned toRaccoonfromPhiladelphia.On my journey toRaccoon, I attentively observed the trees which had yet any leaves left. The leaves were pale and dried up, but not all dropt from the following trees:TheBeach-tree, (Fagus sylvatica) whether great or small; it always kept a considerable part of its leaves during the whole winter even till spring. The greater trees kept the lowermost leaves.[67]Thewhite oak(Quercus alba). Most of the young trees which were not above a quarter of a yard in diameter, had the greatest part of their leaves still on them, but the old trees had lost most of theirs, except in some places where they have got new shoots. The colour of the dry leaves was much paler in the white oak than in the black one.Theblack oak(as it is commonly called here). Dr.Linnæuscalls it the red oak,Quercus rubra. Most of the young trees still preserved their dried leaves. Their colour was reddish brown, and darker than that of the white oak.TheSpanish oak, which is a mere variety of the black oak. The young trees of this kind likewise keep their leaves.A scarcespecies of oakwhich is known by its leaves having a triangularapexor top, whose angles terminate in a short bristle; the leaves are smooth below, but woolly above11. The young oaks of this species had still their leaves.When I came into any wood where the above kinds of oaks were only twenty years, and even not so old, I always found the leaves on them.[68]It seems that Providence has, besides other views, aimed to protect several sorts of birds, it being very cold and stormy about this time, by preserving even the dry leaves on these trees. I have this winter at several times seen birds hiding in the trees covered with old leaves during a severe cold or storm.Februarythe 13th. As I began to dig a hole to-day, I found several insects which were crept deep into the ground in order to pass the winter. As soon as they came to the air, they moved their limbs a little, but had not strength sufficient for creeping, except the black ants, which crept a little, though slowly.Formica nigra, orthe black ant, were pretty numerous, and somewhat lively. They lay about ten inches below the surface.Carabus latus. Some of these lay at the same depth with the ants. This is a very common insect in allNorth America.Scarabæus; chesnut-coloured, with a hairy thorax; the elytræ shorter than the abdomen, with several longitudinal lines, beset with hair. It is something similar to thecock-chaffer, but differs in many respects. I found it very abundant in the ground.[69]Gryllus campestris, or the field-cricket: They lay ten inches deep; they were quite torpid, but as soon as they came into a warm place they revived and were quite lively. In summer I have found these crickets in great plenty in all parts ofNorth Americawhere I have been. They leaped about on the fields, and made a noise like that of our common house-crickets, so that it would be difficult to distinguish them by their chirping. They sometimes make so great a noise, that it causes pain in the ears, and even two people cannot understand each other. In such places where the rattle-snakes live, the field-crickets are very disagreeable, and in a manner dangerous, for their violent chirping prevents the warning, which that horrid snake gives with its rattle, from reaching the ear, and thus deprives one of the means of avoiding it. I have already mentioned that they likewise winter sometimes in chimnies12. Here they ly all winter in the ground, but at the beginning ofMarch, as the air was grown warm, they came out of their holes, and began their music, though at first it was but very faint and rarely heard. When we were forced on our travels to sleep in uninhabited places, the crickets had got into the folds of our[70]clothes, so that we were obliged to stop an hour every morning in examining our clothes, before we could get rid of them.Thered ants(Formica rufa) which inSwedenmake the great ant-hills, I likewise found to-day and the following day; they were not in the ground, for when my servantYungstroemcut down old dry trees, he met with a number of them in the cracks of the tree. These cracks were at the height of many yards in the tree, and the ants were crept so high, in order to find their winter habitation: As soon as they came into a warm place, they began to stir about very briskly.Februarythe 14th. TheSwedesand theEnglishgave the name ofblue birdto a very pretty little bird, which was of a fine blue colour.Linnæuscalls itMotacilla Sialis.Catesbyhas drawn it in hisNatural history of Carolina, vol. I. pl. 47, and described it by the name ofRubecula Americana cærulea; andEdwardshas represented it in hisNatural history of birds, plate and page 24. In my own journal I called itMotacilla cærulea nitida, pectore rufo, ventre albo. InCatesby’s plate I must observe, that the colour of the breast ought to be dirty red or ferruginous; the tibiæ and feet black as jet; the bill too should be quite black; the blue colour in[71]general ought to be much deeper, more lively and shining; no bird inSwedenhas so shining and deep a blue colour as this: The jay has perhaps a plumage like it. The food of the blue bird is not merely insects, he likewise feeds upon plants; therefore in winter, when no insects are to be met with, they come to the farm-houses in order to subsist on the seeds of hay, and other small grains.Red-birdis another species of small bird.Catesbyhas likewise figured it13. Dr.Linnæuscalls it,Loxia Cardinalis. It belongs to that class of birds which are enemies to bees, lying in wait for them and eating them. I fed a cock for five months together in a cage; it eat both maize and buck-wheat, for I gave it nothing else. By its song it attracted others of its species to the court-yard, and after we had put some maize on the ground under the window where I had it, the others came there every day to get their food; it was then easy to catch them by means of traps. Some of them, especially old ones, both cocks and hens, would die with grief on being put into cages. Those on the other hand which were grown tame, began to sing exceedingly[72]sweet. Their note very nearly resembles that of ourEuropeannightingale, and on account of their agreeable song, they are sent abundantly toLondon, in cages. They have such strength in their bill that when you hold your hand to them they pinch it so hard as to cause the blood to issue forth. In spring they sit warbling on the tops of the highest trees in the woods, in the morning. But in cages they sit quite still for an hour; the next hour they hop up and down, singing; and so they go on alternately all day.Februarythe 17th.Cranes(Ardea Canadensis) were sometimes seen flying in the day-time, to the northward. They commonly stop here early in spring, for a short time, but they do not make their nests here, for they proceed on more to the north. Certain oldSwedestold me, that in their younger years, as the country was not yet much cultivated, an incredible number of cranes were here every spring; but at present they are not so numerous. Several people who have settled here, eat their flesh, when they can shoot them. They are said to do no harm to corn, or the like.Februarythe 23d. This morning I[73]went down toPenn’s Neck, and returned in the evening.Snow lay yet in several parts of the woods, especially where the trees stood very thick, and the sun could not make its way: however it was not above four inches deep. All along the roads was ice, especially in the woods, and therefore it was very difficult to ride horses, which were not sharp shoed. The people who are settled here know little of sledges, but ride on horseback to church in winter, though the snow is sometimes near a foot deep. It lays seldom above a week before it melts, and then some fresh snow falls.A species of birds, called by theSwedes,maize-thieves, do the greatest mischief in this country. They have given them that name, because they eat maize, both publicly and secretly, just after it is sown and covered with the ground, and when it is ripe. TheEnglishcall themblackbirds. There are two species of them, both described and drawn byCatesby14. Though they are very different in species, yet there[74]is so great a friendship between them, that they frequently accompany each other in mixed flocks. However, inPensylvania, the first sort are more obvious, and often fly together, without any of the red-wingedstares. The first sort, or the purple daws, bear, in many points, so great a likeness to the daw, the stare, and the thrush, that it is difficult to determine to which genus they are to be reckoned, but seem to come nearest to the stare; for the bill is exactly the same with that of the thrush, but the tongue, the flight, their sitting on the trees, their song and shape, make it entirely a stare; at a distance they look almost black, but close by they have a very blue or purple cast, but not so much asCatesby’s print: their size is that of a stare; the bill is conic, almost subulated, strait, convex, naked at the base, black, with almost equal mandibles, the upper being only a very little longer than the lower; the nostrils are oblong, yet a little angulated, so as to form almost squares; they are placed obliquely at the base of the bill, and have no hair; there is a little horny knob, or a small prominence on the upper side of them; the tongue is sharp and bifid at the point; the iris of the eyes is pale; the forehead, the crown, the nucha,[75]the upper part and the sides of the neck are of an obscure blue and green shining colour; the sides of the head under the eyes are obscurely blue; all the back and coverts of the wings are purple; the upper coverts of the tail are not of so conspicuous a purple colour, but as it were blackened with soot; the nine primary quill-feathers are black; the other secundary ones are likewise black, but their outward margin is purple; the twelve tail feathers have a blackish purple colour, and their tips are round; those on the outside are the shortest, and the middle extremely long. When the tail is spread, it looks round towards the extremity. The throat is blueish green, and shining; the breast is likewise black or shining green, according as you turn it to the light; the belly is blackish, and the vent feathers are obscurely purple-coloured; the parts of the breast and belly which are covered by the wings, are purple-coloured; the wings are black below, or rather sooty; and the thighs have blackish feathers; the legs (tibiæ), and the toes are of a shining black. It has four toes, as most birds have. The claws are black, and that on the back toe is longer than[76]the rest. Dr.Linnæuscalls this birdGracula Quiscula.A few of these birds are said to winter in swamps, which are quite overgrown with thick woods; and they only appear in mild weather. But the greatest number go to the south at the approach of winter. To-day I saw them, for the first time this year. They flew in great flocks already. Their chief and most agreeable food is maize. They come in great swarms in spring, soon after the maize is put under ground. They scratch up the grains of maize, and eat them. As soon as the leaf comes out, they take hold of it with their bills, and pluck it up, together with the corn or grain; and thus they give a great deal of trouble to the country people, even so early in spring. To lessen their greediness of maize, some people dip the grains of that plant in a decoct of the root of theveratrum album, or white hellebore, (of which I shall speak in the sequel) and plant them afterwards. When the maize-thief eats a grain or two, which are so prepared, his head is disordered, and he falls down: this frightens his companions, and they dare not venture to the place again. But they repay themselves amply towards autumn, when the maize grows ripe; for at that time,[77]they are continually feasting. They assemble by thousands in the maize-fields, and live at discretion. They are very bold; for when they are disturbed, they only go and settle in another part of the field. In that manner, they always go from one end of the field to the other, and do not leave it till they are quite satisfied. They fly in incredible swarms in autumn; and it can hardly be conceived whence such immense numbers of them should come. When they rise in the air they darken the sky, and make it look quite black. They are then in such great numbers, and so close together, that it is surprising how they find room to move their wings. I have known a person shoot a great number of them on one side of a maize-field, which was far from frightening the rest; for they only just took flight, and dropped at about the distance of a musket-shot in another part of the field, and always changed their place when their enemy approached. They tired the sportsman, before he could drive them from off the maize, though he killed a great many of them at every shot. They likewise eat the seeds of theaquatic tare-grass(Zizania aquatica) commonly late in autumn, after the maize is got in. I am told, they likewise eat buck-wheat, and oats. Some people[78]say, that they even eat wheat, barley, and rye, when pressed by hunger; yet, from the best information I could obtain, they have not been found to do any damage to these species of corn. In spring, they sit in numbers on the trees, near the farms; and their note is pretty agreeable. As they are so destructive to maize, the odium of the inhabitants against them is carried so far, that the laws ofPensylvaniaandNew Jerseyhave settled a premium of three-pence a dozen for dead maize-thieves. InNew England, the people are still greater enemies to them; for Dr.Franklintold me, in the spring of the year 1750, that, by means of the premiums which have been settled for killing them inNew England, they have been so extirpated, that they are very rarely seen, and in a few places only. But as, in the summer of the year 1749, an immense quantity of worms appeared on the meadows, which devoured the grass, and did great damage, the people have abated their enmity against the maize-thieves; for they thought they had observed, that those birds lived chiefly on these worms before the maize is ripe, and consequently extirpated them, or at least prevented their spreading too much. They seem therefore to be entitled, as it were, to a reward for their trouble.[79]But after these enemies and destroyers of the worms (the maize-thieves) were extirpated, the worms were more at liberty to multiply; and therefore they grew so numerous, that they did more mischief now than the birds did before. In the summer 1749, the worms left so little hay inNew England, that the inhabitants were forced to get hay fromPensylvania, and even fromOld England. The maize-thieves have enemies besides the human species. A species of little hawks live upon them, and upon other little birds. I saw some of these hawks driving up the maize-thieves, which were in the greatest security, and catching them in the air. Nobody eats the flesh of the purple maize-thieves or daws (Gracula quiscula); but that of the red-winged maize-thieves, or stares (Oriolus Phœniceus) is sometimes eaten. Some old people have told me, that this part ofAmerica, formerly calledNew Sweden, still contained as many maize-thieves as it did formerly. The cause of this they derive from the maize, which is now sown in much greater quantity than formerly; and they think that the birds can get their food with more ease at present.PURPLE JACKDAW. RED-WINGED STARE.PURPLE JACKDAW.RED-WINGED STARE.TheAmericanwhortleberry, or theVaccinium hispidulum, is extremely abundant[80]over allNorth America, and grows in such places where we commonly find our whortle-berries inSweden. TheAmericanones are bigger, but in most things so like theSwedishones, that many people would take them to be mere varieties. TheEnglishcall themCranberries, theSwedesTranbær, and theFrenchinCanadaAtopa, which is a name they have borrowed from theIndians. They are brought to market everyWednesdayandSaturdayatPhiladelphia, late in autumn. They are boiled and prepared in the same manner as we do our red whortle-berries, orVaccinium vitis idæa; and they are made use of during winter, and part of summer, in tarts and other kinds of pastry. But as they are very sour, they require a deal of sugar; but that is not very dear, in a country where the sugar-plantations are not far off. Quantities of these berries are sent over, preserved, toEurope, and to theWest Indies.Marchthe 2d.Mytilus anatinus, a kind of muscle-shells, was found abundantly in little furrows, which crossed the meadows. The shells were frequently covered on the outside, with a thin crust of particles of iron, when the water in the furrows came from an iron mine. TheEnglishmenand[81]Swedessettled here seldom made any use of these shells; but theIndianswho formerly lived here broiled them and ate the flesh. Some of theEuropeanseat them sometimes.The snow still remained in some parts of the wood, where it was very shady, but the fields were quite free from it. The cows, horses, sheep, and hogs, went into the woods, and sought their food, which was as yet very trifling.Marchthe 3d. TheSwedescall a species of little birds,Snofogel, and theEnglishcall itSnow-bird. This is Dr.Linnæus’sEmberiza hyemalis. The reason why it is called snow-bird is because it never appears in summer, but only in winter, when the fields are covered with snow. In some winters they come in as great numbers as the maize-thieves, fly about the houses and barns, into the gardens, and eat the corn, and the seeds of grass, which they find scattered on the hills.At eight o’clock at night we observed a meteor, commonly calledsnow-fire15. I have described this meteor in the memoirs of the RoyalSwedishAcademy of Sciences, see the volume for the year 1752, page 154, 155.[82]WildPigeons, (Columba migratoria16), flew in the woods, in numbers beyond conception, and I was assured that they were more plentiful than they had been for several years past. They came this week, and continued here for about a fortnight, after which they all disappeared, or advanced further into the country, from whence they came. I shall speak of them more particularly in another place.Marchthe 7th. Several people told me, that it was a certain sign of bad weather here when a thunder-storm arose in the south or south west, if it spread to the east and afterwards to the north: but that on the contrary, when it did not spread at all, or when it spread both east and west, though it should rise in south or south west, yet it would prognosticate fair weather. To-day it was heard in south west, but it did not spread at all. See the meteorological observations, at the end of this volume.Till now the frost had continued in the ground, so that if any one had a mind to dig a hole he was forced to cut it through with a pick-ax. However it had not penetrated[83]above four inches deep. But to-day it was quite gone out. This made the soil so soft, that on riding, even in the woods, the horse sunk in very deep.AMERICAN MIGRATORY PIDGEON.AMERICAN MIGRATORY PIDGEON.I often enquired among the oldEnglishmenandSwedes, whether they had found that any trees were killed in very severe winters, or had received much hurt. I was answered, that young hiccory trees are commonly killed in very cold weather; and the young black oaks likewise suffer in the same manner. Nay sometimes black oaks, five inches in diameter, were killed by the frost in a severe winter, and sometimes, though very seldom, a single mulberry-tree was killed. Peach-trees very frequently die in a cold winter, and often all the peach-trees in a whole district are killed by a severe frost. It has been found repeatedly, with regard to these trees, that they can stand the frost much better on hills, than in vallies; insomuch, that when the trees in a valley were killed by frost, those on a hill were not hurt at all. They assured me that they had never observed that the black walnut-tree, the sassafras, and other trees, had been hurt in winter. In regard to a frost in spring, they had observed at different times, that a cold night or two happened often after the trees were[84]furnished with pretty large leaves, and that by this most of the leaves were killed. But the leaves thus killed have always been supplied by fresh ones. It is remarkable that in such cold nights the frost acts chiefly upon the more delicate trees, and in such a manner, that all the leaves, to the height of seven and even of ten feet from the ground, were killed by the frost, and all the top remained unhurt. Several oldSwedesandEnglishmenassured me they had made this observation, and the attentive engineer, Mr.Lewis Evans, has shewn it me among his notes. Such a cold night happened here, in the year 1746, in the night between the 14th and 15th ofJune, new style, attended with the same effect, as appears from Mr.Evans’s observations. The trees which were then in blossom, had lost both their leaves and their flowers in these parts which were nearest the ground; sometime after they got fresh leaves, but no new flowers. Further it is observable, that the cold nights which happen in spring and summer never do any hurt to high grounds, damaging only the low and moist ones. They are likewise very perceptible in such places where limestone is to be met with, and though all the other parts of the country be not visited by such[85]cold nights in a summer, yet those where limestone lies have commonly one or two every summer. Frequently the places where the limestone lies are situated on a high ground; but they suffer notwithstanding their situation; whilst a little way off in a lower ground, where no limestone is to be found, the effects of the cold nights are not felt. Mr.Evanswas the first who made thisobservation, and I have had occasion at different times to see the truth of it, on my travels, as I shall mention in the sequel. The young hiccory-trees have their leaves killed sooner than other trees, in such a cold night, and the young oaks next; this has been observed by other people, and I have found it to be true, in the years 1749 and 1750.Marchthe 11th. Of the genus ofWood-peckers, we find here all those, whichCatesbyin his first volume of theNatural History of Carolina, has drawn and described. I shall only enumerate them, and add one or two of their qualities; but their description at large I defer for another occasion.Picus principalis, theKing of the Wood-peckers, is found here, though very seldom, and only at a certain season.[86]Picus pileatus, the crestedWood-pecker; this I have already mentioned.Picus auratus, thegold-winged Wood-pecker: This species is plentiful here, and theSwedescall itHittock, andPiut; both these names have a relation to its note; it is almost continually on the ground, and is not observed to pick in the trees; it lives chiefly on insects, but sometimes becomes the prey of hawks; it is commonly very fat, and its flesh is very palatable. As it stays all the year, and cannot easily get insects in winter, it must doubtless eat some kinds of grass or plants in the fields. Its form, and some of its qualities, make it resemble a cuckow.Picus Carolinus, theCarolina Wood-pecker. It lives here likewise, and the colour of its head is of a deeper and more shining red thanCatesbyhas represented it, vol. i. p. 19. t. 19.Picus villosus, thespotted, hairy, middle-sized Wood-peckeris abundant here; it destroys the apple-trees by pecking holes into them.Picus erythrocephalus, thered-headed Wood-pecker. This bird was frequent in the country, and theSwedescalled it merelyHackspick, orWood pecker. They give the same name to all the birds which I now enumerate, the gold-winged wood-pecker excepted. This species is destructive[87]to maize-fields and orchards, for it pecks through the ears of maize, and eats apples. In some years they are very numerous, especially where sweet apples grow, which they eat so far, that nothing but the mere peels remain. Some years ago there was a premium of two penceperhead, paid from the public funds, in order to extirpate this pernicious bird, but this law has been repealed. They are likewise very fond of acorns. At the approach of winter they travel to the southward. But when they stay in numbers in the woods, at the beginning of winter, the people look upon it as a sign of a pretty mild winter.Picus varius, thelesser, spotted, yellow-bellied Wood-pecker. These birds are much more numerous than many people wished; for this, as well as the preceding and succeeding species, are very hurtful to apple-trees.Picus pubescens, or theleast spotted Wood-pecker. This species abounds here. Of all the wood-peckers it is the most dangerous to orchards, because it is the most daring. As soon as it has pecked a hole into the tree, it makes another close to the first, in a horizontal direction, proceeding till it has pecked a circle of holes[88]round the tree. Therefore the apple-trees in the orchards here have several rings round their stems, which lie very close above each other, frequently only an inch distant from each other. Sometimes these wood-peckers peck the holes so close, that the tree dries up. This bird, asCatesbyremarks, is so like the lesser spotted wood-pecker, in regard to its colour and other qualities, that they would be taken for the same bird, were not the former (thePicus pubescens) a great deal less. They agree in the bad quality, which they both possess, of pecking holes into the apple-trees.Rana ocellataare a kind of frogs here, which theSwedescall,Sill-hoppetosser, i. e.Herring-hoppers, and which now began to quack in the evening, and at night, in swamps, pools, and ponds. The name which theSwedesgive them is derived from their beginning to make their noise in spring, at the same time when the people here go catching what are called herrings, which however differ greatly from the trueEuropeanherrings. These frogs have a peculiar note, which is not like that of ourEuropeanfrogs, but rather corresponds with the chirping of some large birds, and can nearly be expressed bypicet. With this noise they continued throughout a great[89]part of spring, beginning their noise soon after sun-setting, and finishing it just before sun-rising. The sound was sharp, but yet so loud that it could be heard at a great distance. When they expected rain they cried much worse than commonly, and began in the middle of the day, or when it grew cloudy, and the rain came usually six hours after. As it snowed on the 16th of the next month,andblew very violently all day, there was not the least sign of them at night, and during the whole time that it was cold, and whilst the snow lay on the fields, the frost had so silenced them, that we could not hear one; but as soon as the mild weather returned, they began their noise again. They were very timorous, and it was difficult to catch them; for as soon as a person approached the place where they lived, they are quite silent, and none of them appeared. It seems that they hide themselves entirely under water, except the tip of the snout, when they cry. For when I stepped to the pond where they were in, I could not observe a single one hopping into the water. I could not see any of them before I had emptied a whole pool, where they lodged in. Their colour is a dirty green, variegated with spots of brown. When[90]they are touched they make a noise and moan; they then sometimes assume a form, as if they had blown up the hind part of the back, so that it makes a high elevation; and then they do not stir, though touched. When they are put alive into spirits of wine, they die within a minute.Marchthe 12th. The bird which theEnglishandSwedesin this country callRobin-red-breast17, is found here all the year round. It is a very different bird from that which inEnglandbears the same name. It isLinnæus’sTurdus migratorius. It sings very melodiously, is not very shy, but hops on the ground, quite close to the houses.TheHazels(Corylus avellana) were now opening their blossoms. They succeeded best in a rich mould, and theSwedesreckoned it a sign of a good soil where they found them growing.Marchthe 13th. Thealder(Betula Alnus) was just blossoming.MOCKING BIRD. REDBREASTED THRUSH.MOCKING BIRD.REDBREASTED THRUSH.TheDracontium foetidumgrew plentifully in the marshes and began to flower. Among the stinking plants, this is the most fœtid; its nauseous scent was so strong, that I could hardly examine the flower;[91]and when I smelled a little too long at it, my head ached. TheSwedescall itByorn-blad(bear’s-leaf) orByorn-retter(bear’s-root.) TheEnglishcall itPolecat-root, because its effluvia are as nauseous and fœtid, as those of the polecat, which I have mentioned before. The flowers are purple-coloured; when they are in full flower, the leaves begin to come out of the ground; in summer the cattle do not touch it. Dr.Coldentold me, that he had employed the root in all cases where the root of the arum is made use of, especially against the scurvy, &c. TheSwedishname it got, because the bears, when they leave their winter habitations, are fond of it in spring: It is a common plant in allNorth America.TheDraba vernawas abundant here, and now appeared in flower.TheVeratrum albumwas very common in the marshes, and in low places over allNorth America. TheSwedeshere call itDack,DackororDackretter, that is puppet-root, because the children make puppets of its stalks and leaves. TheEnglishcall itItch-reedorEllebore. It is a poisonous plant, and therefore the cattle never touch it; however it sometimes happens that the cattle are deceived in the beginning of spring, when the pastures are bare, and eat of the fine broad green leaves of this plant,[92]which come up very early; but such a meal frequently proves fatal to them. Sheep and geese have likewise often been killed with it. By means of its root, the maize is preserved from the greediness of voracious birds, in the following manner: The roots are boiled in water, into which the maize is put as soon as the water is quite cool; the maize must ly all night in it, and is then planted as usual. When the maize-thieves, crows, or other birds, pick up or pluck out the grains of maize, their heads grow delirious, and they fall, which so frightens the rest that they never venture on the field again; when those which have tasted the grains recover, they leave the field, and are no more tempted to visit it again. By thus preparing maize, one must be very careful that no other creatures touch it; for when ducks or fowls eat a grain or two of the maize which is thus steeped, they become very sick; but if they swallow a considerable quantity they die. When the root is thrown away raw, no animal eats it; but when it is put out boiled, its sweet taste tempts the beasts to eat it. Dogs have been seen to eat a little of it, and have been very sick after it; however they have recovered after a vomit, for when animals cannot free themselves of it by this means, they often die. Some people boil the root, and[93]wash the scorbutic parts with the water or decoct. This is said to cause some pain, and even a plentiful discharge of urine, but it re-establishes the patient. When the children here are plagued with vermin, the women boil this root, put the comb into the decoction, and comb the head with it, and this kills them most effectually.Marchthe 17th. At the first arrival of theSwedesin this country, and long after that time, it was filled withIndians. But as theEuropeansproceeded to cultivate the land, theIndianssold their land, and went further into the country. But in reality few of theIndiansreally left the country in this manner; most of them ended their days before, either by wars among themselves, or by the small-pox, a disease which theIndianswere unacquainted with before their commerce with theEuropeans, and which since that time has killed incredible numbers of them. For though they can heal wounds and other external hurts, yet they know not how to proceed with fevers, or in general with internal diseases. One can imagine, how ill they would succeed with the cure of the small-pox, when as soon as the pustules appeared, they leaped naked into the cold water of the rivers, lakes, or fountains, and either dived over[94]head into it, or poured it over their body in great abundance, in order to cool the heat of the fever. In the same manner they carry their children, when they have the small-pox, into the water and duck them18. But brandy has killed most of theIndians. This liquor was likewise entirely unknown to them, before theEuropeanscame hither; but after they had tasted it, they could never get enough of it. A man can hardly have a greater desire of a thing, than theIndianshave of brandy. I have heard them say, that to die by drinking brandy, was a[95]desirable and an honourable death; and indeed ’tis no very uncommon thing to kill themselves by drinking this liquor to excess.The food of theseIndianswas very different from that of the inhabitants of the other parts of the world. Wheat, rye, barley, oats, and rice-groats, were quite unknown inAmerica. In the same manner it is with regard to the fruits and herbs which are eaten in the old countries. The maize, some kinds of beans, and melons, made almost the whole of theIndianagriculture and gardening; and dogs were the only domestic animals inNorth America. But as their agriculture and their gardening were very trifling, and they could hardly live two months in a year upon their produce, they were forced to apply to hunting and fishing, which at that time, and even at present, are their chief subsistence, and to seek some of the wild plants and trees here. Some of the oldSwedeswere yet alive, who in their younger years had an intercourse with theIndians, and had seen the minutiæ of their œconomy. I was therefore desirous of knowing which of the spontaneous herbs they made use of for food at that time; and all the old men agreed that the following plants were what they chiefly consumed:[96]HopnissorHapnisswas theIndianname of a wild plant, which they ate at that time. TheSwedesstill call it by that name, and it grows in the meadows in a good soil. The roots resemble potatoes, and were boiled by theIndians, who eat them instead of bread. Some of theSwedesat that time likewise ate this root for want of bread. Some of theEnglishstill eat them instead of potatoes. Mr.Bartramtold me, that theIndianswho live farther in the country do not only eat these roots, which are equal in goodness to potatoes, but likewise take the pease which ly in the pods of this plant, and prepare them like common pease. Dr.Linnæuscalls the plantGlycine Apios.Katnissis anotherIndianname of a plant, the root of which they were likewise accustomed to eat, when they lived here. TheSwedesstill preserve this name. It grows in low, muddy and very wet ground. The root is oblong, commonly an inch and an half long, and one inch and a quarter broad in the middle; but some of the roots have been as big as a man’s fists. TheIndianseither boiled this root or roasted it in hot ashes. Some of theSwedeslikewise eat them with much appetite, at the time when theIndianswere so near the coast; but at present none of them make any use[97]of the roots. A man of ninety-one years of age, calledNils Gustafson, told me, that he had often eaten these roots when he was a boy, and that he liked them very well at that time. He added that theIndians, especially their women, travelled to the islands, dug out the roots, and brought them home; and whilst they had them, they desired no other food. They said that the hogs, which are amazingly greedy of them, have made them very scarce. The cattle are very fond of its leaves. I afterwards got fond of these roots roasted, and in my opinion they tasted well, though they were rather dry: The taste was nearly the same with that of the potatoes. When theIndianscome down to the coast and see the turneps of theEuropeans, they likewise give them the name ofkatniss. Their katniss is an arrow-head orSagittaria, and is only a variety of theSwedisharrow-head orSagittaria sagittifolia, for the plant above the ground is entirely the same, but the root under ground is much greater in theAmericanthan in theEuropean. Mr.Osbeckin his voyage toChina, vol. i. p. 334, of theEnglishedition, mentions, that theChineseplant aSagittaria, and eat its roots. This seems undoubtedly to be a variety of thiskatniss. Further in the north of this[98]part ofAmerica, I met with the other species ofSagittariawhich we have inSweden.Taw-hoandTaw-himwas theIndianname of another plant, the root of which they eat. Some of them likewise call itTuckah; but most of theSwedesstill knew it by the name ofTaw-ho. It grows in moist ground and swamps. Hogs are very greedy of the roots, and grow very fat by feeding on them. Therefore, they often visit the places where these roots grow; and they are frequently seen rooting up the mud, and falling with their whole body into the water, so that only a little of the back part was out of the water. It is therefore very plain, that these roots must have been extirpated in places which are frequented by hogs. The roots often grow to the thickness of a man’s thigh. When they are fresh, they have a pungent taste, and are reckoned a poison in that fresh taste. Nor did theIndiansever venture to eat them raw, but prepared them in the following manner: They gathered a great heap of these roots, dug a great long hole, sometimes two or three fathoms and upwards in length, into which they put the roots, and covered them with the earth that had been taken out of the hole; they made a great fire above it, which burnt till they thought proper to remove it; and then[99]they dug up the roots, and consumed them with great avidity. These roots, when prepared in this manner, I am told, taste like potatoes. TheIndiansnever dry and preserve them; but always take them fresh out of the marshes, when they want them. ThisTaw-hois theArum Virginicum, orVirginianWake-robin. It is remarkable, that the Arums, with the plants next akin to them, are eaten by men in different parts of the world, though their roots, when raw, have a fiery pungent taste, and are almost poisonous in that state. How can men have learnt, that plants so extremely opposite to our nature were eatable; and that their poison, which burns on the tongue, can be conquered by fire. Thus the root of theCalla palustris, which grows in the north ofEurope, is sometimes used instead of bread on an exigency. TheNorth American Indiansconsume this species of Arum. Those ofSouth America, and of theWest Indies, eat other species of Arums. TheHottentots, at theCape of Good Hope, inAfrica, prepare bread from a species ofArumorWake-robin, which is as burning and poisonous as the other species of this plant. In the same manner, they employ the roots of some kinds of Arum as a food, inEgyptandAsia. Probably,[100]that severe but sometimes useful mistress, necessity, has first taught men to find out a food, which the first taste would have rejected as useless. ThisTaw-hoseems to be the same with what theIndiansinCarolinacallTuckahoo; and of which see Vol. I. p. 287.Taw-keeis another plant, so called by theIndianswho eat it. Some of them call itTaw-kim, and othersTackvim. TheSwedescall it always by the name ofTaw-kee. The plant grows in marshes, near moist and low grounds, and is very plentiful inNorth America. The cattle, hogs and stags, are very fond of the leaves in spring; for they are some of the earliest. The leaves are broad, like those of theConvallaria, or Lilly of the Valley, green on the upper side, and covered with very minute hair, so that they looked like a fine velvet. TheIndianspluck the seeds, and keep them for eating. They cannot be eaten fresh or raw, but must be dried. TheIndianswere forced to boil them repeatedly in water, before they were fit for use; and then they ate them like pease. When theSwedesgave them butter or milk, they boiled or broiled the seeds in it. Sometimes they employ these seeds instead of bread; and they taste like pease. Some of theSwedeslikewise[101]ate them; and the old men among them told me, they liked this food better than any of the other plants which theIndiansformerly made use of. ThisTaw-keewas theOrontium aquaticum.Bilberrieswere likewise a very common dish among theIndians. They are calledHuckleberriesby theEnglishhere, and belong to several species ofVaccinium, which are all of them different from ourSwedishBilberry-bush, though their berries, in regard to colour, shape, and taste, are so similar to theSwedishbilberry, that they are distinguished from each other with difficulty. TheAmericanones grow on shrubs, which are from two to four feet high; and there are some species which are above seven feet in height. TheIndiansformerly plucked them in abundance every year, dried them either in the sun-shine or by the fire-side, and afterwards prepared them for eating, in different manners, These huckleberries are still a dainty dish among theIndians. On my travels through the country of theIroquese, they offered me, whenever they designed to treat me well, fresh maize-bread, baked in an oblong shape, mixed with driedHuckleberries, which lay as close in it as the raisins in a plumb-pudding. I shall[102]write more at large about it in the sequel. TheEuropeansare likewise used to collect a quantity of these berries, to dry them in ovens, to bake them in tarts, and to employ them in several other ways. Some preserve them with treacle. They are likewise eaten raw, either quite alone or with fresh milk.I shall, on the 27th ofMarch, find occasion to mention another dish, which theIndiansate formerly, and still eat, on formal ceremonies.Marchthe 18th. Almost during the whole of this spring, the weather and the winds were always calm in the morning at sun-rising. At eight o’clock the wind began to blow pretty hard, and continued so all day, till sun-setting; when it ceased, and all the night was calm. This was the regular course of the weather; but sometimes the winds raged, without intermission, for two or three days together. At noon it was commonly most violent. But in the ordinary way, the wind decreased and increased as follows: At six in the morning, a calm; at seven, a very gentle western breeze, which grew stronger at eight; at eleven it was much stronger; but at four in the afternoon, it is no stronger than it was[103]at eight o’clock in the morning; and thus it goes on decreasing till it is quite a calm, just before sun-set. The winds this spring blew generally west, as appears from the observations at the end of this volume.I was told, that it was a very certain prognostic of bad weather, that when you see clouds in the horizon in the south-west, about sun-setting, and when those clouds sink below the horizon, in an hour’s time, it will rain the next day, though all the forenoon be fair and clear. But if some clouds be seen in the south-west, in the horizon, at sun-set, and they rise some time after, you may expect fair weather the next day.Marchthe 20th. An oldSwedeprognosticated a change in the weather, because it was calm to-day; for when there has been wind for some days together, and a calm follows, they say, rain or snow, or some other change in the weather, will happen. I was likewise told, that some people here were of that false opinion, that the weather commonly alters onFriday; so that, in case it had rained or blown hard all the week, and a change was to happen, it would commonly fall onFriday. How far the former prognostic has been true, appears from my own observations of the weather, to which I refer.[104]Marchthe 21st. The red maple (Acer rubrum) and theAmericanelm (Ulmus Americana) began to flower at present; and some of the latter kind were already in full blossom.Marchthe 24th. I walked pretty far to-day, in order to see whether I could find any plants in flower. But the cloudy weather, and the great rains which had lately fallen, had allowed little or nothing to grow up. The leaves now began to grow pretty green. The plants which I have just before mentioned, were now in full blossom.The noble Liverwort, orAnemone hepatica, was now every where in flower. It was abundant; and theSwedescalled itBlablomster, or Blue-flower. They did not know any use of it.Near all the corn-fields on which I walked to-day, I did not see a single ditch, though many of them wanted it. But the people generally followed theEnglishway of making no ditches along the fields, without considering whether the corn-fields wanted them or not. The consequence was, that the late rain had in many places washed away great pieces of the grounds, sown with wheat and rye. There were no ridges left between the fields, except a very narrow one near the fence, which was entirely over-grown[105]with the Sumach, orRhus glabra, and with black-berry bushes, so that there the cattle could find very little or no food. The corn fields werebroad-cast, or divided into pieces, which were near seventeen feet broad, and separated from each other only by means of furrows. These pieces were uniform, and not elevated in the middle.Meloe majalisa species of oil-beetle, crept about on the hills.Papilio Antiopa, or willow butterfly, flew in the woods to-day, and was the first butterfly which I saw this year.Papilio Euphrosyne, or theAprilbutterfly, was one of the scarce species. The otherAmericaninsect, which I described this day and the following days, I shall mention on some other occasion. In the sequel I shall only mention those which were remarkable for some peculiar qualities.The hay-stacks were commonly made here after theSwedishmanner, that is, in the shape of a thick and short cone, without any cover over it. When the people wanted any hay, they cut some of it loose, by a peculiar sort of a knife. However, many people, especially in the environs ofPhiladelphia, had hay-stacks with roofs which could be moved up and down.[106]Near the surface of the ground were some poles laid, on which the hay was put, that the air may pass freely through it. I have mentioned before, that the cattle have no stables in winter or summer, but must go in the open air, during the whole year. However, inPhiladelphia, and in a few other places, I have seen that those people who made use of the latter kind of hay-stacks, viz. that with moveable roofs, commonly had built them so, that the hay was put a fathom or two above the ground, on a floor of boards, under which the cattle could stand in winter, when the weather was very bad. Under this floor of boards were partitions of boards on all the sides, which however stood far enough from each other, to afford the air a free passage.Marchthe 27th. In the morning I went in order to speak with the oldSwede,Nils Gustafson, who was ninety-one years of age. I intended to get an account of the former state ofNew Sweden. The country which I now passed through was the same with that which I had found in those parts ofNorth AmericaI had hitherto seen. It was diversified with a variety of little hills and vallies: the former consisted of a very pale brick-coloured earth, composed, for the greatest part, of a fine[107]sand, mixed with some mould. I saw no mountains, and no stones, except some little stones, not above the size of a pigeon’s or hen’s egg, lying on the hills, and commonly consisting of white quartz, which was generally smooth and polished on the outside. At the bottom, along the vallies, ran sometimes rivulets of crystalline water, the bottom of which was covered with such white pebbles as I have just described. Now and then I met with a swamp in the vallies. Sometimes there appeared, though at considerable distances from each other, some farms, frequently surrounded on all sides by corn-fields. Almost on every corn-field there yet remained the stumps of trees, which had been cut down; a proof that this country has not been long cultivated, being overgrown with trees forty or fifty years ago. The farms did not ly together in villages, or so that several of them were near each other, in one place; but they were all separated from one another. Each countryman lived by himself, had his own ground about his house, separated from the property of his neighbour. The greatest part of the land, between these farms so distant from each other, was over-grown with woods, confiding of tall trees. However, there was a fine space[108]between the trees, so that one could ride on horseback without inconvenience in the woods, and even with a cart in most places; and the ground was very plain and uniform at the same time. Here and there appeared some fallen trees, thrown down by the wind; some were torn up by the roots; others broken quite across the stem. In some parts of the country the trees were thick and tall, but in others I found large tracts covered with young trees, only twenty, thirty, or forty years old: these tracts, I am told, theIndiansformerly had their little plantations in. I did not yet see any marks of the leaves coming out, and I did not meet with a flower in the woods: for the cold winds, which had blown for several days together successively, had hindered this. The woods consisted chiefly of several species of oak, and of hiccory. The swamps were filled with red maple, which was all now in flower, and made these places look quite red at a distance.The oldSwede, whom I came to visit, seemed to be still pretty hearty and fresh, and could walk by the help of a stick; but he complained of having felt in these latter years, some pains in his back, and limbs, and that he could keep his feet warm in winter only by sitting near the fire.[109]He said he could very well remember the state of this country, at the time when theDutchpossessed it, and in what circumstances it was in before the arrival of theEnglish. He added, that he had brought a great deal of timber toPhiladelphia, at the time that it was built. He still remembered to have seen a great forest on the spot wherePhiladelphianow stands. The father of this old man had been one of theSwedeswho were sent over fromSweden, in order to cultivate and inhabit this country. He returned me the following answers to the questions I asked him.Quere, Whence did theSwedes, who first came hither, get their cattle? The old man answered, that when he was a boy, his father and other people had told him, that theSwedesbrought their horses, cows, and oxen, sheep, hogs, geese, and ducks, over with them. There were but few of a kind at first, but they multiplied greatly here afterwards. He said, thatMaryland,New York,New England, andVirginia, had been sooner inhabited byEuropeansthan this part of the country; but he did not know whether theSwedesever got cattle of any kind, from any of these provinces, except fromNew York. Whilst he was yet very young, theSwedes, as well[110]as he could remember, had already a sufficient stock of all these animals. The hogs had propagated so much at that time, there being so great a plenty of food for them, that they ran about wild in the woods, and that the people were obliged to shoot them, when they intended to make use of them. The old man likewise recollected, that horses ran wild in the woods, in some places; but he could not tell whether any other kind of cattle turned wild. He thought that the cattle grow as big at present as they did when he was a boy, supposing they get as much food as they want. For in his younger years, food for all kinds of cattle was so plentiful, and even so superfluous, that the cattle were extremely well fed by it. A cow at that time gave more milk, than three or four do at present; but she got more and better food at that time, than three or four get now; and, as the old man said, the scanty allowance of grass, which the cattle get in summer, is really very pitiful. The causes of this scarcity of grass have already been mentioned.Quere, Whence did theEnglishinPensylvaniaandNew Jerseyget their cattle? They bought them chiefly from theSwedesandDutch, who lived here; and[111]a small number were brought over fromOld England. The form of the cattle, and the unanimous accounts of theEnglishhere, confirmed what the old man had said.Quere, Whence did theSwedeshere settled get their several sorts of corn, and likewise their fruit-trees and kitchen-herbs? The old man told me that he had frequently heard, when he was young, that theSwedeshad brought all kinds of corn, and fruits, and herbs, or seeds of them, with them. For, as far as he could recollect, theSwedeshere were plentifully provided with wheat, rye, barley, and oats. TheSwedes, at that time, brewed all their beer of malt made of barley, and likewise made good strong beer. They had already got distilling vessels, and made good brandy. Every one among them had not a distilling vessel, but when they intended to distil, they lent their apparatus to one another. At first they were forced to buy maize of theIndians, both for sowing and eating. But after continuing for some years in this country, they extended their maize-plantations so much that theIndianswere obliged some time after to buy maize of theSwedes. The old man likewise assured me, that the[112]Indiansformerly, and about the time of the first settling of theSwedes, were more industrious and laborious in every branch of business, than they are now. Whilst he was young, theSwedeshad a great quantity of very goodwhite cabbage.Winter cabbage, orCale, which was left on the ground during winter, was likewise abundant. They were likewise well provided with turnips. In winter they kept them in holes under ground. But the old man did not like that method; for when they had lain too long in these holes, in winter, they became spungy. He preferred that method of keeping them which is now commonly adopted, and which consists in the following particulars. After the turnips have been taken out of the ground in autumn, and exposed to the air for a while, they are put in a heap upon the field, covered with straw at the top, and on the sides, and with earth over the straw. By this means they stand the winter very well here, and do not become spungy. TheIndianswere very fond of turneps, and called them sometimesHopniss, sometimesKatniss. TheSwedeslikewise cultivated carrots, in the old man’s younger years. Among the fruit-trees wereApple-trees.[113]They were not numerous, and only some of theSwedeshad little orchards of them, whilst others had not a single tree. None of theSwedesmade cyder, for it is come into use but lately. TheSwedesbrewed strong beer and small beer, and it was their common liquor. But at present there are very few who brew beer, for they commonly prepare cyder.Cherry-treeswere abundant whenNils Gustafsonwas yet a boy. Peach-trees were at that time more numerous than at present, and theSwedesbrewed beer of the fruit. The old man could not tell from whence theSwedesfirst of all got the peach-trees.During the younger years of this old man theIndianswere every where spread in the country; they lived among theSwedes, and were scattered every where. The old man mentionedSwedeswho had been killed by theIndians; and he mentioned two of his countrymen who had been scalped by them. They stole children from theSwedes, and carried them off, and they were never heard of again. Once they came and killed someSwedes, and took the upper part of their sculls with them; on that occasion they scalped a little girl, and would have killed her, if they had not perceived a boat full ofSwedes, making towards them,[114]which obliged them to fly; the girl was afterwards healed, but never got any hair on her head again; she was married, had many children, and lived to a considerable age. At another time, theIndiansattempted to kill the mother of this old man, but she vigorously resisted them, and in the mean while a number ofSwedescame up, who frightened theIndians, and made them run away. Nobody could ever find out to what nation ofIndiansthese owe their origin; for in general they lived very peaceably with theSwedes.

Beavers were formerly abundant inNew Sweden, as all the oldSwedeshere[60]told me. At that time they saw one bank after another raised in the rivers by beavers. But after theEuropeanscame over in great number, and cultivated the country better, the beavers have been partly killed, and partly extirpated, and partly are removed higher into the country, where the people are not so numerous. Therefore there is but a single place inPensylvaniawhere beavers are to be met with; their chief food is the bark of the beaver-tree, orMagnolia glauca, which they prefer to any other. TheSwedestherefore put branches of this tree near the beaver-dykes, into traps, which they laid for the beavers, whilst they were yet plentiful; and they could almost be certain of good success. Some persons inPhiladelphiahave tamed beavers, so that they go a fishing with them, and they always come back to their masters. MajorRoderfert, inNew York, related that he had a tame beaver above half a year in his house, where he went about quite loose, like a dog. The major gave him bread, and sometimes fish, which he was very greedy of. He got as much water in a bowl as he wanted. All the rags and soft things he could meet with he dragged into a corner, where he was used to sleep, and made a bed of them. The[61]cat in the house, having kittens, took possession of his bed, and he did not hinder her. When the cat went out, the beaver often took the kitten between his fore paws and held it to his breast to warm it, and doated upon it; as soon as the cat returned he gave her the kitten again. Sometimes he grumbled, but never did any hurt, or attempted to bite.TheEnglishand theSwedesgave the name ofMinkto an animal of this country, which likewise lives either in the water, or very near it. I have never had an opportunity to see any more than the skin of this animal. But the shape of the skin, and the unanimous accounts I have heard of it, make me conclude with much certainty, that it belonged to the genus ofweaselsormustelæ. The greatest skin I ever saw, was one foot, eight inches long, a lesser one was about ten inches long, and about three inches, one third broad, before it was cut; the colour was dark brown, and sometimes almost black; the tail was bushy, as that of a marten; the hair was very close; and the ears short, with short hair. The length of the feet belonging to the lesser skin was about two inches long. I am told this animal is so similar to theAmerican polecat, orViverra putorius,[62]that they are hardly distinguishable9. I have had the following accounts given me of its way of living; it seldom appears in day-time, but at night it comes out of the hollow trees, on the banks of rivers. Sometimes it lives in the docks and bridges, atPhiladelphia, where it is a cruel enemy to the rats. Sometimes it gets into the court-yards at night, and creeps into the chicken-house, through a small hole, where it kills all the poultry, and sucks their blood, but seldom eats one. If it meets with geese, fowls, ducks, or other birds on the road, it kills and devours them. It lives upon fish and birds. When a brook is near the houses, it is not easy to keep ducks and geese, for themink, which lives near rivers, kills the young ones. It first kills as many as it can come at, and then it carries them off, and feasts upon them. In banks and dykes near the water, it likewise does mischief, with digging. To catch it the people put up traps, into which they put heads of birds, fishes, or other meat. The skin is sold in the towns, and atPhiladelphia; they give twenty-pence and even two shillings a-piece for them,[63]according to their size. Some of the ladies get muffs made of these skins; but for the greatest part they are sent over toEngland, from whence they are distributed to other countries. The oldSwedestold me that theIndiansformerly used to eat all kinds of flesh, except that of themink.I have already mentioned something of theRaccoon; I shall here add more of the nature of this animal, in a place which is properly its native country10. TheEnglishcall it every where by the name ofRaccoon, which name they have undoubtedly taken from one of theIndiannations; theDutchcall itHespan, theSwedes,Espan, and theIroquese,Attigbro. It commonly lodges in hollow trees, lies close in the day-time, never going out but on a dark, cloudy day; but at night it rambles and seeks its food. I have been told by several people, that in bad weather, especially when it snows and blows a storm, theRaccoonlies in its hole for a week together without coming out once; during that time it lives by sucking and licking its paws. Its food are several sorts of fruit, such as maize, whilst the ears are soft. In gardens it often does a great deal of damage among the apples, chesnuts, plumbs, and[64]wild grapes, which are what it likes best; among the poultry it is very cruel. When it finds the hens on their eggs, it first kills them, and then eats the eggs. It is caught by dogs, which trace it back to its nest, in hollow trees, or by snares and traps, in which a chicken, some other bird, or a fish, is put as a bait. Some people eat its flesh. It leaps with all its feet at once; on account of this and of several other qualities, many people here reckoned it to the genus of bears. The skin sold for eighteen-pence, atPhiladelphia. I was told that theRaccoonswere not near so numerous as they were formerly; yet in the more inland parts they were abundant. I have mentioned the use which the hatters make of their furs; as likewise that they are easily tamed, that they are very greedy of sweet-meats, &c. in the preceding volume. Of all theNorth Americanwild quadrupeds none can be tamed to such a degree as this.Februarythe 10th. In the morning I went toPhiladelphia, where I arrived towards night. On my arrival at the ferry upon the riverDelaware, I found the river quite covered with drifts of ice, which at first prevented our crossing the water. After waiting about an hour, and making an opening near the ferry, I, together with[65]many more passengers, got over, before any more shoals came on. As it began to freeze very hard soon after the twelfth ofJanuary(orNew Year, according to the old style) the riverDelawarewas covered with ice, which by the intenseness of the frost grew so strong, that the people crossed the river with horses atPhiladelphia. The ice continued till the eighth ofFebruary, when it began to get loose, and the violent hurricane, which happened that night, broke it, and it was driven down so fast, that on the twelfth ofFebruarynot a single shoal came down, excepting a piece or two near the shore.Crows flew in great numbers together to-day, and settled on the tops of trees. During the whole winter we hardly observed one, though they are said to winter there. During all this spring they commonly used to sit at the tops of trees in the morning; yet not all together, but in several trees. They belong to the noxious birds in this part of the world, for they chiefly live upon corn. After the maize is planted or sown, they scratch the grains out of the ground and eat them. When the maize begins to ripen, they peck a hole into the involucrum which surrounds the ear, by which means the maize is spoiled, as the rain passes[66]through the hole which they have made, and occasions the putrefaction of the corn. Besides eating corn, they likewise steal chickens. They are very fond of dead carcasses. Some years ago the government ofPensylvaniahad given three-pence, and that ofNew Jerseyfour-pence premium for every head of aCrow, but this law has now been repealed, as the expences are too great. I have seen the youngCrowsof this kind in several places playing with tame ones whose wings were cut. The latter hopped about the fields, near the farm-houses where they belonged to, but always returned again, without endeavouring to escape on any occasion. TheseAmerican Crowsare only avarietyof theRoyston Crow, orLinnæus’sCorvus Cornix.Februarythe 12th. In the afternoon I returned toRaccoonfromPhiladelphia.On my journey toRaccoon, I attentively observed the trees which had yet any leaves left. The leaves were pale and dried up, but not all dropt from the following trees:TheBeach-tree, (Fagus sylvatica) whether great or small; it always kept a considerable part of its leaves during the whole winter even till spring. The greater trees kept the lowermost leaves.[67]Thewhite oak(Quercus alba). Most of the young trees which were not above a quarter of a yard in diameter, had the greatest part of their leaves still on them, but the old trees had lost most of theirs, except in some places where they have got new shoots. The colour of the dry leaves was much paler in the white oak than in the black one.Theblack oak(as it is commonly called here). Dr.Linnæuscalls it the red oak,Quercus rubra. Most of the young trees still preserved their dried leaves. Their colour was reddish brown, and darker than that of the white oak.TheSpanish oak, which is a mere variety of the black oak. The young trees of this kind likewise keep their leaves.A scarcespecies of oakwhich is known by its leaves having a triangularapexor top, whose angles terminate in a short bristle; the leaves are smooth below, but woolly above11. The young oaks of this species had still their leaves.When I came into any wood where the above kinds of oaks were only twenty years, and even not so old, I always found the leaves on them.[68]It seems that Providence has, besides other views, aimed to protect several sorts of birds, it being very cold and stormy about this time, by preserving even the dry leaves on these trees. I have this winter at several times seen birds hiding in the trees covered with old leaves during a severe cold or storm.Februarythe 13th. As I began to dig a hole to-day, I found several insects which were crept deep into the ground in order to pass the winter. As soon as they came to the air, they moved their limbs a little, but had not strength sufficient for creeping, except the black ants, which crept a little, though slowly.Formica nigra, orthe black ant, were pretty numerous, and somewhat lively. They lay about ten inches below the surface.Carabus latus. Some of these lay at the same depth with the ants. This is a very common insect in allNorth America.Scarabæus; chesnut-coloured, with a hairy thorax; the elytræ shorter than the abdomen, with several longitudinal lines, beset with hair. It is something similar to thecock-chaffer, but differs in many respects. I found it very abundant in the ground.[69]Gryllus campestris, or the field-cricket: They lay ten inches deep; they were quite torpid, but as soon as they came into a warm place they revived and were quite lively. In summer I have found these crickets in great plenty in all parts ofNorth Americawhere I have been. They leaped about on the fields, and made a noise like that of our common house-crickets, so that it would be difficult to distinguish them by their chirping. They sometimes make so great a noise, that it causes pain in the ears, and even two people cannot understand each other. In such places where the rattle-snakes live, the field-crickets are very disagreeable, and in a manner dangerous, for their violent chirping prevents the warning, which that horrid snake gives with its rattle, from reaching the ear, and thus deprives one of the means of avoiding it. I have already mentioned that they likewise winter sometimes in chimnies12. Here they ly all winter in the ground, but at the beginning ofMarch, as the air was grown warm, they came out of their holes, and began their music, though at first it was but very faint and rarely heard. When we were forced on our travels to sleep in uninhabited places, the crickets had got into the folds of our[70]clothes, so that we were obliged to stop an hour every morning in examining our clothes, before we could get rid of them.Thered ants(Formica rufa) which inSwedenmake the great ant-hills, I likewise found to-day and the following day; they were not in the ground, for when my servantYungstroemcut down old dry trees, he met with a number of them in the cracks of the tree. These cracks were at the height of many yards in the tree, and the ants were crept so high, in order to find their winter habitation: As soon as they came into a warm place, they began to stir about very briskly.Februarythe 14th. TheSwedesand theEnglishgave the name ofblue birdto a very pretty little bird, which was of a fine blue colour.Linnæuscalls itMotacilla Sialis.Catesbyhas drawn it in hisNatural history of Carolina, vol. I. pl. 47, and described it by the name ofRubecula Americana cærulea; andEdwardshas represented it in hisNatural history of birds, plate and page 24. In my own journal I called itMotacilla cærulea nitida, pectore rufo, ventre albo. InCatesby’s plate I must observe, that the colour of the breast ought to be dirty red or ferruginous; the tibiæ and feet black as jet; the bill too should be quite black; the blue colour in[71]general ought to be much deeper, more lively and shining; no bird inSwedenhas so shining and deep a blue colour as this: The jay has perhaps a plumage like it. The food of the blue bird is not merely insects, he likewise feeds upon plants; therefore in winter, when no insects are to be met with, they come to the farm-houses in order to subsist on the seeds of hay, and other small grains.Red-birdis another species of small bird.Catesbyhas likewise figured it13. Dr.Linnæuscalls it,Loxia Cardinalis. It belongs to that class of birds which are enemies to bees, lying in wait for them and eating them. I fed a cock for five months together in a cage; it eat both maize and buck-wheat, for I gave it nothing else. By its song it attracted others of its species to the court-yard, and after we had put some maize on the ground under the window where I had it, the others came there every day to get their food; it was then easy to catch them by means of traps. Some of them, especially old ones, both cocks and hens, would die with grief on being put into cages. Those on the other hand which were grown tame, began to sing exceedingly[72]sweet. Their note very nearly resembles that of ourEuropeannightingale, and on account of their agreeable song, they are sent abundantly toLondon, in cages. They have such strength in their bill that when you hold your hand to them they pinch it so hard as to cause the blood to issue forth. In spring they sit warbling on the tops of the highest trees in the woods, in the morning. But in cages they sit quite still for an hour; the next hour they hop up and down, singing; and so they go on alternately all day.Februarythe 17th.Cranes(Ardea Canadensis) were sometimes seen flying in the day-time, to the northward. They commonly stop here early in spring, for a short time, but they do not make their nests here, for they proceed on more to the north. Certain oldSwedestold me, that in their younger years, as the country was not yet much cultivated, an incredible number of cranes were here every spring; but at present they are not so numerous. Several people who have settled here, eat their flesh, when they can shoot them. They are said to do no harm to corn, or the like.Februarythe 23d. This morning I[73]went down toPenn’s Neck, and returned in the evening.Snow lay yet in several parts of the woods, especially where the trees stood very thick, and the sun could not make its way: however it was not above four inches deep. All along the roads was ice, especially in the woods, and therefore it was very difficult to ride horses, which were not sharp shoed. The people who are settled here know little of sledges, but ride on horseback to church in winter, though the snow is sometimes near a foot deep. It lays seldom above a week before it melts, and then some fresh snow falls.A species of birds, called by theSwedes,maize-thieves, do the greatest mischief in this country. They have given them that name, because they eat maize, both publicly and secretly, just after it is sown and covered with the ground, and when it is ripe. TheEnglishcall themblackbirds. There are two species of them, both described and drawn byCatesby14. Though they are very different in species, yet there[74]is so great a friendship between them, that they frequently accompany each other in mixed flocks. However, inPensylvania, the first sort are more obvious, and often fly together, without any of the red-wingedstares. The first sort, or the purple daws, bear, in many points, so great a likeness to the daw, the stare, and the thrush, that it is difficult to determine to which genus they are to be reckoned, but seem to come nearest to the stare; for the bill is exactly the same with that of the thrush, but the tongue, the flight, their sitting on the trees, their song and shape, make it entirely a stare; at a distance they look almost black, but close by they have a very blue or purple cast, but not so much asCatesby’s print: their size is that of a stare; the bill is conic, almost subulated, strait, convex, naked at the base, black, with almost equal mandibles, the upper being only a very little longer than the lower; the nostrils are oblong, yet a little angulated, so as to form almost squares; they are placed obliquely at the base of the bill, and have no hair; there is a little horny knob, or a small prominence on the upper side of them; the tongue is sharp and bifid at the point; the iris of the eyes is pale; the forehead, the crown, the nucha,[75]the upper part and the sides of the neck are of an obscure blue and green shining colour; the sides of the head under the eyes are obscurely blue; all the back and coverts of the wings are purple; the upper coverts of the tail are not of so conspicuous a purple colour, but as it were blackened with soot; the nine primary quill-feathers are black; the other secundary ones are likewise black, but their outward margin is purple; the twelve tail feathers have a blackish purple colour, and their tips are round; those on the outside are the shortest, and the middle extremely long. When the tail is spread, it looks round towards the extremity. The throat is blueish green, and shining; the breast is likewise black or shining green, according as you turn it to the light; the belly is blackish, and the vent feathers are obscurely purple-coloured; the parts of the breast and belly which are covered by the wings, are purple-coloured; the wings are black below, or rather sooty; and the thighs have blackish feathers; the legs (tibiæ), and the toes are of a shining black. It has four toes, as most birds have. The claws are black, and that on the back toe is longer than[76]the rest. Dr.Linnæuscalls this birdGracula Quiscula.A few of these birds are said to winter in swamps, which are quite overgrown with thick woods; and they only appear in mild weather. But the greatest number go to the south at the approach of winter. To-day I saw them, for the first time this year. They flew in great flocks already. Their chief and most agreeable food is maize. They come in great swarms in spring, soon after the maize is put under ground. They scratch up the grains of maize, and eat them. As soon as the leaf comes out, they take hold of it with their bills, and pluck it up, together with the corn or grain; and thus they give a great deal of trouble to the country people, even so early in spring. To lessen their greediness of maize, some people dip the grains of that plant in a decoct of the root of theveratrum album, or white hellebore, (of which I shall speak in the sequel) and plant them afterwards. When the maize-thief eats a grain or two, which are so prepared, his head is disordered, and he falls down: this frightens his companions, and they dare not venture to the place again. But they repay themselves amply towards autumn, when the maize grows ripe; for at that time,[77]they are continually feasting. They assemble by thousands in the maize-fields, and live at discretion. They are very bold; for when they are disturbed, they only go and settle in another part of the field. In that manner, they always go from one end of the field to the other, and do not leave it till they are quite satisfied. They fly in incredible swarms in autumn; and it can hardly be conceived whence such immense numbers of them should come. When they rise in the air they darken the sky, and make it look quite black. They are then in such great numbers, and so close together, that it is surprising how they find room to move their wings. I have known a person shoot a great number of them on one side of a maize-field, which was far from frightening the rest; for they only just took flight, and dropped at about the distance of a musket-shot in another part of the field, and always changed their place when their enemy approached. They tired the sportsman, before he could drive them from off the maize, though he killed a great many of them at every shot. They likewise eat the seeds of theaquatic tare-grass(Zizania aquatica) commonly late in autumn, after the maize is got in. I am told, they likewise eat buck-wheat, and oats. Some people[78]say, that they even eat wheat, barley, and rye, when pressed by hunger; yet, from the best information I could obtain, they have not been found to do any damage to these species of corn. In spring, they sit in numbers on the trees, near the farms; and their note is pretty agreeable. As they are so destructive to maize, the odium of the inhabitants against them is carried so far, that the laws ofPensylvaniaandNew Jerseyhave settled a premium of three-pence a dozen for dead maize-thieves. InNew England, the people are still greater enemies to them; for Dr.Franklintold me, in the spring of the year 1750, that, by means of the premiums which have been settled for killing them inNew England, they have been so extirpated, that they are very rarely seen, and in a few places only. But as, in the summer of the year 1749, an immense quantity of worms appeared on the meadows, which devoured the grass, and did great damage, the people have abated their enmity against the maize-thieves; for they thought they had observed, that those birds lived chiefly on these worms before the maize is ripe, and consequently extirpated them, or at least prevented their spreading too much. They seem therefore to be entitled, as it were, to a reward for their trouble.[79]But after these enemies and destroyers of the worms (the maize-thieves) were extirpated, the worms were more at liberty to multiply; and therefore they grew so numerous, that they did more mischief now than the birds did before. In the summer 1749, the worms left so little hay inNew England, that the inhabitants were forced to get hay fromPensylvania, and even fromOld England. The maize-thieves have enemies besides the human species. A species of little hawks live upon them, and upon other little birds. I saw some of these hawks driving up the maize-thieves, which were in the greatest security, and catching them in the air. Nobody eats the flesh of the purple maize-thieves or daws (Gracula quiscula); but that of the red-winged maize-thieves, or stares (Oriolus Phœniceus) is sometimes eaten. Some old people have told me, that this part ofAmerica, formerly calledNew Sweden, still contained as many maize-thieves as it did formerly. The cause of this they derive from the maize, which is now sown in much greater quantity than formerly; and they think that the birds can get their food with more ease at present.PURPLE JACKDAW. RED-WINGED STARE.PURPLE JACKDAW.RED-WINGED STARE.TheAmericanwhortleberry, or theVaccinium hispidulum, is extremely abundant[80]over allNorth America, and grows in such places where we commonly find our whortle-berries inSweden. TheAmericanones are bigger, but in most things so like theSwedishones, that many people would take them to be mere varieties. TheEnglishcall themCranberries, theSwedesTranbær, and theFrenchinCanadaAtopa, which is a name they have borrowed from theIndians. They are brought to market everyWednesdayandSaturdayatPhiladelphia, late in autumn. They are boiled and prepared in the same manner as we do our red whortle-berries, orVaccinium vitis idæa; and they are made use of during winter, and part of summer, in tarts and other kinds of pastry. But as they are very sour, they require a deal of sugar; but that is not very dear, in a country where the sugar-plantations are not far off. Quantities of these berries are sent over, preserved, toEurope, and to theWest Indies.Marchthe 2d.Mytilus anatinus, a kind of muscle-shells, was found abundantly in little furrows, which crossed the meadows. The shells were frequently covered on the outside, with a thin crust of particles of iron, when the water in the furrows came from an iron mine. TheEnglishmenand[81]Swedessettled here seldom made any use of these shells; but theIndianswho formerly lived here broiled them and ate the flesh. Some of theEuropeanseat them sometimes.The snow still remained in some parts of the wood, where it was very shady, but the fields were quite free from it. The cows, horses, sheep, and hogs, went into the woods, and sought their food, which was as yet very trifling.Marchthe 3d. TheSwedescall a species of little birds,Snofogel, and theEnglishcall itSnow-bird. This is Dr.Linnæus’sEmberiza hyemalis. The reason why it is called snow-bird is because it never appears in summer, but only in winter, when the fields are covered with snow. In some winters they come in as great numbers as the maize-thieves, fly about the houses and barns, into the gardens, and eat the corn, and the seeds of grass, which they find scattered on the hills.At eight o’clock at night we observed a meteor, commonly calledsnow-fire15. I have described this meteor in the memoirs of the RoyalSwedishAcademy of Sciences, see the volume for the year 1752, page 154, 155.[82]WildPigeons, (Columba migratoria16), flew in the woods, in numbers beyond conception, and I was assured that they were more plentiful than they had been for several years past. They came this week, and continued here for about a fortnight, after which they all disappeared, or advanced further into the country, from whence they came. I shall speak of them more particularly in another place.Marchthe 7th. Several people told me, that it was a certain sign of bad weather here when a thunder-storm arose in the south or south west, if it spread to the east and afterwards to the north: but that on the contrary, when it did not spread at all, or when it spread both east and west, though it should rise in south or south west, yet it would prognosticate fair weather. To-day it was heard in south west, but it did not spread at all. See the meteorological observations, at the end of this volume.Till now the frost had continued in the ground, so that if any one had a mind to dig a hole he was forced to cut it through with a pick-ax. However it had not penetrated[83]above four inches deep. But to-day it was quite gone out. This made the soil so soft, that on riding, even in the woods, the horse sunk in very deep.AMERICAN MIGRATORY PIDGEON.AMERICAN MIGRATORY PIDGEON.I often enquired among the oldEnglishmenandSwedes, whether they had found that any trees were killed in very severe winters, or had received much hurt. I was answered, that young hiccory trees are commonly killed in very cold weather; and the young black oaks likewise suffer in the same manner. Nay sometimes black oaks, five inches in diameter, were killed by the frost in a severe winter, and sometimes, though very seldom, a single mulberry-tree was killed. Peach-trees very frequently die in a cold winter, and often all the peach-trees in a whole district are killed by a severe frost. It has been found repeatedly, with regard to these trees, that they can stand the frost much better on hills, than in vallies; insomuch, that when the trees in a valley were killed by frost, those on a hill were not hurt at all. They assured me that they had never observed that the black walnut-tree, the sassafras, and other trees, had been hurt in winter. In regard to a frost in spring, they had observed at different times, that a cold night or two happened often after the trees were[84]furnished with pretty large leaves, and that by this most of the leaves were killed. But the leaves thus killed have always been supplied by fresh ones. It is remarkable that in such cold nights the frost acts chiefly upon the more delicate trees, and in such a manner, that all the leaves, to the height of seven and even of ten feet from the ground, were killed by the frost, and all the top remained unhurt. Several oldSwedesandEnglishmenassured me they had made this observation, and the attentive engineer, Mr.Lewis Evans, has shewn it me among his notes. Such a cold night happened here, in the year 1746, in the night between the 14th and 15th ofJune, new style, attended with the same effect, as appears from Mr.Evans’s observations. The trees which were then in blossom, had lost both their leaves and their flowers in these parts which were nearest the ground; sometime after they got fresh leaves, but no new flowers. Further it is observable, that the cold nights which happen in spring and summer never do any hurt to high grounds, damaging only the low and moist ones. They are likewise very perceptible in such places where limestone is to be met with, and though all the other parts of the country be not visited by such[85]cold nights in a summer, yet those where limestone lies have commonly one or two every summer. Frequently the places where the limestone lies are situated on a high ground; but they suffer notwithstanding their situation; whilst a little way off in a lower ground, where no limestone is to be found, the effects of the cold nights are not felt. Mr.Evanswas the first who made thisobservation, and I have had occasion at different times to see the truth of it, on my travels, as I shall mention in the sequel. The young hiccory-trees have their leaves killed sooner than other trees, in such a cold night, and the young oaks next; this has been observed by other people, and I have found it to be true, in the years 1749 and 1750.Marchthe 11th. Of the genus ofWood-peckers, we find here all those, whichCatesbyin his first volume of theNatural History of Carolina, has drawn and described. I shall only enumerate them, and add one or two of their qualities; but their description at large I defer for another occasion.Picus principalis, theKing of the Wood-peckers, is found here, though very seldom, and only at a certain season.[86]Picus pileatus, the crestedWood-pecker; this I have already mentioned.Picus auratus, thegold-winged Wood-pecker: This species is plentiful here, and theSwedescall itHittock, andPiut; both these names have a relation to its note; it is almost continually on the ground, and is not observed to pick in the trees; it lives chiefly on insects, but sometimes becomes the prey of hawks; it is commonly very fat, and its flesh is very palatable. As it stays all the year, and cannot easily get insects in winter, it must doubtless eat some kinds of grass or plants in the fields. Its form, and some of its qualities, make it resemble a cuckow.Picus Carolinus, theCarolina Wood-pecker. It lives here likewise, and the colour of its head is of a deeper and more shining red thanCatesbyhas represented it, vol. i. p. 19. t. 19.Picus villosus, thespotted, hairy, middle-sized Wood-peckeris abundant here; it destroys the apple-trees by pecking holes into them.Picus erythrocephalus, thered-headed Wood-pecker. This bird was frequent in the country, and theSwedescalled it merelyHackspick, orWood pecker. They give the same name to all the birds which I now enumerate, the gold-winged wood-pecker excepted. This species is destructive[87]to maize-fields and orchards, for it pecks through the ears of maize, and eats apples. In some years they are very numerous, especially where sweet apples grow, which they eat so far, that nothing but the mere peels remain. Some years ago there was a premium of two penceperhead, paid from the public funds, in order to extirpate this pernicious bird, but this law has been repealed. They are likewise very fond of acorns. At the approach of winter they travel to the southward. But when they stay in numbers in the woods, at the beginning of winter, the people look upon it as a sign of a pretty mild winter.Picus varius, thelesser, spotted, yellow-bellied Wood-pecker. These birds are much more numerous than many people wished; for this, as well as the preceding and succeeding species, are very hurtful to apple-trees.Picus pubescens, or theleast spotted Wood-pecker. This species abounds here. Of all the wood-peckers it is the most dangerous to orchards, because it is the most daring. As soon as it has pecked a hole into the tree, it makes another close to the first, in a horizontal direction, proceeding till it has pecked a circle of holes[88]round the tree. Therefore the apple-trees in the orchards here have several rings round their stems, which lie very close above each other, frequently only an inch distant from each other. Sometimes these wood-peckers peck the holes so close, that the tree dries up. This bird, asCatesbyremarks, is so like the lesser spotted wood-pecker, in regard to its colour and other qualities, that they would be taken for the same bird, were not the former (thePicus pubescens) a great deal less. They agree in the bad quality, which they both possess, of pecking holes into the apple-trees.Rana ocellataare a kind of frogs here, which theSwedescall,Sill-hoppetosser, i. e.Herring-hoppers, and which now began to quack in the evening, and at night, in swamps, pools, and ponds. The name which theSwedesgive them is derived from their beginning to make their noise in spring, at the same time when the people here go catching what are called herrings, which however differ greatly from the trueEuropeanherrings. These frogs have a peculiar note, which is not like that of ourEuropeanfrogs, but rather corresponds with the chirping of some large birds, and can nearly be expressed bypicet. With this noise they continued throughout a great[89]part of spring, beginning their noise soon after sun-setting, and finishing it just before sun-rising. The sound was sharp, but yet so loud that it could be heard at a great distance. When they expected rain they cried much worse than commonly, and began in the middle of the day, or when it grew cloudy, and the rain came usually six hours after. As it snowed on the 16th of the next month,andblew very violently all day, there was not the least sign of them at night, and during the whole time that it was cold, and whilst the snow lay on the fields, the frost had so silenced them, that we could not hear one; but as soon as the mild weather returned, they began their noise again. They were very timorous, and it was difficult to catch them; for as soon as a person approached the place where they lived, they are quite silent, and none of them appeared. It seems that they hide themselves entirely under water, except the tip of the snout, when they cry. For when I stepped to the pond where they were in, I could not observe a single one hopping into the water. I could not see any of them before I had emptied a whole pool, where they lodged in. Their colour is a dirty green, variegated with spots of brown. When[90]they are touched they make a noise and moan; they then sometimes assume a form, as if they had blown up the hind part of the back, so that it makes a high elevation; and then they do not stir, though touched. When they are put alive into spirits of wine, they die within a minute.Marchthe 12th. The bird which theEnglishandSwedesin this country callRobin-red-breast17, is found here all the year round. It is a very different bird from that which inEnglandbears the same name. It isLinnæus’sTurdus migratorius. It sings very melodiously, is not very shy, but hops on the ground, quite close to the houses.TheHazels(Corylus avellana) were now opening their blossoms. They succeeded best in a rich mould, and theSwedesreckoned it a sign of a good soil where they found them growing.Marchthe 13th. Thealder(Betula Alnus) was just blossoming.MOCKING BIRD. REDBREASTED THRUSH.MOCKING BIRD.REDBREASTED THRUSH.TheDracontium foetidumgrew plentifully in the marshes and began to flower. Among the stinking plants, this is the most fœtid; its nauseous scent was so strong, that I could hardly examine the flower;[91]and when I smelled a little too long at it, my head ached. TheSwedescall itByorn-blad(bear’s-leaf) orByorn-retter(bear’s-root.) TheEnglishcall itPolecat-root, because its effluvia are as nauseous and fœtid, as those of the polecat, which I have mentioned before. The flowers are purple-coloured; when they are in full flower, the leaves begin to come out of the ground; in summer the cattle do not touch it. Dr.Coldentold me, that he had employed the root in all cases where the root of the arum is made use of, especially against the scurvy, &c. TheSwedishname it got, because the bears, when they leave their winter habitations, are fond of it in spring: It is a common plant in allNorth America.TheDraba vernawas abundant here, and now appeared in flower.TheVeratrum albumwas very common in the marshes, and in low places over allNorth America. TheSwedeshere call itDack,DackororDackretter, that is puppet-root, because the children make puppets of its stalks and leaves. TheEnglishcall itItch-reedorEllebore. It is a poisonous plant, and therefore the cattle never touch it; however it sometimes happens that the cattle are deceived in the beginning of spring, when the pastures are bare, and eat of the fine broad green leaves of this plant,[92]which come up very early; but such a meal frequently proves fatal to them. Sheep and geese have likewise often been killed with it. By means of its root, the maize is preserved from the greediness of voracious birds, in the following manner: The roots are boiled in water, into which the maize is put as soon as the water is quite cool; the maize must ly all night in it, and is then planted as usual. When the maize-thieves, crows, or other birds, pick up or pluck out the grains of maize, their heads grow delirious, and they fall, which so frightens the rest that they never venture on the field again; when those which have tasted the grains recover, they leave the field, and are no more tempted to visit it again. By thus preparing maize, one must be very careful that no other creatures touch it; for when ducks or fowls eat a grain or two of the maize which is thus steeped, they become very sick; but if they swallow a considerable quantity they die. When the root is thrown away raw, no animal eats it; but when it is put out boiled, its sweet taste tempts the beasts to eat it. Dogs have been seen to eat a little of it, and have been very sick after it; however they have recovered after a vomit, for when animals cannot free themselves of it by this means, they often die. Some people boil the root, and[93]wash the scorbutic parts with the water or decoct. This is said to cause some pain, and even a plentiful discharge of urine, but it re-establishes the patient. When the children here are plagued with vermin, the women boil this root, put the comb into the decoction, and comb the head with it, and this kills them most effectually.Marchthe 17th. At the first arrival of theSwedesin this country, and long after that time, it was filled withIndians. But as theEuropeansproceeded to cultivate the land, theIndianssold their land, and went further into the country. But in reality few of theIndiansreally left the country in this manner; most of them ended their days before, either by wars among themselves, or by the small-pox, a disease which theIndianswere unacquainted with before their commerce with theEuropeans, and which since that time has killed incredible numbers of them. For though they can heal wounds and other external hurts, yet they know not how to proceed with fevers, or in general with internal diseases. One can imagine, how ill they would succeed with the cure of the small-pox, when as soon as the pustules appeared, they leaped naked into the cold water of the rivers, lakes, or fountains, and either dived over[94]head into it, or poured it over their body in great abundance, in order to cool the heat of the fever. In the same manner they carry their children, when they have the small-pox, into the water and duck them18. But brandy has killed most of theIndians. This liquor was likewise entirely unknown to them, before theEuropeanscame hither; but after they had tasted it, they could never get enough of it. A man can hardly have a greater desire of a thing, than theIndianshave of brandy. I have heard them say, that to die by drinking brandy, was a[95]desirable and an honourable death; and indeed ’tis no very uncommon thing to kill themselves by drinking this liquor to excess.The food of theseIndianswas very different from that of the inhabitants of the other parts of the world. Wheat, rye, barley, oats, and rice-groats, were quite unknown inAmerica. In the same manner it is with regard to the fruits and herbs which are eaten in the old countries. The maize, some kinds of beans, and melons, made almost the whole of theIndianagriculture and gardening; and dogs were the only domestic animals inNorth America. But as their agriculture and their gardening were very trifling, and they could hardly live two months in a year upon their produce, they were forced to apply to hunting and fishing, which at that time, and even at present, are their chief subsistence, and to seek some of the wild plants and trees here. Some of the oldSwedeswere yet alive, who in their younger years had an intercourse with theIndians, and had seen the minutiæ of their œconomy. I was therefore desirous of knowing which of the spontaneous herbs they made use of for food at that time; and all the old men agreed that the following plants were what they chiefly consumed:[96]HopnissorHapnisswas theIndianname of a wild plant, which they ate at that time. TheSwedesstill call it by that name, and it grows in the meadows in a good soil. The roots resemble potatoes, and were boiled by theIndians, who eat them instead of bread. Some of theSwedesat that time likewise ate this root for want of bread. Some of theEnglishstill eat them instead of potatoes. Mr.Bartramtold me, that theIndianswho live farther in the country do not only eat these roots, which are equal in goodness to potatoes, but likewise take the pease which ly in the pods of this plant, and prepare them like common pease. Dr.Linnæuscalls the plantGlycine Apios.Katnissis anotherIndianname of a plant, the root of which they were likewise accustomed to eat, when they lived here. TheSwedesstill preserve this name. It grows in low, muddy and very wet ground. The root is oblong, commonly an inch and an half long, and one inch and a quarter broad in the middle; but some of the roots have been as big as a man’s fists. TheIndianseither boiled this root or roasted it in hot ashes. Some of theSwedeslikewise eat them with much appetite, at the time when theIndianswere so near the coast; but at present none of them make any use[97]of the roots. A man of ninety-one years of age, calledNils Gustafson, told me, that he had often eaten these roots when he was a boy, and that he liked them very well at that time. He added that theIndians, especially their women, travelled to the islands, dug out the roots, and brought them home; and whilst they had them, they desired no other food. They said that the hogs, which are amazingly greedy of them, have made them very scarce. The cattle are very fond of its leaves. I afterwards got fond of these roots roasted, and in my opinion they tasted well, though they were rather dry: The taste was nearly the same with that of the potatoes. When theIndianscome down to the coast and see the turneps of theEuropeans, they likewise give them the name ofkatniss. Their katniss is an arrow-head orSagittaria, and is only a variety of theSwedisharrow-head orSagittaria sagittifolia, for the plant above the ground is entirely the same, but the root under ground is much greater in theAmericanthan in theEuropean. Mr.Osbeckin his voyage toChina, vol. i. p. 334, of theEnglishedition, mentions, that theChineseplant aSagittaria, and eat its roots. This seems undoubtedly to be a variety of thiskatniss. Further in the north of this[98]part ofAmerica, I met with the other species ofSagittariawhich we have inSweden.Taw-hoandTaw-himwas theIndianname of another plant, the root of which they eat. Some of them likewise call itTuckah; but most of theSwedesstill knew it by the name ofTaw-ho. It grows in moist ground and swamps. Hogs are very greedy of the roots, and grow very fat by feeding on them. Therefore, they often visit the places where these roots grow; and they are frequently seen rooting up the mud, and falling with their whole body into the water, so that only a little of the back part was out of the water. It is therefore very plain, that these roots must have been extirpated in places which are frequented by hogs. The roots often grow to the thickness of a man’s thigh. When they are fresh, they have a pungent taste, and are reckoned a poison in that fresh taste. Nor did theIndiansever venture to eat them raw, but prepared them in the following manner: They gathered a great heap of these roots, dug a great long hole, sometimes two or three fathoms and upwards in length, into which they put the roots, and covered them with the earth that had been taken out of the hole; they made a great fire above it, which burnt till they thought proper to remove it; and then[99]they dug up the roots, and consumed them with great avidity. These roots, when prepared in this manner, I am told, taste like potatoes. TheIndiansnever dry and preserve them; but always take them fresh out of the marshes, when they want them. ThisTaw-hois theArum Virginicum, orVirginianWake-robin. It is remarkable, that the Arums, with the plants next akin to them, are eaten by men in different parts of the world, though their roots, when raw, have a fiery pungent taste, and are almost poisonous in that state. How can men have learnt, that plants so extremely opposite to our nature were eatable; and that their poison, which burns on the tongue, can be conquered by fire. Thus the root of theCalla palustris, which grows in the north ofEurope, is sometimes used instead of bread on an exigency. TheNorth American Indiansconsume this species of Arum. Those ofSouth America, and of theWest Indies, eat other species of Arums. TheHottentots, at theCape of Good Hope, inAfrica, prepare bread from a species ofArumorWake-robin, which is as burning and poisonous as the other species of this plant. In the same manner, they employ the roots of some kinds of Arum as a food, inEgyptandAsia. Probably,[100]that severe but sometimes useful mistress, necessity, has first taught men to find out a food, which the first taste would have rejected as useless. ThisTaw-hoseems to be the same with what theIndiansinCarolinacallTuckahoo; and of which see Vol. I. p. 287.Taw-keeis another plant, so called by theIndianswho eat it. Some of them call itTaw-kim, and othersTackvim. TheSwedescall it always by the name ofTaw-kee. The plant grows in marshes, near moist and low grounds, and is very plentiful inNorth America. The cattle, hogs and stags, are very fond of the leaves in spring; for they are some of the earliest. The leaves are broad, like those of theConvallaria, or Lilly of the Valley, green on the upper side, and covered with very minute hair, so that they looked like a fine velvet. TheIndianspluck the seeds, and keep them for eating. They cannot be eaten fresh or raw, but must be dried. TheIndianswere forced to boil them repeatedly in water, before they were fit for use; and then they ate them like pease. When theSwedesgave them butter or milk, they boiled or broiled the seeds in it. Sometimes they employ these seeds instead of bread; and they taste like pease. Some of theSwedeslikewise[101]ate them; and the old men among them told me, they liked this food better than any of the other plants which theIndiansformerly made use of. ThisTaw-keewas theOrontium aquaticum.Bilberrieswere likewise a very common dish among theIndians. They are calledHuckleberriesby theEnglishhere, and belong to several species ofVaccinium, which are all of them different from ourSwedishBilberry-bush, though their berries, in regard to colour, shape, and taste, are so similar to theSwedishbilberry, that they are distinguished from each other with difficulty. TheAmericanones grow on shrubs, which are from two to four feet high; and there are some species which are above seven feet in height. TheIndiansformerly plucked them in abundance every year, dried them either in the sun-shine or by the fire-side, and afterwards prepared them for eating, in different manners, These huckleberries are still a dainty dish among theIndians. On my travels through the country of theIroquese, they offered me, whenever they designed to treat me well, fresh maize-bread, baked in an oblong shape, mixed with driedHuckleberries, which lay as close in it as the raisins in a plumb-pudding. I shall[102]write more at large about it in the sequel. TheEuropeansare likewise used to collect a quantity of these berries, to dry them in ovens, to bake them in tarts, and to employ them in several other ways. Some preserve them with treacle. They are likewise eaten raw, either quite alone or with fresh milk.I shall, on the 27th ofMarch, find occasion to mention another dish, which theIndiansate formerly, and still eat, on formal ceremonies.Marchthe 18th. Almost during the whole of this spring, the weather and the winds were always calm in the morning at sun-rising. At eight o’clock the wind began to blow pretty hard, and continued so all day, till sun-setting; when it ceased, and all the night was calm. This was the regular course of the weather; but sometimes the winds raged, without intermission, for two or three days together. At noon it was commonly most violent. But in the ordinary way, the wind decreased and increased as follows: At six in the morning, a calm; at seven, a very gentle western breeze, which grew stronger at eight; at eleven it was much stronger; but at four in the afternoon, it is no stronger than it was[103]at eight o’clock in the morning; and thus it goes on decreasing till it is quite a calm, just before sun-set. The winds this spring blew generally west, as appears from the observations at the end of this volume.I was told, that it was a very certain prognostic of bad weather, that when you see clouds in the horizon in the south-west, about sun-setting, and when those clouds sink below the horizon, in an hour’s time, it will rain the next day, though all the forenoon be fair and clear. But if some clouds be seen in the south-west, in the horizon, at sun-set, and they rise some time after, you may expect fair weather the next day.Marchthe 20th. An oldSwedeprognosticated a change in the weather, because it was calm to-day; for when there has been wind for some days together, and a calm follows, they say, rain or snow, or some other change in the weather, will happen. I was likewise told, that some people here were of that false opinion, that the weather commonly alters onFriday; so that, in case it had rained or blown hard all the week, and a change was to happen, it would commonly fall onFriday. How far the former prognostic has been true, appears from my own observations of the weather, to which I refer.[104]Marchthe 21st. The red maple (Acer rubrum) and theAmericanelm (Ulmus Americana) began to flower at present; and some of the latter kind were already in full blossom.Marchthe 24th. I walked pretty far to-day, in order to see whether I could find any plants in flower. But the cloudy weather, and the great rains which had lately fallen, had allowed little or nothing to grow up. The leaves now began to grow pretty green. The plants which I have just before mentioned, were now in full blossom.The noble Liverwort, orAnemone hepatica, was now every where in flower. It was abundant; and theSwedescalled itBlablomster, or Blue-flower. They did not know any use of it.Near all the corn-fields on which I walked to-day, I did not see a single ditch, though many of them wanted it. But the people generally followed theEnglishway of making no ditches along the fields, without considering whether the corn-fields wanted them or not. The consequence was, that the late rain had in many places washed away great pieces of the grounds, sown with wheat and rye. There were no ridges left between the fields, except a very narrow one near the fence, which was entirely over-grown[105]with the Sumach, orRhus glabra, and with black-berry bushes, so that there the cattle could find very little or no food. The corn fields werebroad-cast, or divided into pieces, which were near seventeen feet broad, and separated from each other only by means of furrows. These pieces were uniform, and not elevated in the middle.Meloe majalisa species of oil-beetle, crept about on the hills.Papilio Antiopa, or willow butterfly, flew in the woods to-day, and was the first butterfly which I saw this year.Papilio Euphrosyne, or theAprilbutterfly, was one of the scarce species. The otherAmericaninsect, which I described this day and the following days, I shall mention on some other occasion. In the sequel I shall only mention those which were remarkable for some peculiar qualities.The hay-stacks were commonly made here after theSwedishmanner, that is, in the shape of a thick and short cone, without any cover over it. When the people wanted any hay, they cut some of it loose, by a peculiar sort of a knife. However, many people, especially in the environs ofPhiladelphia, had hay-stacks with roofs which could be moved up and down.[106]Near the surface of the ground were some poles laid, on which the hay was put, that the air may pass freely through it. I have mentioned before, that the cattle have no stables in winter or summer, but must go in the open air, during the whole year. However, inPhiladelphia, and in a few other places, I have seen that those people who made use of the latter kind of hay-stacks, viz. that with moveable roofs, commonly had built them so, that the hay was put a fathom or two above the ground, on a floor of boards, under which the cattle could stand in winter, when the weather was very bad. Under this floor of boards were partitions of boards on all the sides, which however stood far enough from each other, to afford the air a free passage.Marchthe 27th. In the morning I went in order to speak with the oldSwede,Nils Gustafson, who was ninety-one years of age. I intended to get an account of the former state ofNew Sweden. The country which I now passed through was the same with that which I had found in those parts ofNorth AmericaI had hitherto seen. It was diversified with a variety of little hills and vallies: the former consisted of a very pale brick-coloured earth, composed, for the greatest part, of a fine[107]sand, mixed with some mould. I saw no mountains, and no stones, except some little stones, not above the size of a pigeon’s or hen’s egg, lying on the hills, and commonly consisting of white quartz, which was generally smooth and polished on the outside. At the bottom, along the vallies, ran sometimes rivulets of crystalline water, the bottom of which was covered with such white pebbles as I have just described. Now and then I met with a swamp in the vallies. Sometimes there appeared, though at considerable distances from each other, some farms, frequently surrounded on all sides by corn-fields. Almost on every corn-field there yet remained the stumps of trees, which had been cut down; a proof that this country has not been long cultivated, being overgrown with trees forty or fifty years ago. The farms did not ly together in villages, or so that several of them were near each other, in one place; but they were all separated from one another. Each countryman lived by himself, had his own ground about his house, separated from the property of his neighbour. The greatest part of the land, between these farms so distant from each other, was over-grown with woods, confiding of tall trees. However, there was a fine space[108]between the trees, so that one could ride on horseback without inconvenience in the woods, and even with a cart in most places; and the ground was very plain and uniform at the same time. Here and there appeared some fallen trees, thrown down by the wind; some were torn up by the roots; others broken quite across the stem. In some parts of the country the trees were thick and tall, but in others I found large tracts covered with young trees, only twenty, thirty, or forty years old: these tracts, I am told, theIndiansformerly had their little plantations in. I did not yet see any marks of the leaves coming out, and I did not meet with a flower in the woods: for the cold winds, which had blown for several days together successively, had hindered this. The woods consisted chiefly of several species of oak, and of hiccory. The swamps were filled with red maple, which was all now in flower, and made these places look quite red at a distance.The oldSwede, whom I came to visit, seemed to be still pretty hearty and fresh, and could walk by the help of a stick; but he complained of having felt in these latter years, some pains in his back, and limbs, and that he could keep his feet warm in winter only by sitting near the fire.[109]He said he could very well remember the state of this country, at the time when theDutchpossessed it, and in what circumstances it was in before the arrival of theEnglish. He added, that he had brought a great deal of timber toPhiladelphia, at the time that it was built. He still remembered to have seen a great forest on the spot wherePhiladelphianow stands. The father of this old man had been one of theSwedeswho were sent over fromSweden, in order to cultivate and inhabit this country. He returned me the following answers to the questions I asked him.Quere, Whence did theSwedes, who first came hither, get their cattle? The old man answered, that when he was a boy, his father and other people had told him, that theSwedesbrought their horses, cows, and oxen, sheep, hogs, geese, and ducks, over with them. There were but few of a kind at first, but they multiplied greatly here afterwards. He said, thatMaryland,New York,New England, andVirginia, had been sooner inhabited byEuropeansthan this part of the country; but he did not know whether theSwedesever got cattle of any kind, from any of these provinces, except fromNew York. Whilst he was yet very young, theSwedes, as well[110]as he could remember, had already a sufficient stock of all these animals. The hogs had propagated so much at that time, there being so great a plenty of food for them, that they ran about wild in the woods, and that the people were obliged to shoot them, when they intended to make use of them. The old man likewise recollected, that horses ran wild in the woods, in some places; but he could not tell whether any other kind of cattle turned wild. He thought that the cattle grow as big at present as they did when he was a boy, supposing they get as much food as they want. For in his younger years, food for all kinds of cattle was so plentiful, and even so superfluous, that the cattle were extremely well fed by it. A cow at that time gave more milk, than three or four do at present; but she got more and better food at that time, than three or four get now; and, as the old man said, the scanty allowance of grass, which the cattle get in summer, is really very pitiful. The causes of this scarcity of grass have already been mentioned.Quere, Whence did theEnglishinPensylvaniaandNew Jerseyget their cattle? They bought them chiefly from theSwedesandDutch, who lived here; and[111]a small number were brought over fromOld England. The form of the cattle, and the unanimous accounts of theEnglishhere, confirmed what the old man had said.Quere, Whence did theSwedeshere settled get their several sorts of corn, and likewise their fruit-trees and kitchen-herbs? The old man told me that he had frequently heard, when he was young, that theSwedeshad brought all kinds of corn, and fruits, and herbs, or seeds of them, with them. For, as far as he could recollect, theSwedeshere were plentifully provided with wheat, rye, barley, and oats. TheSwedes, at that time, brewed all their beer of malt made of barley, and likewise made good strong beer. They had already got distilling vessels, and made good brandy. Every one among them had not a distilling vessel, but when they intended to distil, they lent their apparatus to one another. At first they were forced to buy maize of theIndians, both for sowing and eating. But after continuing for some years in this country, they extended their maize-plantations so much that theIndianswere obliged some time after to buy maize of theSwedes. The old man likewise assured me, that the[112]Indiansformerly, and about the time of the first settling of theSwedes, were more industrious and laborious in every branch of business, than they are now. Whilst he was young, theSwedeshad a great quantity of very goodwhite cabbage.Winter cabbage, orCale, which was left on the ground during winter, was likewise abundant. They were likewise well provided with turnips. In winter they kept them in holes under ground. But the old man did not like that method; for when they had lain too long in these holes, in winter, they became spungy. He preferred that method of keeping them which is now commonly adopted, and which consists in the following particulars. After the turnips have been taken out of the ground in autumn, and exposed to the air for a while, they are put in a heap upon the field, covered with straw at the top, and on the sides, and with earth over the straw. By this means they stand the winter very well here, and do not become spungy. TheIndianswere very fond of turneps, and called them sometimesHopniss, sometimesKatniss. TheSwedeslikewise cultivated carrots, in the old man’s younger years. Among the fruit-trees wereApple-trees.[113]They were not numerous, and only some of theSwedeshad little orchards of them, whilst others had not a single tree. None of theSwedesmade cyder, for it is come into use but lately. TheSwedesbrewed strong beer and small beer, and it was their common liquor. But at present there are very few who brew beer, for they commonly prepare cyder.Cherry-treeswere abundant whenNils Gustafsonwas yet a boy. Peach-trees were at that time more numerous than at present, and theSwedesbrewed beer of the fruit. The old man could not tell from whence theSwedesfirst of all got the peach-trees.During the younger years of this old man theIndianswere every where spread in the country; they lived among theSwedes, and were scattered every where. The old man mentionedSwedeswho had been killed by theIndians; and he mentioned two of his countrymen who had been scalped by them. They stole children from theSwedes, and carried them off, and they were never heard of again. Once they came and killed someSwedes, and took the upper part of their sculls with them; on that occasion they scalped a little girl, and would have killed her, if they had not perceived a boat full ofSwedes, making towards them,[114]which obliged them to fly; the girl was afterwards healed, but never got any hair on her head again; she was married, had many children, and lived to a considerable age. At another time, theIndiansattempted to kill the mother of this old man, but she vigorously resisted them, and in the mean while a number ofSwedescame up, who frightened theIndians, and made them run away. Nobody could ever find out to what nation ofIndiansthese owe their origin; for in general they lived very peaceably with theSwedes.

Beavers were formerly abundant inNew Sweden, as all the oldSwedeshere[60]told me. At that time they saw one bank after another raised in the rivers by beavers. But after theEuropeanscame over in great number, and cultivated the country better, the beavers have been partly killed, and partly extirpated, and partly are removed higher into the country, where the people are not so numerous. Therefore there is but a single place inPensylvaniawhere beavers are to be met with; their chief food is the bark of the beaver-tree, orMagnolia glauca, which they prefer to any other. TheSwedestherefore put branches of this tree near the beaver-dykes, into traps, which they laid for the beavers, whilst they were yet plentiful; and they could almost be certain of good success. Some persons inPhiladelphiahave tamed beavers, so that they go a fishing with them, and they always come back to their masters. MajorRoderfert, inNew York, related that he had a tame beaver above half a year in his house, where he went about quite loose, like a dog. The major gave him bread, and sometimes fish, which he was very greedy of. He got as much water in a bowl as he wanted. All the rags and soft things he could meet with he dragged into a corner, where he was used to sleep, and made a bed of them. The[61]cat in the house, having kittens, took possession of his bed, and he did not hinder her. When the cat went out, the beaver often took the kitten between his fore paws and held it to his breast to warm it, and doated upon it; as soon as the cat returned he gave her the kitten again. Sometimes he grumbled, but never did any hurt, or attempted to bite.TheEnglishand theSwedesgave the name ofMinkto an animal of this country, which likewise lives either in the water, or very near it. I have never had an opportunity to see any more than the skin of this animal. But the shape of the skin, and the unanimous accounts I have heard of it, make me conclude with much certainty, that it belonged to the genus ofweaselsormustelæ. The greatest skin I ever saw, was one foot, eight inches long, a lesser one was about ten inches long, and about three inches, one third broad, before it was cut; the colour was dark brown, and sometimes almost black; the tail was bushy, as that of a marten; the hair was very close; and the ears short, with short hair. The length of the feet belonging to the lesser skin was about two inches long. I am told this animal is so similar to theAmerican polecat, orViverra putorius,[62]that they are hardly distinguishable9. I have had the following accounts given me of its way of living; it seldom appears in day-time, but at night it comes out of the hollow trees, on the banks of rivers. Sometimes it lives in the docks and bridges, atPhiladelphia, where it is a cruel enemy to the rats. Sometimes it gets into the court-yards at night, and creeps into the chicken-house, through a small hole, where it kills all the poultry, and sucks their blood, but seldom eats one. If it meets with geese, fowls, ducks, or other birds on the road, it kills and devours them. It lives upon fish and birds. When a brook is near the houses, it is not easy to keep ducks and geese, for themink, which lives near rivers, kills the young ones. It first kills as many as it can come at, and then it carries them off, and feasts upon them. In banks and dykes near the water, it likewise does mischief, with digging. To catch it the people put up traps, into which they put heads of birds, fishes, or other meat. The skin is sold in the towns, and atPhiladelphia; they give twenty-pence and even two shillings a-piece for them,[63]according to their size. Some of the ladies get muffs made of these skins; but for the greatest part they are sent over toEngland, from whence they are distributed to other countries. The oldSwedestold me that theIndiansformerly used to eat all kinds of flesh, except that of themink.I have already mentioned something of theRaccoon; I shall here add more of the nature of this animal, in a place which is properly its native country10. TheEnglishcall it every where by the name ofRaccoon, which name they have undoubtedly taken from one of theIndiannations; theDutchcall itHespan, theSwedes,Espan, and theIroquese,Attigbro. It commonly lodges in hollow trees, lies close in the day-time, never going out but on a dark, cloudy day; but at night it rambles and seeks its food. I have been told by several people, that in bad weather, especially when it snows and blows a storm, theRaccoonlies in its hole for a week together without coming out once; during that time it lives by sucking and licking its paws. Its food are several sorts of fruit, such as maize, whilst the ears are soft. In gardens it often does a great deal of damage among the apples, chesnuts, plumbs, and[64]wild grapes, which are what it likes best; among the poultry it is very cruel. When it finds the hens on their eggs, it first kills them, and then eats the eggs. It is caught by dogs, which trace it back to its nest, in hollow trees, or by snares and traps, in which a chicken, some other bird, or a fish, is put as a bait. Some people eat its flesh. It leaps with all its feet at once; on account of this and of several other qualities, many people here reckoned it to the genus of bears. The skin sold for eighteen-pence, atPhiladelphia. I was told that theRaccoonswere not near so numerous as they were formerly; yet in the more inland parts they were abundant. I have mentioned the use which the hatters make of their furs; as likewise that they are easily tamed, that they are very greedy of sweet-meats, &c. in the preceding volume. Of all theNorth Americanwild quadrupeds none can be tamed to such a degree as this.Februarythe 10th. In the morning I went toPhiladelphia, where I arrived towards night. On my arrival at the ferry upon the riverDelaware, I found the river quite covered with drifts of ice, which at first prevented our crossing the water. After waiting about an hour, and making an opening near the ferry, I, together with[65]many more passengers, got over, before any more shoals came on. As it began to freeze very hard soon after the twelfth ofJanuary(orNew Year, according to the old style) the riverDelawarewas covered with ice, which by the intenseness of the frost grew so strong, that the people crossed the river with horses atPhiladelphia. The ice continued till the eighth ofFebruary, when it began to get loose, and the violent hurricane, which happened that night, broke it, and it was driven down so fast, that on the twelfth ofFebruarynot a single shoal came down, excepting a piece or two near the shore.Crows flew in great numbers together to-day, and settled on the tops of trees. During the whole winter we hardly observed one, though they are said to winter there. During all this spring they commonly used to sit at the tops of trees in the morning; yet not all together, but in several trees. They belong to the noxious birds in this part of the world, for they chiefly live upon corn. After the maize is planted or sown, they scratch the grains out of the ground and eat them. When the maize begins to ripen, they peck a hole into the involucrum which surrounds the ear, by which means the maize is spoiled, as the rain passes[66]through the hole which they have made, and occasions the putrefaction of the corn. Besides eating corn, they likewise steal chickens. They are very fond of dead carcasses. Some years ago the government ofPensylvaniahad given three-pence, and that ofNew Jerseyfour-pence premium for every head of aCrow, but this law has now been repealed, as the expences are too great. I have seen the youngCrowsof this kind in several places playing with tame ones whose wings were cut. The latter hopped about the fields, near the farm-houses where they belonged to, but always returned again, without endeavouring to escape on any occasion. TheseAmerican Crowsare only avarietyof theRoyston Crow, orLinnæus’sCorvus Cornix.Februarythe 12th. In the afternoon I returned toRaccoonfromPhiladelphia.On my journey toRaccoon, I attentively observed the trees which had yet any leaves left. The leaves were pale and dried up, but not all dropt from the following trees:TheBeach-tree, (Fagus sylvatica) whether great or small; it always kept a considerable part of its leaves during the whole winter even till spring. The greater trees kept the lowermost leaves.[67]Thewhite oak(Quercus alba). Most of the young trees which were not above a quarter of a yard in diameter, had the greatest part of their leaves still on them, but the old trees had lost most of theirs, except in some places where they have got new shoots. The colour of the dry leaves was much paler in the white oak than in the black one.Theblack oak(as it is commonly called here). Dr.Linnæuscalls it the red oak,Quercus rubra. Most of the young trees still preserved their dried leaves. Their colour was reddish brown, and darker than that of the white oak.TheSpanish oak, which is a mere variety of the black oak. The young trees of this kind likewise keep their leaves.A scarcespecies of oakwhich is known by its leaves having a triangularapexor top, whose angles terminate in a short bristle; the leaves are smooth below, but woolly above11. The young oaks of this species had still their leaves.When I came into any wood where the above kinds of oaks were only twenty years, and even not so old, I always found the leaves on them.[68]It seems that Providence has, besides other views, aimed to protect several sorts of birds, it being very cold and stormy about this time, by preserving even the dry leaves on these trees. I have this winter at several times seen birds hiding in the trees covered with old leaves during a severe cold or storm.Februarythe 13th. As I began to dig a hole to-day, I found several insects which were crept deep into the ground in order to pass the winter. As soon as they came to the air, they moved their limbs a little, but had not strength sufficient for creeping, except the black ants, which crept a little, though slowly.Formica nigra, orthe black ant, were pretty numerous, and somewhat lively. They lay about ten inches below the surface.Carabus latus. Some of these lay at the same depth with the ants. This is a very common insect in allNorth America.Scarabæus; chesnut-coloured, with a hairy thorax; the elytræ shorter than the abdomen, with several longitudinal lines, beset with hair. It is something similar to thecock-chaffer, but differs in many respects. I found it very abundant in the ground.[69]Gryllus campestris, or the field-cricket: They lay ten inches deep; they were quite torpid, but as soon as they came into a warm place they revived and were quite lively. In summer I have found these crickets in great plenty in all parts ofNorth Americawhere I have been. They leaped about on the fields, and made a noise like that of our common house-crickets, so that it would be difficult to distinguish them by their chirping. They sometimes make so great a noise, that it causes pain in the ears, and even two people cannot understand each other. In such places where the rattle-snakes live, the field-crickets are very disagreeable, and in a manner dangerous, for their violent chirping prevents the warning, which that horrid snake gives with its rattle, from reaching the ear, and thus deprives one of the means of avoiding it. I have already mentioned that they likewise winter sometimes in chimnies12. Here they ly all winter in the ground, but at the beginning ofMarch, as the air was grown warm, they came out of their holes, and began their music, though at first it was but very faint and rarely heard. When we were forced on our travels to sleep in uninhabited places, the crickets had got into the folds of our[70]clothes, so that we were obliged to stop an hour every morning in examining our clothes, before we could get rid of them.Thered ants(Formica rufa) which inSwedenmake the great ant-hills, I likewise found to-day and the following day; they were not in the ground, for when my servantYungstroemcut down old dry trees, he met with a number of them in the cracks of the tree. These cracks were at the height of many yards in the tree, and the ants were crept so high, in order to find their winter habitation: As soon as they came into a warm place, they began to stir about very briskly.Februarythe 14th. TheSwedesand theEnglishgave the name ofblue birdto a very pretty little bird, which was of a fine blue colour.Linnæuscalls itMotacilla Sialis.Catesbyhas drawn it in hisNatural history of Carolina, vol. I. pl. 47, and described it by the name ofRubecula Americana cærulea; andEdwardshas represented it in hisNatural history of birds, plate and page 24. In my own journal I called itMotacilla cærulea nitida, pectore rufo, ventre albo. InCatesby’s plate I must observe, that the colour of the breast ought to be dirty red or ferruginous; the tibiæ and feet black as jet; the bill too should be quite black; the blue colour in[71]general ought to be much deeper, more lively and shining; no bird inSwedenhas so shining and deep a blue colour as this: The jay has perhaps a plumage like it. The food of the blue bird is not merely insects, he likewise feeds upon plants; therefore in winter, when no insects are to be met with, they come to the farm-houses in order to subsist on the seeds of hay, and other small grains.Red-birdis another species of small bird.Catesbyhas likewise figured it13. Dr.Linnæuscalls it,Loxia Cardinalis. It belongs to that class of birds which are enemies to bees, lying in wait for them and eating them. I fed a cock for five months together in a cage; it eat both maize and buck-wheat, for I gave it nothing else. By its song it attracted others of its species to the court-yard, and after we had put some maize on the ground under the window where I had it, the others came there every day to get their food; it was then easy to catch them by means of traps. Some of them, especially old ones, both cocks and hens, would die with grief on being put into cages. Those on the other hand which were grown tame, began to sing exceedingly[72]sweet. Their note very nearly resembles that of ourEuropeannightingale, and on account of their agreeable song, they are sent abundantly toLondon, in cages. They have such strength in their bill that when you hold your hand to them they pinch it so hard as to cause the blood to issue forth. In spring they sit warbling on the tops of the highest trees in the woods, in the morning. But in cages they sit quite still for an hour; the next hour they hop up and down, singing; and so they go on alternately all day.Februarythe 17th.Cranes(Ardea Canadensis) were sometimes seen flying in the day-time, to the northward. They commonly stop here early in spring, for a short time, but they do not make their nests here, for they proceed on more to the north. Certain oldSwedestold me, that in their younger years, as the country was not yet much cultivated, an incredible number of cranes were here every spring; but at present they are not so numerous. Several people who have settled here, eat their flesh, when they can shoot them. They are said to do no harm to corn, or the like.Februarythe 23d. This morning I[73]went down toPenn’s Neck, and returned in the evening.Snow lay yet in several parts of the woods, especially where the trees stood very thick, and the sun could not make its way: however it was not above four inches deep. All along the roads was ice, especially in the woods, and therefore it was very difficult to ride horses, which were not sharp shoed. The people who are settled here know little of sledges, but ride on horseback to church in winter, though the snow is sometimes near a foot deep. It lays seldom above a week before it melts, and then some fresh snow falls.A species of birds, called by theSwedes,maize-thieves, do the greatest mischief in this country. They have given them that name, because they eat maize, both publicly and secretly, just after it is sown and covered with the ground, and when it is ripe. TheEnglishcall themblackbirds. There are two species of them, both described and drawn byCatesby14. Though they are very different in species, yet there[74]is so great a friendship between them, that they frequently accompany each other in mixed flocks. However, inPensylvania, the first sort are more obvious, and often fly together, without any of the red-wingedstares. The first sort, or the purple daws, bear, in many points, so great a likeness to the daw, the stare, and the thrush, that it is difficult to determine to which genus they are to be reckoned, but seem to come nearest to the stare; for the bill is exactly the same with that of the thrush, but the tongue, the flight, their sitting on the trees, their song and shape, make it entirely a stare; at a distance they look almost black, but close by they have a very blue or purple cast, but not so much asCatesby’s print: their size is that of a stare; the bill is conic, almost subulated, strait, convex, naked at the base, black, with almost equal mandibles, the upper being only a very little longer than the lower; the nostrils are oblong, yet a little angulated, so as to form almost squares; they are placed obliquely at the base of the bill, and have no hair; there is a little horny knob, or a small prominence on the upper side of them; the tongue is sharp and bifid at the point; the iris of the eyes is pale; the forehead, the crown, the nucha,[75]the upper part and the sides of the neck are of an obscure blue and green shining colour; the sides of the head under the eyes are obscurely blue; all the back and coverts of the wings are purple; the upper coverts of the tail are not of so conspicuous a purple colour, but as it were blackened with soot; the nine primary quill-feathers are black; the other secundary ones are likewise black, but their outward margin is purple; the twelve tail feathers have a blackish purple colour, and their tips are round; those on the outside are the shortest, and the middle extremely long. When the tail is spread, it looks round towards the extremity. The throat is blueish green, and shining; the breast is likewise black or shining green, according as you turn it to the light; the belly is blackish, and the vent feathers are obscurely purple-coloured; the parts of the breast and belly which are covered by the wings, are purple-coloured; the wings are black below, or rather sooty; and the thighs have blackish feathers; the legs (tibiæ), and the toes are of a shining black. It has four toes, as most birds have. The claws are black, and that on the back toe is longer than[76]the rest. Dr.Linnæuscalls this birdGracula Quiscula.A few of these birds are said to winter in swamps, which are quite overgrown with thick woods; and they only appear in mild weather. But the greatest number go to the south at the approach of winter. To-day I saw them, for the first time this year. They flew in great flocks already. Their chief and most agreeable food is maize. They come in great swarms in spring, soon after the maize is put under ground. They scratch up the grains of maize, and eat them. As soon as the leaf comes out, they take hold of it with their bills, and pluck it up, together with the corn or grain; and thus they give a great deal of trouble to the country people, even so early in spring. To lessen their greediness of maize, some people dip the grains of that plant in a decoct of the root of theveratrum album, or white hellebore, (of which I shall speak in the sequel) and plant them afterwards. When the maize-thief eats a grain or two, which are so prepared, his head is disordered, and he falls down: this frightens his companions, and they dare not venture to the place again. But they repay themselves amply towards autumn, when the maize grows ripe; for at that time,[77]they are continually feasting. They assemble by thousands in the maize-fields, and live at discretion. They are very bold; for when they are disturbed, they only go and settle in another part of the field. In that manner, they always go from one end of the field to the other, and do not leave it till they are quite satisfied. They fly in incredible swarms in autumn; and it can hardly be conceived whence such immense numbers of them should come. When they rise in the air they darken the sky, and make it look quite black. They are then in such great numbers, and so close together, that it is surprising how they find room to move their wings. I have known a person shoot a great number of them on one side of a maize-field, which was far from frightening the rest; for they only just took flight, and dropped at about the distance of a musket-shot in another part of the field, and always changed their place when their enemy approached. They tired the sportsman, before he could drive them from off the maize, though he killed a great many of them at every shot. They likewise eat the seeds of theaquatic tare-grass(Zizania aquatica) commonly late in autumn, after the maize is got in. I am told, they likewise eat buck-wheat, and oats. Some people[78]say, that they even eat wheat, barley, and rye, when pressed by hunger; yet, from the best information I could obtain, they have not been found to do any damage to these species of corn. In spring, they sit in numbers on the trees, near the farms; and their note is pretty agreeable. As they are so destructive to maize, the odium of the inhabitants against them is carried so far, that the laws ofPensylvaniaandNew Jerseyhave settled a premium of three-pence a dozen for dead maize-thieves. InNew England, the people are still greater enemies to them; for Dr.Franklintold me, in the spring of the year 1750, that, by means of the premiums which have been settled for killing them inNew England, they have been so extirpated, that they are very rarely seen, and in a few places only. But as, in the summer of the year 1749, an immense quantity of worms appeared on the meadows, which devoured the grass, and did great damage, the people have abated their enmity against the maize-thieves; for they thought they had observed, that those birds lived chiefly on these worms before the maize is ripe, and consequently extirpated them, or at least prevented their spreading too much. They seem therefore to be entitled, as it were, to a reward for their trouble.[79]But after these enemies and destroyers of the worms (the maize-thieves) were extirpated, the worms were more at liberty to multiply; and therefore they grew so numerous, that they did more mischief now than the birds did before. In the summer 1749, the worms left so little hay inNew England, that the inhabitants were forced to get hay fromPensylvania, and even fromOld England. The maize-thieves have enemies besides the human species. A species of little hawks live upon them, and upon other little birds. I saw some of these hawks driving up the maize-thieves, which were in the greatest security, and catching them in the air. Nobody eats the flesh of the purple maize-thieves or daws (Gracula quiscula); but that of the red-winged maize-thieves, or stares (Oriolus Phœniceus) is sometimes eaten. Some old people have told me, that this part ofAmerica, formerly calledNew Sweden, still contained as many maize-thieves as it did formerly. The cause of this they derive from the maize, which is now sown in much greater quantity than formerly; and they think that the birds can get their food with more ease at present.PURPLE JACKDAW. RED-WINGED STARE.PURPLE JACKDAW.RED-WINGED STARE.TheAmericanwhortleberry, or theVaccinium hispidulum, is extremely abundant[80]over allNorth America, and grows in such places where we commonly find our whortle-berries inSweden. TheAmericanones are bigger, but in most things so like theSwedishones, that many people would take them to be mere varieties. TheEnglishcall themCranberries, theSwedesTranbær, and theFrenchinCanadaAtopa, which is a name they have borrowed from theIndians. They are brought to market everyWednesdayandSaturdayatPhiladelphia, late in autumn. They are boiled and prepared in the same manner as we do our red whortle-berries, orVaccinium vitis idæa; and they are made use of during winter, and part of summer, in tarts and other kinds of pastry. But as they are very sour, they require a deal of sugar; but that is not very dear, in a country where the sugar-plantations are not far off. Quantities of these berries are sent over, preserved, toEurope, and to theWest Indies.Marchthe 2d.Mytilus anatinus, a kind of muscle-shells, was found abundantly in little furrows, which crossed the meadows. The shells were frequently covered on the outside, with a thin crust of particles of iron, when the water in the furrows came from an iron mine. TheEnglishmenand[81]Swedessettled here seldom made any use of these shells; but theIndianswho formerly lived here broiled them and ate the flesh. Some of theEuropeanseat them sometimes.The snow still remained in some parts of the wood, where it was very shady, but the fields were quite free from it. The cows, horses, sheep, and hogs, went into the woods, and sought their food, which was as yet very trifling.Marchthe 3d. TheSwedescall a species of little birds,Snofogel, and theEnglishcall itSnow-bird. This is Dr.Linnæus’sEmberiza hyemalis. The reason why it is called snow-bird is because it never appears in summer, but only in winter, when the fields are covered with snow. In some winters they come in as great numbers as the maize-thieves, fly about the houses and barns, into the gardens, and eat the corn, and the seeds of grass, which they find scattered on the hills.At eight o’clock at night we observed a meteor, commonly calledsnow-fire15. I have described this meteor in the memoirs of the RoyalSwedishAcademy of Sciences, see the volume for the year 1752, page 154, 155.[82]WildPigeons, (Columba migratoria16), flew in the woods, in numbers beyond conception, and I was assured that they were more plentiful than they had been for several years past. They came this week, and continued here for about a fortnight, after which they all disappeared, or advanced further into the country, from whence they came. I shall speak of them more particularly in another place.Marchthe 7th. Several people told me, that it was a certain sign of bad weather here when a thunder-storm arose in the south or south west, if it spread to the east and afterwards to the north: but that on the contrary, when it did not spread at all, or when it spread both east and west, though it should rise in south or south west, yet it would prognosticate fair weather. To-day it was heard in south west, but it did not spread at all. See the meteorological observations, at the end of this volume.Till now the frost had continued in the ground, so that if any one had a mind to dig a hole he was forced to cut it through with a pick-ax. However it had not penetrated[83]above four inches deep. But to-day it was quite gone out. This made the soil so soft, that on riding, even in the woods, the horse sunk in very deep.AMERICAN MIGRATORY PIDGEON.AMERICAN MIGRATORY PIDGEON.I often enquired among the oldEnglishmenandSwedes, whether they had found that any trees were killed in very severe winters, or had received much hurt. I was answered, that young hiccory trees are commonly killed in very cold weather; and the young black oaks likewise suffer in the same manner. Nay sometimes black oaks, five inches in diameter, were killed by the frost in a severe winter, and sometimes, though very seldom, a single mulberry-tree was killed. Peach-trees very frequently die in a cold winter, and often all the peach-trees in a whole district are killed by a severe frost. It has been found repeatedly, with regard to these trees, that they can stand the frost much better on hills, than in vallies; insomuch, that when the trees in a valley were killed by frost, those on a hill were not hurt at all. They assured me that they had never observed that the black walnut-tree, the sassafras, and other trees, had been hurt in winter. In regard to a frost in spring, they had observed at different times, that a cold night or two happened often after the trees were[84]furnished with pretty large leaves, and that by this most of the leaves were killed. But the leaves thus killed have always been supplied by fresh ones. It is remarkable that in such cold nights the frost acts chiefly upon the more delicate trees, and in such a manner, that all the leaves, to the height of seven and even of ten feet from the ground, were killed by the frost, and all the top remained unhurt. Several oldSwedesandEnglishmenassured me they had made this observation, and the attentive engineer, Mr.Lewis Evans, has shewn it me among his notes. Such a cold night happened here, in the year 1746, in the night between the 14th and 15th ofJune, new style, attended with the same effect, as appears from Mr.Evans’s observations. The trees which were then in blossom, had lost both their leaves and their flowers in these parts which were nearest the ground; sometime after they got fresh leaves, but no new flowers. Further it is observable, that the cold nights which happen in spring and summer never do any hurt to high grounds, damaging only the low and moist ones. They are likewise very perceptible in such places where limestone is to be met with, and though all the other parts of the country be not visited by such[85]cold nights in a summer, yet those where limestone lies have commonly one or two every summer. Frequently the places where the limestone lies are situated on a high ground; but they suffer notwithstanding their situation; whilst a little way off in a lower ground, where no limestone is to be found, the effects of the cold nights are not felt. Mr.Evanswas the first who made thisobservation, and I have had occasion at different times to see the truth of it, on my travels, as I shall mention in the sequel. The young hiccory-trees have their leaves killed sooner than other trees, in such a cold night, and the young oaks next; this has been observed by other people, and I have found it to be true, in the years 1749 and 1750.Marchthe 11th. Of the genus ofWood-peckers, we find here all those, whichCatesbyin his first volume of theNatural History of Carolina, has drawn and described. I shall only enumerate them, and add one or two of their qualities; but their description at large I defer for another occasion.Picus principalis, theKing of the Wood-peckers, is found here, though very seldom, and only at a certain season.[86]Picus pileatus, the crestedWood-pecker; this I have already mentioned.Picus auratus, thegold-winged Wood-pecker: This species is plentiful here, and theSwedescall itHittock, andPiut; both these names have a relation to its note; it is almost continually on the ground, and is not observed to pick in the trees; it lives chiefly on insects, but sometimes becomes the prey of hawks; it is commonly very fat, and its flesh is very palatable. As it stays all the year, and cannot easily get insects in winter, it must doubtless eat some kinds of grass or plants in the fields. Its form, and some of its qualities, make it resemble a cuckow.Picus Carolinus, theCarolina Wood-pecker. It lives here likewise, and the colour of its head is of a deeper and more shining red thanCatesbyhas represented it, vol. i. p. 19. t. 19.Picus villosus, thespotted, hairy, middle-sized Wood-peckeris abundant here; it destroys the apple-trees by pecking holes into them.Picus erythrocephalus, thered-headed Wood-pecker. This bird was frequent in the country, and theSwedescalled it merelyHackspick, orWood pecker. They give the same name to all the birds which I now enumerate, the gold-winged wood-pecker excepted. This species is destructive[87]to maize-fields and orchards, for it pecks through the ears of maize, and eats apples. In some years they are very numerous, especially where sweet apples grow, which they eat so far, that nothing but the mere peels remain. Some years ago there was a premium of two penceperhead, paid from the public funds, in order to extirpate this pernicious bird, but this law has been repealed. They are likewise very fond of acorns. At the approach of winter they travel to the southward. But when they stay in numbers in the woods, at the beginning of winter, the people look upon it as a sign of a pretty mild winter.Picus varius, thelesser, spotted, yellow-bellied Wood-pecker. These birds are much more numerous than many people wished; for this, as well as the preceding and succeeding species, are very hurtful to apple-trees.Picus pubescens, or theleast spotted Wood-pecker. This species abounds here. Of all the wood-peckers it is the most dangerous to orchards, because it is the most daring. As soon as it has pecked a hole into the tree, it makes another close to the first, in a horizontal direction, proceeding till it has pecked a circle of holes[88]round the tree. Therefore the apple-trees in the orchards here have several rings round their stems, which lie very close above each other, frequently only an inch distant from each other. Sometimes these wood-peckers peck the holes so close, that the tree dries up. This bird, asCatesbyremarks, is so like the lesser spotted wood-pecker, in regard to its colour and other qualities, that they would be taken for the same bird, were not the former (thePicus pubescens) a great deal less. They agree in the bad quality, which they both possess, of pecking holes into the apple-trees.Rana ocellataare a kind of frogs here, which theSwedescall,Sill-hoppetosser, i. e.Herring-hoppers, and which now began to quack in the evening, and at night, in swamps, pools, and ponds. The name which theSwedesgive them is derived from their beginning to make their noise in spring, at the same time when the people here go catching what are called herrings, which however differ greatly from the trueEuropeanherrings. These frogs have a peculiar note, which is not like that of ourEuropeanfrogs, but rather corresponds with the chirping of some large birds, and can nearly be expressed bypicet. With this noise they continued throughout a great[89]part of spring, beginning their noise soon after sun-setting, and finishing it just before sun-rising. The sound was sharp, but yet so loud that it could be heard at a great distance. When they expected rain they cried much worse than commonly, and began in the middle of the day, or when it grew cloudy, and the rain came usually six hours after. As it snowed on the 16th of the next month,andblew very violently all day, there was not the least sign of them at night, and during the whole time that it was cold, and whilst the snow lay on the fields, the frost had so silenced them, that we could not hear one; but as soon as the mild weather returned, they began their noise again. They were very timorous, and it was difficult to catch them; for as soon as a person approached the place where they lived, they are quite silent, and none of them appeared. It seems that they hide themselves entirely under water, except the tip of the snout, when they cry. For when I stepped to the pond where they were in, I could not observe a single one hopping into the water. I could not see any of them before I had emptied a whole pool, where they lodged in. Their colour is a dirty green, variegated with spots of brown. When[90]they are touched they make a noise and moan; they then sometimes assume a form, as if they had blown up the hind part of the back, so that it makes a high elevation; and then they do not stir, though touched. When they are put alive into spirits of wine, they die within a minute.Marchthe 12th. The bird which theEnglishandSwedesin this country callRobin-red-breast17, is found here all the year round. It is a very different bird from that which inEnglandbears the same name. It isLinnæus’sTurdus migratorius. It sings very melodiously, is not very shy, but hops on the ground, quite close to the houses.TheHazels(Corylus avellana) were now opening their blossoms. They succeeded best in a rich mould, and theSwedesreckoned it a sign of a good soil where they found them growing.Marchthe 13th. Thealder(Betula Alnus) was just blossoming.MOCKING BIRD. REDBREASTED THRUSH.MOCKING BIRD.REDBREASTED THRUSH.TheDracontium foetidumgrew plentifully in the marshes and began to flower. Among the stinking plants, this is the most fœtid; its nauseous scent was so strong, that I could hardly examine the flower;[91]and when I smelled a little too long at it, my head ached. TheSwedescall itByorn-blad(bear’s-leaf) orByorn-retter(bear’s-root.) TheEnglishcall itPolecat-root, because its effluvia are as nauseous and fœtid, as those of the polecat, which I have mentioned before. The flowers are purple-coloured; when they are in full flower, the leaves begin to come out of the ground; in summer the cattle do not touch it. Dr.Coldentold me, that he had employed the root in all cases where the root of the arum is made use of, especially against the scurvy, &c. TheSwedishname it got, because the bears, when they leave their winter habitations, are fond of it in spring: It is a common plant in allNorth America.TheDraba vernawas abundant here, and now appeared in flower.TheVeratrum albumwas very common in the marshes, and in low places over allNorth America. TheSwedeshere call itDack,DackororDackretter, that is puppet-root, because the children make puppets of its stalks and leaves. TheEnglishcall itItch-reedorEllebore. It is a poisonous plant, and therefore the cattle never touch it; however it sometimes happens that the cattle are deceived in the beginning of spring, when the pastures are bare, and eat of the fine broad green leaves of this plant,[92]which come up very early; but such a meal frequently proves fatal to them. Sheep and geese have likewise often been killed with it. By means of its root, the maize is preserved from the greediness of voracious birds, in the following manner: The roots are boiled in water, into which the maize is put as soon as the water is quite cool; the maize must ly all night in it, and is then planted as usual. When the maize-thieves, crows, or other birds, pick up or pluck out the grains of maize, their heads grow delirious, and they fall, which so frightens the rest that they never venture on the field again; when those which have tasted the grains recover, they leave the field, and are no more tempted to visit it again. By thus preparing maize, one must be very careful that no other creatures touch it; for when ducks or fowls eat a grain or two of the maize which is thus steeped, they become very sick; but if they swallow a considerable quantity they die. When the root is thrown away raw, no animal eats it; but when it is put out boiled, its sweet taste tempts the beasts to eat it. Dogs have been seen to eat a little of it, and have been very sick after it; however they have recovered after a vomit, for when animals cannot free themselves of it by this means, they often die. Some people boil the root, and[93]wash the scorbutic parts with the water or decoct. This is said to cause some pain, and even a plentiful discharge of urine, but it re-establishes the patient. When the children here are plagued with vermin, the women boil this root, put the comb into the decoction, and comb the head with it, and this kills them most effectually.Marchthe 17th. At the first arrival of theSwedesin this country, and long after that time, it was filled withIndians. But as theEuropeansproceeded to cultivate the land, theIndianssold their land, and went further into the country. But in reality few of theIndiansreally left the country in this manner; most of them ended their days before, either by wars among themselves, or by the small-pox, a disease which theIndianswere unacquainted with before their commerce with theEuropeans, and which since that time has killed incredible numbers of them. For though they can heal wounds and other external hurts, yet they know not how to proceed with fevers, or in general with internal diseases. One can imagine, how ill they would succeed with the cure of the small-pox, when as soon as the pustules appeared, they leaped naked into the cold water of the rivers, lakes, or fountains, and either dived over[94]head into it, or poured it over their body in great abundance, in order to cool the heat of the fever. In the same manner they carry their children, when they have the small-pox, into the water and duck them18. But brandy has killed most of theIndians. This liquor was likewise entirely unknown to them, before theEuropeanscame hither; but after they had tasted it, they could never get enough of it. A man can hardly have a greater desire of a thing, than theIndianshave of brandy. I have heard them say, that to die by drinking brandy, was a[95]desirable and an honourable death; and indeed ’tis no very uncommon thing to kill themselves by drinking this liquor to excess.The food of theseIndianswas very different from that of the inhabitants of the other parts of the world. Wheat, rye, barley, oats, and rice-groats, were quite unknown inAmerica. In the same manner it is with regard to the fruits and herbs which are eaten in the old countries. The maize, some kinds of beans, and melons, made almost the whole of theIndianagriculture and gardening; and dogs were the only domestic animals inNorth America. But as their agriculture and their gardening were very trifling, and they could hardly live two months in a year upon their produce, they were forced to apply to hunting and fishing, which at that time, and even at present, are their chief subsistence, and to seek some of the wild plants and trees here. Some of the oldSwedeswere yet alive, who in their younger years had an intercourse with theIndians, and had seen the minutiæ of their œconomy. I was therefore desirous of knowing which of the spontaneous herbs they made use of for food at that time; and all the old men agreed that the following plants were what they chiefly consumed:[96]HopnissorHapnisswas theIndianname of a wild plant, which they ate at that time. TheSwedesstill call it by that name, and it grows in the meadows in a good soil. The roots resemble potatoes, and were boiled by theIndians, who eat them instead of bread. Some of theSwedesat that time likewise ate this root for want of bread. Some of theEnglishstill eat them instead of potatoes. Mr.Bartramtold me, that theIndianswho live farther in the country do not only eat these roots, which are equal in goodness to potatoes, but likewise take the pease which ly in the pods of this plant, and prepare them like common pease. Dr.Linnæuscalls the plantGlycine Apios.Katnissis anotherIndianname of a plant, the root of which they were likewise accustomed to eat, when they lived here. TheSwedesstill preserve this name. It grows in low, muddy and very wet ground. The root is oblong, commonly an inch and an half long, and one inch and a quarter broad in the middle; but some of the roots have been as big as a man’s fists. TheIndianseither boiled this root or roasted it in hot ashes. Some of theSwedeslikewise eat them with much appetite, at the time when theIndianswere so near the coast; but at present none of them make any use[97]of the roots. A man of ninety-one years of age, calledNils Gustafson, told me, that he had often eaten these roots when he was a boy, and that he liked them very well at that time. He added that theIndians, especially their women, travelled to the islands, dug out the roots, and brought them home; and whilst they had them, they desired no other food. They said that the hogs, which are amazingly greedy of them, have made them very scarce. The cattle are very fond of its leaves. I afterwards got fond of these roots roasted, and in my opinion they tasted well, though they were rather dry: The taste was nearly the same with that of the potatoes. When theIndianscome down to the coast and see the turneps of theEuropeans, they likewise give them the name ofkatniss. Their katniss is an arrow-head orSagittaria, and is only a variety of theSwedisharrow-head orSagittaria sagittifolia, for the plant above the ground is entirely the same, but the root under ground is much greater in theAmericanthan in theEuropean. Mr.Osbeckin his voyage toChina, vol. i. p. 334, of theEnglishedition, mentions, that theChineseplant aSagittaria, and eat its roots. This seems undoubtedly to be a variety of thiskatniss. Further in the north of this[98]part ofAmerica, I met with the other species ofSagittariawhich we have inSweden.Taw-hoandTaw-himwas theIndianname of another plant, the root of which they eat. Some of them likewise call itTuckah; but most of theSwedesstill knew it by the name ofTaw-ho. It grows in moist ground and swamps. Hogs are very greedy of the roots, and grow very fat by feeding on them. Therefore, they often visit the places where these roots grow; and they are frequently seen rooting up the mud, and falling with their whole body into the water, so that only a little of the back part was out of the water. It is therefore very plain, that these roots must have been extirpated in places which are frequented by hogs. The roots often grow to the thickness of a man’s thigh. When they are fresh, they have a pungent taste, and are reckoned a poison in that fresh taste. Nor did theIndiansever venture to eat them raw, but prepared them in the following manner: They gathered a great heap of these roots, dug a great long hole, sometimes two or three fathoms and upwards in length, into which they put the roots, and covered them with the earth that had been taken out of the hole; they made a great fire above it, which burnt till they thought proper to remove it; and then[99]they dug up the roots, and consumed them with great avidity. These roots, when prepared in this manner, I am told, taste like potatoes. TheIndiansnever dry and preserve them; but always take them fresh out of the marshes, when they want them. ThisTaw-hois theArum Virginicum, orVirginianWake-robin. It is remarkable, that the Arums, with the plants next akin to them, are eaten by men in different parts of the world, though their roots, when raw, have a fiery pungent taste, and are almost poisonous in that state. How can men have learnt, that plants so extremely opposite to our nature were eatable; and that their poison, which burns on the tongue, can be conquered by fire. Thus the root of theCalla palustris, which grows in the north ofEurope, is sometimes used instead of bread on an exigency. TheNorth American Indiansconsume this species of Arum. Those ofSouth America, and of theWest Indies, eat other species of Arums. TheHottentots, at theCape of Good Hope, inAfrica, prepare bread from a species ofArumorWake-robin, which is as burning and poisonous as the other species of this plant. In the same manner, they employ the roots of some kinds of Arum as a food, inEgyptandAsia. Probably,[100]that severe but sometimes useful mistress, necessity, has first taught men to find out a food, which the first taste would have rejected as useless. ThisTaw-hoseems to be the same with what theIndiansinCarolinacallTuckahoo; and of which see Vol. I. p. 287.Taw-keeis another plant, so called by theIndianswho eat it. Some of them call itTaw-kim, and othersTackvim. TheSwedescall it always by the name ofTaw-kee. The plant grows in marshes, near moist and low grounds, and is very plentiful inNorth America. The cattle, hogs and stags, are very fond of the leaves in spring; for they are some of the earliest. The leaves are broad, like those of theConvallaria, or Lilly of the Valley, green on the upper side, and covered with very minute hair, so that they looked like a fine velvet. TheIndianspluck the seeds, and keep them for eating. They cannot be eaten fresh or raw, but must be dried. TheIndianswere forced to boil them repeatedly in water, before they were fit for use; and then they ate them like pease. When theSwedesgave them butter or milk, they boiled or broiled the seeds in it. Sometimes they employ these seeds instead of bread; and they taste like pease. Some of theSwedeslikewise[101]ate them; and the old men among them told me, they liked this food better than any of the other plants which theIndiansformerly made use of. ThisTaw-keewas theOrontium aquaticum.Bilberrieswere likewise a very common dish among theIndians. They are calledHuckleberriesby theEnglishhere, and belong to several species ofVaccinium, which are all of them different from ourSwedishBilberry-bush, though their berries, in regard to colour, shape, and taste, are so similar to theSwedishbilberry, that they are distinguished from each other with difficulty. TheAmericanones grow on shrubs, which are from two to four feet high; and there are some species which are above seven feet in height. TheIndiansformerly plucked them in abundance every year, dried them either in the sun-shine or by the fire-side, and afterwards prepared them for eating, in different manners, These huckleberries are still a dainty dish among theIndians. On my travels through the country of theIroquese, they offered me, whenever they designed to treat me well, fresh maize-bread, baked in an oblong shape, mixed with driedHuckleberries, which lay as close in it as the raisins in a plumb-pudding. I shall[102]write more at large about it in the sequel. TheEuropeansare likewise used to collect a quantity of these berries, to dry them in ovens, to bake them in tarts, and to employ them in several other ways. Some preserve them with treacle. They are likewise eaten raw, either quite alone or with fresh milk.I shall, on the 27th ofMarch, find occasion to mention another dish, which theIndiansate formerly, and still eat, on formal ceremonies.Marchthe 18th. Almost during the whole of this spring, the weather and the winds were always calm in the morning at sun-rising. At eight o’clock the wind began to blow pretty hard, and continued so all day, till sun-setting; when it ceased, and all the night was calm. This was the regular course of the weather; but sometimes the winds raged, without intermission, for two or three days together. At noon it was commonly most violent. But in the ordinary way, the wind decreased and increased as follows: At six in the morning, a calm; at seven, a very gentle western breeze, which grew stronger at eight; at eleven it was much stronger; but at four in the afternoon, it is no stronger than it was[103]at eight o’clock in the morning; and thus it goes on decreasing till it is quite a calm, just before sun-set. The winds this spring blew generally west, as appears from the observations at the end of this volume.I was told, that it was a very certain prognostic of bad weather, that when you see clouds in the horizon in the south-west, about sun-setting, and when those clouds sink below the horizon, in an hour’s time, it will rain the next day, though all the forenoon be fair and clear. But if some clouds be seen in the south-west, in the horizon, at sun-set, and they rise some time after, you may expect fair weather the next day.Marchthe 20th. An oldSwedeprognosticated a change in the weather, because it was calm to-day; for when there has been wind for some days together, and a calm follows, they say, rain or snow, or some other change in the weather, will happen. I was likewise told, that some people here were of that false opinion, that the weather commonly alters onFriday; so that, in case it had rained or blown hard all the week, and a change was to happen, it would commonly fall onFriday. How far the former prognostic has been true, appears from my own observations of the weather, to which I refer.[104]Marchthe 21st. The red maple (Acer rubrum) and theAmericanelm (Ulmus Americana) began to flower at present; and some of the latter kind were already in full blossom.Marchthe 24th. I walked pretty far to-day, in order to see whether I could find any plants in flower. But the cloudy weather, and the great rains which had lately fallen, had allowed little or nothing to grow up. The leaves now began to grow pretty green. The plants which I have just before mentioned, were now in full blossom.The noble Liverwort, orAnemone hepatica, was now every where in flower. It was abundant; and theSwedescalled itBlablomster, or Blue-flower. They did not know any use of it.Near all the corn-fields on which I walked to-day, I did not see a single ditch, though many of them wanted it. But the people generally followed theEnglishway of making no ditches along the fields, without considering whether the corn-fields wanted them or not. The consequence was, that the late rain had in many places washed away great pieces of the grounds, sown with wheat and rye. There were no ridges left between the fields, except a very narrow one near the fence, which was entirely over-grown[105]with the Sumach, orRhus glabra, and with black-berry bushes, so that there the cattle could find very little or no food. The corn fields werebroad-cast, or divided into pieces, which were near seventeen feet broad, and separated from each other only by means of furrows. These pieces were uniform, and not elevated in the middle.Meloe majalisa species of oil-beetle, crept about on the hills.Papilio Antiopa, or willow butterfly, flew in the woods to-day, and was the first butterfly which I saw this year.Papilio Euphrosyne, or theAprilbutterfly, was one of the scarce species. The otherAmericaninsect, which I described this day and the following days, I shall mention on some other occasion. In the sequel I shall only mention those which were remarkable for some peculiar qualities.The hay-stacks were commonly made here after theSwedishmanner, that is, in the shape of a thick and short cone, without any cover over it. When the people wanted any hay, they cut some of it loose, by a peculiar sort of a knife. However, many people, especially in the environs ofPhiladelphia, had hay-stacks with roofs which could be moved up and down.[106]Near the surface of the ground were some poles laid, on which the hay was put, that the air may pass freely through it. I have mentioned before, that the cattle have no stables in winter or summer, but must go in the open air, during the whole year. However, inPhiladelphia, and in a few other places, I have seen that those people who made use of the latter kind of hay-stacks, viz. that with moveable roofs, commonly had built them so, that the hay was put a fathom or two above the ground, on a floor of boards, under which the cattle could stand in winter, when the weather was very bad. Under this floor of boards were partitions of boards on all the sides, which however stood far enough from each other, to afford the air a free passage.Marchthe 27th. In the morning I went in order to speak with the oldSwede,Nils Gustafson, who was ninety-one years of age. I intended to get an account of the former state ofNew Sweden. The country which I now passed through was the same with that which I had found in those parts ofNorth AmericaI had hitherto seen. It was diversified with a variety of little hills and vallies: the former consisted of a very pale brick-coloured earth, composed, for the greatest part, of a fine[107]sand, mixed with some mould. I saw no mountains, and no stones, except some little stones, not above the size of a pigeon’s or hen’s egg, lying on the hills, and commonly consisting of white quartz, which was generally smooth and polished on the outside. At the bottom, along the vallies, ran sometimes rivulets of crystalline water, the bottom of which was covered with such white pebbles as I have just described. Now and then I met with a swamp in the vallies. Sometimes there appeared, though at considerable distances from each other, some farms, frequently surrounded on all sides by corn-fields. Almost on every corn-field there yet remained the stumps of trees, which had been cut down; a proof that this country has not been long cultivated, being overgrown with trees forty or fifty years ago. The farms did not ly together in villages, or so that several of them were near each other, in one place; but they were all separated from one another. Each countryman lived by himself, had his own ground about his house, separated from the property of his neighbour. The greatest part of the land, between these farms so distant from each other, was over-grown with woods, confiding of tall trees. However, there was a fine space[108]between the trees, so that one could ride on horseback without inconvenience in the woods, and even with a cart in most places; and the ground was very plain and uniform at the same time. Here and there appeared some fallen trees, thrown down by the wind; some were torn up by the roots; others broken quite across the stem. In some parts of the country the trees were thick and tall, but in others I found large tracts covered with young trees, only twenty, thirty, or forty years old: these tracts, I am told, theIndiansformerly had their little plantations in. I did not yet see any marks of the leaves coming out, and I did not meet with a flower in the woods: for the cold winds, which had blown for several days together successively, had hindered this. The woods consisted chiefly of several species of oak, and of hiccory. The swamps were filled with red maple, which was all now in flower, and made these places look quite red at a distance.The oldSwede, whom I came to visit, seemed to be still pretty hearty and fresh, and could walk by the help of a stick; but he complained of having felt in these latter years, some pains in his back, and limbs, and that he could keep his feet warm in winter only by sitting near the fire.[109]He said he could very well remember the state of this country, at the time when theDutchpossessed it, and in what circumstances it was in before the arrival of theEnglish. He added, that he had brought a great deal of timber toPhiladelphia, at the time that it was built. He still remembered to have seen a great forest on the spot wherePhiladelphianow stands. The father of this old man had been one of theSwedeswho were sent over fromSweden, in order to cultivate and inhabit this country. He returned me the following answers to the questions I asked him.Quere, Whence did theSwedes, who first came hither, get their cattle? The old man answered, that when he was a boy, his father and other people had told him, that theSwedesbrought their horses, cows, and oxen, sheep, hogs, geese, and ducks, over with them. There were but few of a kind at first, but they multiplied greatly here afterwards. He said, thatMaryland,New York,New England, andVirginia, had been sooner inhabited byEuropeansthan this part of the country; but he did not know whether theSwedesever got cattle of any kind, from any of these provinces, except fromNew York. Whilst he was yet very young, theSwedes, as well[110]as he could remember, had already a sufficient stock of all these animals. The hogs had propagated so much at that time, there being so great a plenty of food for them, that they ran about wild in the woods, and that the people were obliged to shoot them, when they intended to make use of them. The old man likewise recollected, that horses ran wild in the woods, in some places; but he could not tell whether any other kind of cattle turned wild. He thought that the cattle grow as big at present as they did when he was a boy, supposing they get as much food as they want. For in his younger years, food for all kinds of cattle was so plentiful, and even so superfluous, that the cattle were extremely well fed by it. A cow at that time gave more milk, than three or four do at present; but she got more and better food at that time, than three or four get now; and, as the old man said, the scanty allowance of grass, which the cattle get in summer, is really very pitiful. The causes of this scarcity of grass have already been mentioned.Quere, Whence did theEnglishinPensylvaniaandNew Jerseyget their cattle? They bought them chiefly from theSwedesandDutch, who lived here; and[111]a small number were brought over fromOld England. The form of the cattle, and the unanimous accounts of theEnglishhere, confirmed what the old man had said.Quere, Whence did theSwedeshere settled get their several sorts of corn, and likewise their fruit-trees and kitchen-herbs? The old man told me that he had frequently heard, when he was young, that theSwedeshad brought all kinds of corn, and fruits, and herbs, or seeds of them, with them. For, as far as he could recollect, theSwedeshere were plentifully provided with wheat, rye, barley, and oats. TheSwedes, at that time, brewed all their beer of malt made of barley, and likewise made good strong beer. They had already got distilling vessels, and made good brandy. Every one among them had not a distilling vessel, but when they intended to distil, they lent their apparatus to one another. At first they were forced to buy maize of theIndians, both for sowing and eating. But after continuing for some years in this country, they extended their maize-plantations so much that theIndianswere obliged some time after to buy maize of theSwedes. The old man likewise assured me, that the[112]Indiansformerly, and about the time of the first settling of theSwedes, were more industrious and laborious in every branch of business, than they are now. Whilst he was young, theSwedeshad a great quantity of very goodwhite cabbage.Winter cabbage, orCale, which was left on the ground during winter, was likewise abundant. They were likewise well provided with turnips. In winter they kept them in holes under ground. But the old man did not like that method; for when they had lain too long in these holes, in winter, they became spungy. He preferred that method of keeping them which is now commonly adopted, and which consists in the following particulars. After the turnips have been taken out of the ground in autumn, and exposed to the air for a while, they are put in a heap upon the field, covered with straw at the top, and on the sides, and with earth over the straw. By this means they stand the winter very well here, and do not become spungy. TheIndianswere very fond of turneps, and called them sometimesHopniss, sometimesKatniss. TheSwedeslikewise cultivated carrots, in the old man’s younger years. Among the fruit-trees wereApple-trees.[113]They were not numerous, and only some of theSwedeshad little orchards of them, whilst others had not a single tree. None of theSwedesmade cyder, for it is come into use but lately. TheSwedesbrewed strong beer and small beer, and it was their common liquor. But at present there are very few who brew beer, for they commonly prepare cyder.Cherry-treeswere abundant whenNils Gustafsonwas yet a boy. Peach-trees were at that time more numerous than at present, and theSwedesbrewed beer of the fruit. The old man could not tell from whence theSwedesfirst of all got the peach-trees.During the younger years of this old man theIndianswere every where spread in the country; they lived among theSwedes, and were scattered every where. The old man mentionedSwedeswho had been killed by theIndians; and he mentioned two of his countrymen who had been scalped by them. They stole children from theSwedes, and carried them off, and they were never heard of again. Once they came and killed someSwedes, and took the upper part of their sculls with them; on that occasion they scalped a little girl, and would have killed her, if they had not perceived a boat full ofSwedes, making towards them,[114]which obliged them to fly; the girl was afterwards healed, but never got any hair on her head again; she was married, had many children, and lived to a considerable age. At another time, theIndiansattempted to kill the mother of this old man, but she vigorously resisted them, and in the mean while a number ofSwedescame up, who frightened theIndians, and made them run away. Nobody could ever find out to what nation ofIndiansthese owe their origin; for in general they lived very peaceably with theSwedes.

Beavers were formerly abundant inNew Sweden, as all the oldSwedeshere[60]told me. At that time they saw one bank after another raised in the rivers by beavers. But after theEuropeanscame over in great number, and cultivated the country better, the beavers have been partly killed, and partly extirpated, and partly are removed higher into the country, where the people are not so numerous. Therefore there is but a single place inPensylvaniawhere beavers are to be met with; their chief food is the bark of the beaver-tree, orMagnolia glauca, which they prefer to any other. TheSwedestherefore put branches of this tree near the beaver-dykes, into traps, which they laid for the beavers, whilst they were yet plentiful; and they could almost be certain of good success. Some persons inPhiladelphiahave tamed beavers, so that they go a fishing with them, and they always come back to their masters. MajorRoderfert, inNew York, related that he had a tame beaver above half a year in his house, where he went about quite loose, like a dog. The major gave him bread, and sometimes fish, which he was very greedy of. He got as much water in a bowl as he wanted. All the rags and soft things he could meet with he dragged into a corner, where he was used to sleep, and made a bed of them. The[61]cat in the house, having kittens, took possession of his bed, and he did not hinder her. When the cat went out, the beaver often took the kitten between his fore paws and held it to his breast to warm it, and doated upon it; as soon as the cat returned he gave her the kitten again. Sometimes he grumbled, but never did any hurt, or attempted to bite.

TheEnglishand theSwedesgave the name ofMinkto an animal of this country, which likewise lives either in the water, or very near it. I have never had an opportunity to see any more than the skin of this animal. But the shape of the skin, and the unanimous accounts I have heard of it, make me conclude with much certainty, that it belonged to the genus ofweaselsormustelæ. The greatest skin I ever saw, was one foot, eight inches long, a lesser one was about ten inches long, and about three inches, one third broad, before it was cut; the colour was dark brown, and sometimes almost black; the tail was bushy, as that of a marten; the hair was very close; and the ears short, with short hair. The length of the feet belonging to the lesser skin was about two inches long. I am told this animal is so similar to theAmerican polecat, orViverra putorius,[62]that they are hardly distinguishable9. I have had the following accounts given me of its way of living; it seldom appears in day-time, but at night it comes out of the hollow trees, on the banks of rivers. Sometimes it lives in the docks and bridges, atPhiladelphia, where it is a cruel enemy to the rats. Sometimes it gets into the court-yards at night, and creeps into the chicken-house, through a small hole, where it kills all the poultry, and sucks their blood, but seldom eats one. If it meets with geese, fowls, ducks, or other birds on the road, it kills and devours them. It lives upon fish and birds. When a brook is near the houses, it is not easy to keep ducks and geese, for themink, which lives near rivers, kills the young ones. It first kills as many as it can come at, and then it carries them off, and feasts upon them. In banks and dykes near the water, it likewise does mischief, with digging. To catch it the people put up traps, into which they put heads of birds, fishes, or other meat. The skin is sold in the towns, and atPhiladelphia; they give twenty-pence and even two shillings a-piece for them,[63]according to their size. Some of the ladies get muffs made of these skins; but for the greatest part they are sent over toEngland, from whence they are distributed to other countries. The oldSwedestold me that theIndiansformerly used to eat all kinds of flesh, except that of themink.

I have already mentioned something of theRaccoon; I shall here add more of the nature of this animal, in a place which is properly its native country10. TheEnglishcall it every where by the name ofRaccoon, which name they have undoubtedly taken from one of theIndiannations; theDutchcall itHespan, theSwedes,Espan, and theIroquese,Attigbro. It commonly lodges in hollow trees, lies close in the day-time, never going out but on a dark, cloudy day; but at night it rambles and seeks its food. I have been told by several people, that in bad weather, especially when it snows and blows a storm, theRaccoonlies in its hole for a week together without coming out once; during that time it lives by sucking and licking its paws. Its food are several sorts of fruit, such as maize, whilst the ears are soft. In gardens it often does a great deal of damage among the apples, chesnuts, plumbs, and[64]wild grapes, which are what it likes best; among the poultry it is very cruel. When it finds the hens on their eggs, it first kills them, and then eats the eggs. It is caught by dogs, which trace it back to its nest, in hollow trees, or by snares and traps, in which a chicken, some other bird, or a fish, is put as a bait. Some people eat its flesh. It leaps with all its feet at once; on account of this and of several other qualities, many people here reckoned it to the genus of bears. The skin sold for eighteen-pence, atPhiladelphia. I was told that theRaccoonswere not near so numerous as they were formerly; yet in the more inland parts they were abundant. I have mentioned the use which the hatters make of their furs; as likewise that they are easily tamed, that they are very greedy of sweet-meats, &c. in the preceding volume. Of all theNorth Americanwild quadrupeds none can be tamed to such a degree as this.

Februarythe 10th. In the morning I went toPhiladelphia, where I arrived towards night. On my arrival at the ferry upon the riverDelaware, I found the river quite covered with drifts of ice, which at first prevented our crossing the water. After waiting about an hour, and making an opening near the ferry, I, together with[65]many more passengers, got over, before any more shoals came on. As it began to freeze very hard soon after the twelfth ofJanuary(orNew Year, according to the old style) the riverDelawarewas covered with ice, which by the intenseness of the frost grew so strong, that the people crossed the river with horses atPhiladelphia. The ice continued till the eighth ofFebruary, when it began to get loose, and the violent hurricane, which happened that night, broke it, and it was driven down so fast, that on the twelfth ofFebruarynot a single shoal came down, excepting a piece or two near the shore.

Crows flew in great numbers together to-day, and settled on the tops of trees. During the whole winter we hardly observed one, though they are said to winter there. During all this spring they commonly used to sit at the tops of trees in the morning; yet not all together, but in several trees. They belong to the noxious birds in this part of the world, for they chiefly live upon corn. After the maize is planted or sown, they scratch the grains out of the ground and eat them. When the maize begins to ripen, they peck a hole into the involucrum which surrounds the ear, by which means the maize is spoiled, as the rain passes[66]through the hole which they have made, and occasions the putrefaction of the corn. Besides eating corn, they likewise steal chickens. They are very fond of dead carcasses. Some years ago the government ofPensylvaniahad given three-pence, and that ofNew Jerseyfour-pence premium for every head of aCrow, but this law has now been repealed, as the expences are too great. I have seen the youngCrowsof this kind in several places playing with tame ones whose wings were cut. The latter hopped about the fields, near the farm-houses where they belonged to, but always returned again, without endeavouring to escape on any occasion. TheseAmerican Crowsare only avarietyof theRoyston Crow, orLinnæus’sCorvus Cornix.

Februarythe 12th. In the afternoon I returned toRaccoonfromPhiladelphia.

On my journey toRaccoon, I attentively observed the trees which had yet any leaves left. The leaves were pale and dried up, but not all dropt from the following trees:

TheBeach-tree, (Fagus sylvatica) whether great or small; it always kept a considerable part of its leaves during the whole winter even till spring. The greater trees kept the lowermost leaves.[67]

Thewhite oak(Quercus alba). Most of the young trees which were not above a quarter of a yard in diameter, had the greatest part of their leaves still on them, but the old trees had lost most of theirs, except in some places where they have got new shoots. The colour of the dry leaves was much paler in the white oak than in the black one.

Theblack oak(as it is commonly called here). Dr.Linnæuscalls it the red oak,Quercus rubra. Most of the young trees still preserved their dried leaves. Their colour was reddish brown, and darker than that of the white oak.

TheSpanish oak, which is a mere variety of the black oak. The young trees of this kind likewise keep their leaves.

A scarcespecies of oakwhich is known by its leaves having a triangularapexor top, whose angles terminate in a short bristle; the leaves are smooth below, but woolly above11. The young oaks of this species had still their leaves.

When I came into any wood where the above kinds of oaks were only twenty years, and even not so old, I always found the leaves on them.[68]

It seems that Providence has, besides other views, aimed to protect several sorts of birds, it being very cold and stormy about this time, by preserving even the dry leaves on these trees. I have this winter at several times seen birds hiding in the trees covered with old leaves during a severe cold or storm.

Februarythe 13th. As I began to dig a hole to-day, I found several insects which were crept deep into the ground in order to pass the winter. As soon as they came to the air, they moved their limbs a little, but had not strength sufficient for creeping, except the black ants, which crept a little, though slowly.

Formica nigra, orthe black ant, were pretty numerous, and somewhat lively. They lay about ten inches below the surface.

Carabus latus. Some of these lay at the same depth with the ants. This is a very common insect in allNorth America.

Scarabæus; chesnut-coloured, with a hairy thorax; the elytræ shorter than the abdomen, with several longitudinal lines, beset with hair. It is something similar to thecock-chaffer, but differs in many respects. I found it very abundant in the ground.[69]

Gryllus campestris, or the field-cricket: They lay ten inches deep; they were quite torpid, but as soon as they came into a warm place they revived and were quite lively. In summer I have found these crickets in great plenty in all parts ofNorth Americawhere I have been. They leaped about on the fields, and made a noise like that of our common house-crickets, so that it would be difficult to distinguish them by their chirping. They sometimes make so great a noise, that it causes pain in the ears, and even two people cannot understand each other. In such places where the rattle-snakes live, the field-crickets are very disagreeable, and in a manner dangerous, for their violent chirping prevents the warning, which that horrid snake gives with its rattle, from reaching the ear, and thus deprives one of the means of avoiding it. I have already mentioned that they likewise winter sometimes in chimnies12. Here they ly all winter in the ground, but at the beginning ofMarch, as the air was grown warm, they came out of their holes, and began their music, though at first it was but very faint and rarely heard. When we were forced on our travels to sleep in uninhabited places, the crickets had got into the folds of our[70]clothes, so that we were obliged to stop an hour every morning in examining our clothes, before we could get rid of them.

Thered ants(Formica rufa) which inSwedenmake the great ant-hills, I likewise found to-day and the following day; they were not in the ground, for when my servantYungstroemcut down old dry trees, he met with a number of them in the cracks of the tree. These cracks were at the height of many yards in the tree, and the ants were crept so high, in order to find their winter habitation: As soon as they came into a warm place, they began to stir about very briskly.

Februarythe 14th. TheSwedesand theEnglishgave the name ofblue birdto a very pretty little bird, which was of a fine blue colour.Linnæuscalls itMotacilla Sialis.Catesbyhas drawn it in hisNatural history of Carolina, vol. I. pl. 47, and described it by the name ofRubecula Americana cærulea; andEdwardshas represented it in hisNatural history of birds, plate and page 24. In my own journal I called itMotacilla cærulea nitida, pectore rufo, ventre albo. InCatesby’s plate I must observe, that the colour of the breast ought to be dirty red or ferruginous; the tibiæ and feet black as jet; the bill too should be quite black; the blue colour in[71]general ought to be much deeper, more lively and shining; no bird inSwedenhas so shining and deep a blue colour as this: The jay has perhaps a plumage like it. The food of the blue bird is not merely insects, he likewise feeds upon plants; therefore in winter, when no insects are to be met with, they come to the farm-houses in order to subsist on the seeds of hay, and other small grains.

Red-birdis another species of small bird.Catesbyhas likewise figured it13. Dr.Linnæuscalls it,Loxia Cardinalis. It belongs to that class of birds which are enemies to bees, lying in wait for them and eating them. I fed a cock for five months together in a cage; it eat both maize and buck-wheat, for I gave it nothing else. By its song it attracted others of its species to the court-yard, and after we had put some maize on the ground under the window where I had it, the others came there every day to get their food; it was then easy to catch them by means of traps. Some of them, especially old ones, both cocks and hens, would die with grief on being put into cages. Those on the other hand which were grown tame, began to sing exceedingly[72]sweet. Their note very nearly resembles that of ourEuropeannightingale, and on account of their agreeable song, they are sent abundantly toLondon, in cages. They have such strength in their bill that when you hold your hand to them they pinch it so hard as to cause the blood to issue forth. In spring they sit warbling on the tops of the highest trees in the woods, in the morning. But in cages they sit quite still for an hour; the next hour they hop up and down, singing; and so they go on alternately all day.

Februarythe 17th.Cranes(Ardea Canadensis) were sometimes seen flying in the day-time, to the northward. They commonly stop here early in spring, for a short time, but they do not make their nests here, for they proceed on more to the north. Certain oldSwedestold me, that in their younger years, as the country was not yet much cultivated, an incredible number of cranes were here every spring; but at present they are not so numerous. Several people who have settled here, eat their flesh, when they can shoot them. They are said to do no harm to corn, or the like.

Februarythe 23d. This morning I[73]went down toPenn’s Neck, and returned in the evening.

Snow lay yet in several parts of the woods, especially where the trees stood very thick, and the sun could not make its way: however it was not above four inches deep. All along the roads was ice, especially in the woods, and therefore it was very difficult to ride horses, which were not sharp shoed. The people who are settled here know little of sledges, but ride on horseback to church in winter, though the snow is sometimes near a foot deep. It lays seldom above a week before it melts, and then some fresh snow falls.

A species of birds, called by theSwedes,maize-thieves, do the greatest mischief in this country. They have given them that name, because they eat maize, both publicly and secretly, just after it is sown and covered with the ground, and when it is ripe. TheEnglishcall themblackbirds. There are two species of them, both described and drawn byCatesby14. Though they are very different in species, yet there[74]is so great a friendship between them, that they frequently accompany each other in mixed flocks. However, inPensylvania, the first sort are more obvious, and often fly together, without any of the red-wingedstares. The first sort, or the purple daws, bear, in many points, so great a likeness to the daw, the stare, and the thrush, that it is difficult to determine to which genus they are to be reckoned, but seem to come nearest to the stare; for the bill is exactly the same with that of the thrush, but the tongue, the flight, their sitting on the trees, their song and shape, make it entirely a stare; at a distance they look almost black, but close by they have a very blue or purple cast, but not so much asCatesby’s print: their size is that of a stare; the bill is conic, almost subulated, strait, convex, naked at the base, black, with almost equal mandibles, the upper being only a very little longer than the lower; the nostrils are oblong, yet a little angulated, so as to form almost squares; they are placed obliquely at the base of the bill, and have no hair; there is a little horny knob, or a small prominence on the upper side of them; the tongue is sharp and bifid at the point; the iris of the eyes is pale; the forehead, the crown, the nucha,[75]the upper part and the sides of the neck are of an obscure blue and green shining colour; the sides of the head under the eyes are obscurely blue; all the back and coverts of the wings are purple; the upper coverts of the tail are not of so conspicuous a purple colour, but as it were blackened with soot; the nine primary quill-feathers are black; the other secundary ones are likewise black, but their outward margin is purple; the twelve tail feathers have a blackish purple colour, and their tips are round; those on the outside are the shortest, and the middle extremely long. When the tail is spread, it looks round towards the extremity. The throat is blueish green, and shining; the breast is likewise black or shining green, according as you turn it to the light; the belly is blackish, and the vent feathers are obscurely purple-coloured; the parts of the breast and belly which are covered by the wings, are purple-coloured; the wings are black below, or rather sooty; and the thighs have blackish feathers; the legs (tibiæ), and the toes are of a shining black. It has four toes, as most birds have. The claws are black, and that on the back toe is longer than[76]the rest. Dr.Linnæuscalls this birdGracula Quiscula.

A few of these birds are said to winter in swamps, which are quite overgrown with thick woods; and they only appear in mild weather. But the greatest number go to the south at the approach of winter. To-day I saw them, for the first time this year. They flew in great flocks already. Their chief and most agreeable food is maize. They come in great swarms in spring, soon after the maize is put under ground. They scratch up the grains of maize, and eat them. As soon as the leaf comes out, they take hold of it with their bills, and pluck it up, together with the corn or grain; and thus they give a great deal of trouble to the country people, even so early in spring. To lessen their greediness of maize, some people dip the grains of that plant in a decoct of the root of theveratrum album, or white hellebore, (of which I shall speak in the sequel) and plant them afterwards. When the maize-thief eats a grain or two, which are so prepared, his head is disordered, and he falls down: this frightens his companions, and they dare not venture to the place again. But they repay themselves amply towards autumn, when the maize grows ripe; for at that time,[77]they are continually feasting. They assemble by thousands in the maize-fields, and live at discretion. They are very bold; for when they are disturbed, they only go and settle in another part of the field. In that manner, they always go from one end of the field to the other, and do not leave it till they are quite satisfied. They fly in incredible swarms in autumn; and it can hardly be conceived whence such immense numbers of them should come. When they rise in the air they darken the sky, and make it look quite black. They are then in such great numbers, and so close together, that it is surprising how they find room to move their wings. I have known a person shoot a great number of them on one side of a maize-field, which was far from frightening the rest; for they only just took flight, and dropped at about the distance of a musket-shot in another part of the field, and always changed their place when their enemy approached. They tired the sportsman, before he could drive them from off the maize, though he killed a great many of them at every shot. They likewise eat the seeds of theaquatic tare-grass(Zizania aquatica) commonly late in autumn, after the maize is got in. I am told, they likewise eat buck-wheat, and oats. Some people[78]say, that they even eat wheat, barley, and rye, when pressed by hunger; yet, from the best information I could obtain, they have not been found to do any damage to these species of corn. In spring, they sit in numbers on the trees, near the farms; and their note is pretty agreeable. As they are so destructive to maize, the odium of the inhabitants against them is carried so far, that the laws ofPensylvaniaandNew Jerseyhave settled a premium of three-pence a dozen for dead maize-thieves. InNew England, the people are still greater enemies to them; for Dr.Franklintold me, in the spring of the year 1750, that, by means of the premiums which have been settled for killing them inNew England, they have been so extirpated, that they are very rarely seen, and in a few places only. But as, in the summer of the year 1749, an immense quantity of worms appeared on the meadows, which devoured the grass, and did great damage, the people have abated their enmity against the maize-thieves; for they thought they had observed, that those birds lived chiefly on these worms before the maize is ripe, and consequently extirpated them, or at least prevented their spreading too much. They seem therefore to be entitled, as it were, to a reward for their trouble.[79]But after these enemies and destroyers of the worms (the maize-thieves) were extirpated, the worms were more at liberty to multiply; and therefore they grew so numerous, that they did more mischief now than the birds did before. In the summer 1749, the worms left so little hay inNew England, that the inhabitants were forced to get hay fromPensylvania, and even fromOld England. The maize-thieves have enemies besides the human species. A species of little hawks live upon them, and upon other little birds. I saw some of these hawks driving up the maize-thieves, which were in the greatest security, and catching them in the air. Nobody eats the flesh of the purple maize-thieves or daws (Gracula quiscula); but that of the red-winged maize-thieves, or stares (Oriolus Phœniceus) is sometimes eaten. Some old people have told me, that this part ofAmerica, formerly calledNew Sweden, still contained as many maize-thieves as it did formerly. The cause of this they derive from the maize, which is now sown in much greater quantity than formerly; and they think that the birds can get their food with more ease at present.

PURPLE JACKDAW. RED-WINGED STARE.PURPLE JACKDAW.RED-WINGED STARE.

PURPLE JACKDAW.RED-WINGED STARE.

TheAmericanwhortleberry, or theVaccinium hispidulum, is extremely abundant[80]over allNorth America, and grows in such places where we commonly find our whortle-berries inSweden. TheAmericanones are bigger, but in most things so like theSwedishones, that many people would take them to be mere varieties. TheEnglishcall themCranberries, theSwedesTranbær, and theFrenchinCanadaAtopa, which is a name they have borrowed from theIndians. They are brought to market everyWednesdayandSaturdayatPhiladelphia, late in autumn. They are boiled and prepared in the same manner as we do our red whortle-berries, orVaccinium vitis idæa; and they are made use of during winter, and part of summer, in tarts and other kinds of pastry. But as they are very sour, they require a deal of sugar; but that is not very dear, in a country where the sugar-plantations are not far off. Quantities of these berries are sent over, preserved, toEurope, and to theWest Indies.

Marchthe 2d.Mytilus anatinus, a kind of muscle-shells, was found abundantly in little furrows, which crossed the meadows. The shells were frequently covered on the outside, with a thin crust of particles of iron, when the water in the furrows came from an iron mine. TheEnglishmenand[81]Swedessettled here seldom made any use of these shells; but theIndianswho formerly lived here broiled them and ate the flesh. Some of theEuropeanseat them sometimes.

The snow still remained in some parts of the wood, where it was very shady, but the fields were quite free from it. The cows, horses, sheep, and hogs, went into the woods, and sought their food, which was as yet very trifling.

Marchthe 3d. TheSwedescall a species of little birds,Snofogel, and theEnglishcall itSnow-bird. This is Dr.Linnæus’sEmberiza hyemalis. The reason why it is called snow-bird is because it never appears in summer, but only in winter, when the fields are covered with snow. In some winters they come in as great numbers as the maize-thieves, fly about the houses and barns, into the gardens, and eat the corn, and the seeds of grass, which they find scattered on the hills.

At eight o’clock at night we observed a meteor, commonly calledsnow-fire15. I have described this meteor in the memoirs of the RoyalSwedishAcademy of Sciences, see the volume for the year 1752, page 154, 155.[82]

WildPigeons, (Columba migratoria16), flew in the woods, in numbers beyond conception, and I was assured that they were more plentiful than they had been for several years past. They came this week, and continued here for about a fortnight, after which they all disappeared, or advanced further into the country, from whence they came. I shall speak of them more particularly in another place.

Marchthe 7th. Several people told me, that it was a certain sign of bad weather here when a thunder-storm arose in the south or south west, if it spread to the east and afterwards to the north: but that on the contrary, when it did not spread at all, or when it spread both east and west, though it should rise in south or south west, yet it would prognosticate fair weather. To-day it was heard in south west, but it did not spread at all. See the meteorological observations, at the end of this volume.

Till now the frost had continued in the ground, so that if any one had a mind to dig a hole he was forced to cut it through with a pick-ax. However it had not penetrated[83]above four inches deep. But to-day it was quite gone out. This made the soil so soft, that on riding, even in the woods, the horse sunk in very deep.

AMERICAN MIGRATORY PIDGEON.AMERICAN MIGRATORY PIDGEON.

AMERICAN MIGRATORY PIDGEON.

I often enquired among the oldEnglishmenandSwedes, whether they had found that any trees were killed in very severe winters, or had received much hurt. I was answered, that young hiccory trees are commonly killed in very cold weather; and the young black oaks likewise suffer in the same manner. Nay sometimes black oaks, five inches in diameter, were killed by the frost in a severe winter, and sometimes, though very seldom, a single mulberry-tree was killed. Peach-trees very frequently die in a cold winter, and often all the peach-trees in a whole district are killed by a severe frost. It has been found repeatedly, with regard to these trees, that they can stand the frost much better on hills, than in vallies; insomuch, that when the trees in a valley were killed by frost, those on a hill were not hurt at all. They assured me that they had never observed that the black walnut-tree, the sassafras, and other trees, had been hurt in winter. In regard to a frost in spring, they had observed at different times, that a cold night or two happened often after the trees were[84]furnished with pretty large leaves, and that by this most of the leaves were killed. But the leaves thus killed have always been supplied by fresh ones. It is remarkable that in such cold nights the frost acts chiefly upon the more delicate trees, and in such a manner, that all the leaves, to the height of seven and even of ten feet from the ground, were killed by the frost, and all the top remained unhurt. Several oldSwedesandEnglishmenassured me they had made this observation, and the attentive engineer, Mr.Lewis Evans, has shewn it me among his notes. Such a cold night happened here, in the year 1746, in the night between the 14th and 15th ofJune, new style, attended with the same effect, as appears from Mr.Evans’s observations. The trees which were then in blossom, had lost both their leaves and their flowers in these parts which were nearest the ground; sometime after they got fresh leaves, but no new flowers. Further it is observable, that the cold nights which happen in spring and summer never do any hurt to high grounds, damaging only the low and moist ones. They are likewise very perceptible in such places where limestone is to be met with, and though all the other parts of the country be not visited by such[85]cold nights in a summer, yet those where limestone lies have commonly one or two every summer. Frequently the places where the limestone lies are situated on a high ground; but they suffer notwithstanding their situation; whilst a little way off in a lower ground, where no limestone is to be found, the effects of the cold nights are not felt. Mr.Evanswas the first who made thisobservation, and I have had occasion at different times to see the truth of it, on my travels, as I shall mention in the sequel. The young hiccory-trees have their leaves killed sooner than other trees, in such a cold night, and the young oaks next; this has been observed by other people, and I have found it to be true, in the years 1749 and 1750.

Marchthe 11th. Of the genus ofWood-peckers, we find here all those, whichCatesbyin his first volume of theNatural History of Carolina, has drawn and described. I shall only enumerate them, and add one or two of their qualities; but their description at large I defer for another occasion.

Picus principalis, theKing of the Wood-peckers, is found here, though very seldom, and only at a certain season.[86]

Picus pileatus, the crestedWood-pecker; this I have already mentioned.

Picus auratus, thegold-winged Wood-pecker: This species is plentiful here, and theSwedescall itHittock, andPiut; both these names have a relation to its note; it is almost continually on the ground, and is not observed to pick in the trees; it lives chiefly on insects, but sometimes becomes the prey of hawks; it is commonly very fat, and its flesh is very palatable. As it stays all the year, and cannot easily get insects in winter, it must doubtless eat some kinds of grass or plants in the fields. Its form, and some of its qualities, make it resemble a cuckow.

Picus Carolinus, theCarolina Wood-pecker. It lives here likewise, and the colour of its head is of a deeper and more shining red thanCatesbyhas represented it, vol. i. p. 19. t. 19.

Picus villosus, thespotted, hairy, middle-sized Wood-peckeris abundant here; it destroys the apple-trees by pecking holes into them.

Picus erythrocephalus, thered-headed Wood-pecker. This bird was frequent in the country, and theSwedescalled it merelyHackspick, orWood pecker. They give the same name to all the birds which I now enumerate, the gold-winged wood-pecker excepted. This species is destructive[87]to maize-fields and orchards, for it pecks through the ears of maize, and eats apples. In some years they are very numerous, especially where sweet apples grow, which they eat so far, that nothing but the mere peels remain. Some years ago there was a premium of two penceperhead, paid from the public funds, in order to extirpate this pernicious bird, but this law has been repealed. They are likewise very fond of acorns. At the approach of winter they travel to the southward. But when they stay in numbers in the woods, at the beginning of winter, the people look upon it as a sign of a pretty mild winter.

Picus varius, thelesser, spotted, yellow-bellied Wood-pecker. These birds are much more numerous than many people wished; for this, as well as the preceding and succeeding species, are very hurtful to apple-trees.

Picus pubescens, or theleast spotted Wood-pecker. This species abounds here. Of all the wood-peckers it is the most dangerous to orchards, because it is the most daring. As soon as it has pecked a hole into the tree, it makes another close to the first, in a horizontal direction, proceeding till it has pecked a circle of holes[88]round the tree. Therefore the apple-trees in the orchards here have several rings round their stems, which lie very close above each other, frequently only an inch distant from each other. Sometimes these wood-peckers peck the holes so close, that the tree dries up. This bird, asCatesbyremarks, is so like the lesser spotted wood-pecker, in regard to its colour and other qualities, that they would be taken for the same bird, were not the former (thePicus pubescens) a great deal less. They agree in the bad quality, which they both possess, of pecking holes into the apple-trees.

Rana ocellataare a kind of frogs here, which theSwedescall,Sill-hoppetosser, i. e.Herring-hoppers, and which now began to quack in the evening, and at night, in swamps, pools, and ponds. The name which theSwedesgive them is derived from their beginning to make their noise in spring, at the same time when the people here go catching what are called herrings, which however differ greatly from the trueEuropeanherrings. These frogs have a peculiar note, which is not like that of ourEuropeanfrogs, but rather corresponds with the chirping of some large birds, and can nearly be expressed bypicet. With this noise they continued throughout a great[89]part of spring, beginning their noise soon after sun-setting, and finishing it just before sun-rising. The sound was sharp, but yet so loud that it could be heard at a great distance. When they expected rain they cried much worse than commonly, and began in the middle of the day, or when it grew cloudy, and the rain came usually six hours after. As it snowed on the 16th of the next month,andblew very violently all day, there was not the least sign of them at night, and during the whole time that it was cold, and whilst the snow lay on the fields, the frost had so silenced them, that we could not hear one; but as soon as the mild weather returned, they began their noise again. They were very timorous, and it was difficult to catch them; for as soon as a person approached the place where they lived, they are quite silent, and none of them appeared. It seems that they hide themselves entirely under water, except the tip of the snout, when they cry. For when I stepped to the pond where they were in, I could not observe a single one hopping into the water. I could not see any of them before I had emptied a whole pool, where they lodged in. Their colour is a dirty green, variegated with spots of brown. When[90]they are touched they make a noise and moan; they then sometimes assume a form, as if they had blown up the hind part of the back, so that it makes a high elevation; and then they do not stir, though touched. When they are put alive into spirits of wine, they die within a minute.

Marchthe 12th. The bird which theEnglishandSwedesin this country callRobin-red-breast17, is found here all the year round. It is a very different bird from that which inEnglandbears the same name. It isLinnæus’sTurdus migratorius. It sings very melodiously, is not very shy, but hops on the ground, quite close to the houses.

TheHazels(Corylus avellana) were now opening their blossoms. They succeeded best in a rich mould, and theSwedesreckoned it a sign of a good soil where they found them growing.

Marchthe 13th. Thealder(Betula Alnus) was just blossoming.

MOCKING BIRD. REDBREASTED THRUSH.MOCKING BIRD.REDBREASTED THRUSH.

MOCKING BIRD.REDBREASTED THRUSH.

TheDracontium foetidumgrew plentifully in the marshes and began to flower. Among the stinking plants, this is the most fœtid; its nauseous scent was so strong, that I could hardly examine the flower;[91]and when I smelled a little too long at it, my head ached. TheSwedescall itByorn-blad(bear’s-leaf) orByorn-retter(bear’s-root.) TheEnglishcall itPolecat-root, because its effluvia are as nauseous and fœtid, as those of the polecat, which I have mentioned before. The flowers are purple-coloured; when they are in full flower, the leaves begin to come out of the ground; in summer the cattle do not touch it. Dr.Coldentold me, that he had employed the root in all cases where the root of the arum is made use of, especially against the scurvy, &c. TheSwedishname it got, because the bears, when they leave their winter habitations, are fond of it in spring: It is a common plant in allNorth America.

TheDraba vernawas abundant here, and now appeared in flower.

TheVeratrum albumwas very common in the marshes, and in low places over allNorth America. TheSwedeshere call itDack,DackororDackretter, that is puppet-root, because the children make puppets of its stalks and leaves. TheEnglishcall itItch-reedorEllebore. It is a poisonous plant, and therefore the cattle never touch it; however it sometimes happens that the cattle are deceived in the beginning of spring, when the pastures are bare, and eat of the fine broad green leaves of this plant,[92]which come up very early; but such a meal frequently proves fatal to them. Sheep and geese have likewise often been killed with it. By means of its root, the maize is preserved from the greediness of voracious birds, in the following manner: The roots are boiled in water, into which the maize is put as soon as the water is quite cool; the maize must ly all night in it, and is then planted as usual. When the maize-thieves, crows, or other birds, pick up or pluck out the grains of maize, their heads grow delirious, and they fall, which so frightens the rest that they never venture on the field again; when those which have tasted the grains recover, they leave the field, and are no more tempted to visit it again. By thus preparing maize, one must be very careful that no other creatures touch it; for when ducks or fowls eat a grain or two of the maize which is thus steeped, they become very sick; but if they swallow a considerable quantity they die. When the root is thrown away raw, no animal eats it; but when it is put out boiled, its sweet taste tempts the beasts to eat it. Dogs have been seen to eat a little of it, and have been very sick after it; however they have recovered after a vomit, for when animals cannot free themselves of it by this means, they often die. Some people boil the root, and[93]wash the scorbutic parts with the water or decoct. This is said to cause some pain, and even a plentiful discharge of urine, but it re-establishes the patient. When the children here are plagued with vermin, the women boil this root, put the comb into the decoction, and comb the head with it, and this kills them most effectually.

Marchthe 17th. At the first arrival of theSwedesin this country, and long after that time, it was filled withIndians. But as theEuropeansproceeded to cultivate the land, theIndianssold their land, and went further into the country. But in reality few of theIndiansreally left the country in this manner; most of them ended their days before, either by wars among themselves, or by the small-pox, a disease which theIndianswere unacquainted with before their commerce with theEuropeans, and which since that time has killed incredible numbers of them. For though they can heal wounds and other external hurts, yet they know not how to proceed with fevers, or in general with internal diseases. One can imagine, how ill they would succeed with the cure of the small-pox, when as soon as the pustules appeared, they leaped naked into the cold water of the rivers, lakes, or fountains, and either dived over[94]head into it, or poured it over their body in great abundance, in order to cool the heat of the fever. In the same manner they carry their children, when they have the small-pox, into the water and duck them18. But brandy has killed most of theIndians. This liquor was likewise entirely unknown to them, before theEuropeanscame hither; but after they had tasted it, they could never get enough of it. A man can hardly have a greater desire of a thing, than theIndianshave of brandy. I have heard them say, that to die by drinking brandy, was a[95]desirable and an honourable death; and indeed ’tis no very uncommon thing to kill themselves by drinking this liquor to excess.

The food of theseIndianswas very different from that of the inhabitants of the other parts of the world. Wheat, rye, barley, oats, and rice-groats, were quite unknown inAmerica. In the same manner it is with regard to the fruits and herbs which are eaten in the old countries. The maize, some kinds of beans, and melons, made almost the whole of theIndianagriculture and gardening; and dogs were the only domestic animals inNorth America. But as their agriculture and their gardening were very trifling, and they could hardly live two months in a year upon their produce, they were forced to apply to hunting and fishing, which at that time, and even at present, are their chief subsistence, and to seek some of the wild plants and trees here. Some of the oldSwedeswere yet alive, who in their younger years had an intercourse with theIndians, and had seen the minutiæ of their œconomy. I was therefore desirous of knowing which of the spontaneous herbs they made use of for food at that time; and all the old men agreed that the following plants were what they chiefly consumed:[96]

HopnissorHapnisswas theIndianname of a wild plant, which they ate at that time. TheSwedesstill call it by that name, and it grows in the meadows in a good soil. The roots resemble potatoes, and were boiled by theIndians, who eat them instead of bread. Some of theSwedesat that time likewise ate this root for want of bread. Some of theEnglishstill eat them instead of potatoes. Mr.Bartramtold me, that theIndianswho live farther in the country do not only eat these roots, which are equal in goodness to potatoes, but likewise take the pease which ly in the pods of this plant, and prepare them like common pease. Dr.Linnæuscalls the plantGlycine Apios.

Katnissis anotherIndianname of a plant, the root of which they were likewise accustomed to eat, when they lived here. TheSwedesstill preserve this name. It grows in low, muddy and very wet ground. The root is oblong, commonly an inch and an half long, and one inch and a quarter broad in the middle; but some of the roots have been as big as a man’s fists. TheIndianseither boiled this root or roasted it in hot ashes. Some of theSwedeslikewise eat them with much appetite, at the time when theIndianswere so near the coast; but at present none of them make any use[97]of the roots. A man of ninety-one years of age, calledNils Gustafson, told me, that he had often eaten these roots when he was a boy, and that he liked them very well at that time. He added that theIndians, especially their women, travelled to the islands, dug out the roots, and brought them home; and whilst they had them, they desired no other food. They said that the hogs, which are amazingly greedy of them, have made them very scarce. The cattle are very fond of its leaves. I afterwards got fond of these roots roasted, and in my opinion they tasted well, though they were rather dry: The taste was nearly the same with that of the potatoes. When theIndianscome down to the coast and see the turneps of theEuropeans, they likewise give them the name ofkatniss. Their katniss is an arrow-head orSagittaria, and is only a variety of theSwedisharrow-head orSagittaria sagittifolia, for the plant above the ground is entirely the same, but the root under ground is much greater in theAmericanthan in theEuropean. Mr.Osbeckin his voyage toChina, vol. i. p. 334, of theEnglishedition, mentions, that theChineseplant aSagittaria, and eat its roots. This seems undoubtedly to be a variety of thiskatniss. Further in the north of this[98]part ofAmerica, I met with the other species ofSagittariawhich we have inSweden.

Taw-hoandTaw-himwas theIndianname of another plant, the root of which they eat. Some of them likewise call itTuckah; but most of theSwedesstill knew it by the name ofTaw-ho. It grows in moist ground and swamps. Hogs are very greedy of the roots, and grow very fat by feeding on them. Therefore, they often visit the places where these roots grow; and they are frequently seen rooting up the mud, and falling with their whole body into the water, so that only a little of the back part was out of the water. It is therefore very plain, that these roots must have been extirpated in places which are frequented by hogs. The roots often grow to the thickness of a man’s thigh. When they are fresh, they have a pungent taste, and are reckoned a poison in that fresh taste. Nor did theIndiansever venture to eat them raw, but prepared them in the following manner: They gathered a great heap of these roots, dug a great long hole, sometimes two or three fathoms and upwards in length, into which they put the roots, and covered them with the earth that had been taken out of the hole; they made a great fire above it, which burnt till they thought proper to remove it; and then[99]they dug up the roots, and consumed them with great avidity. These roots, when prepared in this manner, I am told, taste like potatoes. TheIndiansnever dry and preserve them; but always take them fresh out of the marshes, when they want them. ThisTaw-hois theArum Virginicum, orVirginianWake-robin. It is remarkable, that the Arums, with the plants next akin to them, are eaten by men in different parts of the world, though their roots, when raw, have a fiery pungent taste, and are almost poisonous in that state. How can men have learnt, that plants so extremely opposite to our nature were eatable; and that their poison, which burns on the tongue, can be conquered by fire. Thus the root of theCalla palustris, which grows in the north ofEurope, is sometimes used instead of bread on an exigency. TheNorth American Indiansconsume this species of Arum. Those ofSouth America, and of theWest Indies, eat other species of Arums. TheHottentots, at theCape of Good Hope, inAfrica, prepare bread from a species ofArumorWake-robin, which is as burning and poisonous as the other species of this plant. In the same manner, they employ the roots of some kinds of Arum as a food, inEgyptandAsia. Probably,[100]that severe but sometimes useful mistress, necessity, has first taught men to find out a food, which the first taste would have rejected as useless. ThisTaw-hoseems to be the same with what theIndiansinCarolinacallTuckahoo; and of which see Vol. I. p. 287.

Taw-keeis another plant, so called by theIndianswho eat it. Some of them call itTaw-kim, and othersTackvim. TheSwedescall it always by the name ofTaw-kee. The plant grows in marshes, near moist and low grounds, and is very plentiful inNorth America. The cattle, hogs and stags, are very fond of the leaves in spring; for they are some of the earliest. The leaves are broad, like those of theConvallaria, or Lilly of the Valley, green on the upper side, and covered with very minute hair, so that they looked like a fine velvet. TheIndianspluck the seeds, and keep them for eating. They cannot be eaten fresh or raw, but must be dried. TheIndianswere forced to boil them repeatedly in water, before they were fit for use; and then they ate them like pease. When theSwedesgave them butter or milk, they boiled or broiled the seeds in it. Sometimes they employ these seeds instead of bread; and they taste like pease. Some of theSwedeslikewise[101]ate them; and the old men among them told me, they liked this food better than any of the other plants which theIndiansformerly made use of. ThisTaw-keewas theOrontium aquaticum.

Bilberrieswere likewise a very common dish among theIndians. They are calledHuckleberriesby theEnglishhere, and belong to several species ofVaccinium, which are all of them different from ourSwedishBilberry-bush, though their berries, in regard to colour, shape, and taste, are so similar to theSwedishbilberry, that they are distinguished from each other with difficulty. TheAmericanones grow on shrubs, which are from two to four feet high; and there are some species which are above seven feet in height. TheIndiansformerly plucked them in abundance every year, dried them either in the sun-shine or by the fire-side, and afterwards prepared them for eating, in different manners, These huckleberries are still a dainty dish among theIndians. On my travels through the country of theIroquese, they offered me, whenever they designed to treat me well, fresh maize-bread, baked in an oblong shape, mixed with driedHuckleberries, which lay as close in it as the raisins in a plumb-pudding. I shall[102]write more at large about it in the sequel. TheEuropeansare likewise used to collect a quantity of these berries, to dry them in ovens, to bake them in tarts, and to employ them in several other ways. Some preserve them with treacle. They are likewise eaten raw, either quite alone or with fresh milk.

I shall, on the 27th ofMarch, find occasion to mention another dish, which theIndiansate formerly, and still eat, on formal ceremonies.

Marchthe 18th. Almost during the whole of this spring, the weather and the winds were always calm in the morning at sun-rising. At eight o’clock the wind began to blow pretty hard, and continued so all day, till sun-setting; when it ceased, and all the night was calm. This was the regular course of the weather; but sometimes the winds raged, without intermission, for two or three days together. At noon it was commonly most violent. But in the ordinary way, the wind decreased and increased as follows: At six in the morning, a calm; at seven, a very gentle western breeze, which grew stronger at eight; at eleven it was much stronger; but at four in the afternoon, it is no stronger than it was[103]at eight o’clock in the morning; and thus it goes on decreasing till it is quite a calm, just before sun-set. The winds this spring blew generally west, as appears from the observations at the end of this volume.

I was told, that it was a very certain prognostic of bad weather, that when you see clouds in the horizon in the south-west, about sun-setting, and when those clouds sink below the horizon, in an hour’s time, it will rain the next day, though all the forenoon be fair and clear. But if some clouds be seen in the south-west, in the horizon, at sun-set, and they rise some time after, you may expect fair weather the next day.

Marchthe 20th. An oldSwedeprognosticated a change in the weather, because it was calm to-day; for when there has been wind for some days together, and a calm follows, they say, rain or snow, or some other change in the weather, will happen. I was likewise told, that some people here were of that false opinion, that the weather commonly alters onFriday; so that, in case it had rained or blown hard all the week, and a change was to happen, it would commonly fall onFriday. How far the former prognostic has been true, appears from my own observations of the weather, to which I refer.[104]

Marchthe 21st. The red maple (Acer rubrum) and theAmericanelm (Ulmus Americana) began to flower at present; and some of the latter kind were already in full blossom.

Marchthe 24th. I walked pretty far to-day, in order to see whether I could find any plants in flower. But the cloudy weather, and the great rains which had lately fallen, had allowed little or nothing to grow up. The leaves now began to grow pretty green. The plants which I have just before mentioned, were now in full blossom.

The noble Liverwort, orAnemone hepatica, was now every where in flower. It was abundant; and theSwedescalled itBlablomster, or Blue-flower. They did not know any use of it.

Near all the corn-fields on which I walked to-day, I did not see a single ditch, though many of them wanted it. But the people generally followed theEnglishway of making no ditches along the fields, without considering whether the corn-fields wanted them or not. The consequence was, that the late rain had in many places washed away great pieces of the grounds, sown with wheat and rye. There were no ridges left between the fields, except a very narrow one near the fence, which was entirely over-grown[105]with the Sumach, orRhus glabra, and with black-berry bushes, so that there the cattle could find very little or no food. The corn fields werebroad-cast, or divided into pieces, which were near seventeen feet broad, and separated from each other only by means of furrows. These pieces were uniform, and not elevated in the middle.

Meloe majalisa species of oil-beetle, crept about on the hills.

Papilio Antiopa, or willow butterfly, flew in the woods to-day, and was the first butterfly which I saw this year.

Papilio Euphrosyne, or theAprilbutterfly, was one of the scarce species. The otherAmericaninsect, which I described this day and the following days, I shall mention on some other occasion. In the sequel I shall only mention those which were remarkable for some peculiar qualities.

The hay-stacks were commonly made here after theSwedishmanner, that is, in the shape of a thick and short cone, without any cover over it. When the people wanted any hay, they cut some of it loose, by a peculiar sort of a knife. However, many people, especially in the environs ofPhiladelphia, had hay-stacks with roofs which could be moved up and down.[106]Near the surface of the ground were some poles laid, on which the hay was put, that the air may pass freely through it. I have mentioned before, that the cattle have no stables in winter or summer, but must go in the open air, during the whole year. However, inPhiladelphia, and in a few other places, I have seen that those people who made use of the latter kind of hay-stacks, viz. that with moveable roofs, commonly had built them so, that the hay was put a fathom or two above the ground, on a floor of boards, under which the cattle could stand in winter, when the weather was very bad. Under this floor of boards were partitions of boards on all the sides, which however stood far enough from each other, to afford the air a free passage.

Marchthe 27th. In the morning I went in order to speak with the oldSwede,Nils Gustafson, who was ninety-one years of age. I intended to get an account of the former state ofNew Sweden. The country which I now passed through was the same with that which I had found in those parts ofNorth AmericaI had hitherto seen. It was diversified with a variety of little hills and vallies: the former consisted of a very pale brick-coloured earth, composed, for the greatest part, of a fine[107]sand, mixed with some mould. I saw no mountains, and no stones, except some little stones, not above the size of a pigeon’s or hen’s egg, lying on the hills, and commonly consisting of white quartz, which was generally smooth and polished on the outside. At the bottom, along the vallies, ran sometimes rivulets of crystalline water, the bottom of which was covered with such white pebbles as I have just described. Now and then I met with a swamp in the vallies. Sometimes there appeared, though at considerable distances from each other, some farms, frequently surrounded on all sides by corn-fields. Almost on every corn-field there yet remained the stumps of trees, which had been cut down; a proof that this country has not been long cultivated, being overgrown with trees forty or fifty years ago. The farms did not ly together in villages, or so that several of them were near each other, in one place; but they were all separated from one another. Each countryman lived by himself, had his own ground about his house, separated from the property of his neighbour. The greatest part of the land, between these farms so distant from each other, was over-grown with woods, confiding of tall trees. However, there was a fine space[108]between the trees, so that one could ride on horseback without inconvenience in the woods, and even with a cart in most places; and the ground was very plain and uniform at the same time. Here and there appeared some fallen trees, thrown down by the wind; some were torn up by the roots; others broken quite across the stem. In some parts of the country the trees were thick and tall, but in others I found large tracts covered with young trees, only twenty, thirty, or forty years old: these tracts, I am told, theIndiansformerly had their little plantations in. I did not yet see any marks of the leaves coming out, and I did not meet with a flower in the woods: for the cold winds, which had blown for several days together successively, had hindered this. The woods consisted chiefly of several species of oak, and of hiccory. The swamps were filled with red maple, which was all now in flower, and made these places look quite red at a distance.

The oldSwede, whom I came to visit, seemed to be still pretty hearty and fresh, and could walk by the help of a stick; but he complained of having felt in these latter years, some pains in his back, and limbs, and that he could keep his feet warm in winter only by sitting near the fire.[109]He said he could very well remember the state of this country, at the time when theDutchpossessed it, and in what circumstances it was in before the arrival of theEnglish. He added, that he had brought a great deal of timber toPhiladelphia, at the time that it was built. He still remembered to have seen a great forest on the spot wherePhiladelphianow stands. The father of this old man had been one of theSwedeswho were sent over fromSweden, in order to cultivate and inhabit this country. He returned me the following answers to the questions I asked him.

Quere, Whence did theSwedes, who first came hither, get their cattle? The old man answered, that when he was a boy, his father and other people had told him, that theSwedesbrought their horses, cows, and oxen, sheep, hogs, geese, and ducks, over with them. There were but few of a kind at first, but they multiplied greatly here afterwards. He said, thatMaryland,New York,New England, andVirginia, had been sooner inhabited byEuropeansthan this part of the country; but he did not know whether theSwedesever got cattle of any kind, from any of these provinces, except fromNew York. Whilst he was yet very young, theSwedes, as well[110]as he could remember, had already a sufficient stock of all these animals. The hogs had propagated so much at that time, there being so great a plenty of food for them, that they ran about wild in the woods, and that the people were obliged to shoot them, when they intended to make use of them. The old man likewise recollected, that horses ran wild in the woods, in some places; but he could not tell whether any other kind of cattle turned wild. He thought that the cattle grow as big at present as they did when he was a boy, supposing they get as much food as they want. For in his younger years, food for all kinds of cattle was so plentiful, and even so superfluous, that the cattle were extremely well fed by it. A cow at that time gave more milk, than three or four do at present; but she got more and better food at that time, than three or four get now; and, as the old man said, the scanty allowance of grass, which the cattle get in summer, is really very pitiful. The causes of this scarcity of grass have already been mentioned.

Quere, Whence did theEnglishinPensylvaniaandNew Jerseyget their cattle? They bought them chiefly from theSwedesandDutch, who lived here; and[111]a small number were brought over fromOld England. The form of the cattle, and the unanimous accounts of theEnglishhere, confirmed what the old man had said.

Quere, Whence did theSwedeshere settled get their several sorts of corn, and likewise their fruit-trees and kitchen-herbs? The old man told me that he had frequently heard, when he was young, that theSwedeshad brought all kinds of corn, and fruits, and herbs, or seeds of them, with them. For, as far as he could recollect, theSwedeshere were plentifully provided with wheat, rye, barley, and oats. TheSwedes, at that time, brewed all their beer of malt made of barley, and likewise made good strong beer. They had already got distilling vessels, and made good brandy. Every one among them had not a distilling vessel, but when they intended to distil, they lent their apparatus to one another. At first they were forced to buy maize of theIndians, both for sowing and eating. But after continuing for some years in this country, they extended their maize-plantations so much that theIndianswere obliged some time after to buy maize of theSwedes. The old man likewise assured me, that the[112]Indiansformerly, and about the time of the first settling of theSwedes, were more industrious and laborious in every branch of business, than they are now. Whilst he was young, theSwedeshad a great quantity of very goodwhite cabbage.Winter cabbage, orCale, which was left on the ground during winter, was likewise abundant. They were likewise well provided with turnips. In winter they kept them in holes under ground. But the old man did not like that method; for when they had lain too long in these holes, in winter, they became spungy. He preferred that method of keeping them which is now commonly adopted, and which consists in the following particulars. After the turnips have been taken out of the ground in autumn, and exposed to the air for a while, they are put in a heap upon the field, covered with straw at the top, and on the sides, and with earth over the straw. By this means they stand the winter very well here, and do not become spungy. TheIndianswere very fond of turneps, and called them sometimesHopniss, sometimesKatniss. TheSwedeslikewise cultivated carrots, in the old man’s younger years. Among the fruit-trees wereApple-trees.[113]They were not numerous, and only some of theSwedeshad little orchards of them, whilst others had not a single tree. None of theSwedesmade cyder, for it is come into use but lately. TheSwedesbrewed strong beer and small beer, and it was their common liquor. But at present there are very few who brew beer, for they commonly prepare cyder.Cherry-treeswere abundant whenNils Gustafsonwas yet a boy. Peach-trees were at that time more numerous than at present, and theSwedesbrewed beer of the fruit. The old man could not tell from whence theSwedesfirst of all got the peach-trees.

During the younger years of this old man theIndianswere every where spread in the country; they lived among theSwedes, and were scattered every where. The old man mentionedSwedeswho had been killed by theIndians; and he mentioned two of his countrymen who had been scalped by them. They stole children from theSwedes, and carried them off, and they were never heard of again. Once they came and killed someSwedes, and took the upper part of their sculls with them; on that occasion they scalped a little girl, and would have killed her, if they had not perceived a boat full ofSwedes, making towards them,[114]which obliged them to fly; the girl was afterwards healed, but never got any hair on her head again; she was married, had many children, and lived to a considerable age. At another time, theIndiansattempted to kill the mother of this old man, but she vigorously resisted them, and in the mean while a number ofSwedescame up, who frightened theIndians, and made them run away. Nobody could ever find out to what nation ofIndiansthese owe their origin; for in general they lived very peaceably with theSwedes.

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