Spacing of Italic

Black Letter Example: These Two Lines Are Spaced About Right, These Two Lines Are Wide Spaced

A paragraph of italic type is more difficult to space evenly than the same lines in roman letters. Usually the average spacing may be about the same as the companion face of roman; but more frequently than in roman types the spaces in a line may need to be of unequal thickness in order to give a uniform appearance to the spacing. Overhanging letters are frequent and when these come at the beginning or end of words they require a little more space than is used for words ending or beginning with small letters. Word pairs with letters like ——f p—— and ——l h—— will in most cases need wider spaces than are used between pairs like ——e w—— and ——s A——.

Some italic capitals have extra shoulder-space on the left of the face, likeT,W,V, which should be allowed for by thin spacing when they follow small lower-case letters. This extra shoulder is made on letters of this kind to protect the overhanging kern of an adjoining letter when words are set in capitals.

Where an italicf,j, or other kerned letter comes at the beginning or end of a line a thin space should beplaced outside of it to keep it from projecting beyond the side of the page, where it is easily broken off. This is important if the matter is to be moulded for electrotyping.

On account of the frequency of overhanging letters italic types require very careful handling during composition, correcting, and locking up. If the kerns over-ride an adjoining type or are subjected to a slight blow of any kind they are easily broken off.

Words in capitals need wider spacing than those in lower-case of the same size. Capitals occupy more space on the type body than small letters and consequently they need a little more openness between the words and between the lines to give them a proportionate relief of white space for legibility.

Roman capitals of the standard faces are often sufficiently spaced with the en quad if the words are short. Long words in a headline may need double 3-spaces, while lines of round open capitals in an open area may need the em quad.

A simple rule to follow is to space wide letters with wide spaces, and thin or condensed letters with narrow spaces. This may be put another way by saying that the spacing should approximate the average width of the letters used, taking an entire alphabet as the basis. Thus, if the alphabet of capitals measures 18 ems, the average width of the letters would be18⁄26ths, or approximately2⁄3of the em.

Like all rules, this is subject to modifications in special cases. The shapes of the letters which end and begin the words may make it desirable to increase or decrease the spaces in some places. Word endings like ——L T—— and ——Y A—— should have a little thinner space than is used between those ending and beginning with full-bodied upright letters like ——M R——.

Examples: VERY AGED and BOTTOM RIM

In small types the inequalities in white space around letters of different shapes may not be readily seen, but in large sizes these differences increase in noticeable degree. A careful compositor will select his spaces to equalize these little differences and thus avoid the numerous inconsistent defects sure to result from mere mechanical justification of the lines.

Combinations of capitals like the following example show distinctly uneven white spaces between the letters of the word. These should be equalized wherever possible by the use of thin leads or cards between the close-fitted letters.

Example: VAINLY ATTEMPTED

This differential spacing will also be desirable in a line having abbreviations or initials. The following example spaced with en quads in every place shows an excess of white between the initials because of the presence of the periods.

Example (before and after spacing): HON. JOHN L. SMITH MARK HARRIS, D. D. S.

A thinner space between the initials gives uniform spacing through the line.

Large initials used in groups, as in college degrees and military titles, are often set close together with simply the period for separation. This style is preferred in any close-spaced matter; though for more open matter a thin space may be used after the periods.

Two or more lines of capitals of the same size should be spaced as nearly alike as possible. The disproportionate spacing of the following three lines is sometimes seen, but is not pleasing:

Example: A PRIMER OF INFORMATION ABOUT WORKING AT THE CASE AND SETTING TYPE BY HAND

Lines of small capitals of normal size are often sufficiently spaced with the 3-space and slightly wider when in paragraph form. When used in headings and open-leaded matter en-quad spacing is required.

Example: LINES OF SMALL CAPITALS OF NORMAL SIZE ARE OFTEN PROPERLY SPACED WITH ONE THREE-TO-EM SPACE WHEN IN PARAGRAPH FORM.

Example: IN HEADINGS AND OPEN MATTER, EN-QUAD SPACING IS REQUIRED.

Example: EXTENDED OR WIDE-FACED LETTERS NEED WIDER SPACES THAN CONDENSED OR THIN-FACED LETTERS, AS SHOWN IN THESE LINES

Example: Type of Condensed Shape should, in all ordinary conditions, be thin spaced. To select thin letters and then to wide space them is hardly logical.

Example: SPACING OF THIS KIND IS OBJECTIONABLE.

Letters and words huddled together so that they are not readily recognized at a glance do not make easy reading. On the other hand, very wide spacing does not necessarily result in a proportionate increase of legibility; it may even produce results as confusing as very thin spacing.

Example: LIGHT-FACED GOTHIC THIN-SPACED IS CONFUSING TO THE EYE OF THE AVERAGE MAN OR WOMAN

A general rule affecting wide spacing is that the average distance between the words in the line should be less than the distance between the lines themselves. Notice in the above example how the words group themselves up and down the page rather than in order along the line for the eye to follow. Note alsohow wide spaces between the words form distinct, irregular streaks up and down the page to lead the eye away from its course along a single line at a time.

Example: WIDE SPACING FOR EASY READING HAS LITTLE ADVANTAGE UNLESS THE LINES ARE LEADED OUT

Wide spacing for easy reading has little advantage unless the lines are leaded out in equal proportion.

Double-leaded lines are well spaced with an average of an en quad. When this is used the limit of space would be the double 3-space, while the thin space would be the single 3-space.

An average spacing wider than the en quad is rarely ever necessary in roman lower-case matter even if the lines are separated with more than the double leads. The only excuse for the wider spacing is the necessity for making words and syllables fill the line.

In some kinds of composition wide spacing and wide leading are desirable. Wide measures and ample white space up and down the page naturally call for open spacing of type lines. Large advertisements, wall cards, placards, and other forms intended to be read at a distance farther away than the book or magazine in the hand, are properly wide-spaced and wide-leaded. Extremes in openness, however, are not safe to follow. A study of the work of the leading designers in typography will show a compact grouping of both words and lines which gives unity and orderliness with ample readability. In contrast with this the disconnected, patchy, scattered effects shown in commonplace type composition will prove that habitual wide-spacing is often unnecessary.

There are several styles of indention employed in type composition. These are known as (1) regular paragraph,(2) hanging indention, (3) half-diamond indention or inverted pyramid indention, with its variation of lozenge-shape formation, (4) squared indention, and (5) diagonal indention.

Hanging indention is where the first line of a paragraph begins flush and the second and succeeding lines are indented, as in this paragraph. It is a common form in catalogs, tabular work, and also in poetry.

Example: Half-diamond indention is when successive lines are indented at both ends, each one being shorter than the preceding line, as shown in this paragraph. It is commonly used for title pages and display matter.

Example: INDENTIONS WHICH MAKE THE LOZENGE-SHAPED PANEL ARE OFTEN USED FOR TITLES AND BITS OF DISPLAY

It is often advisable to indent lines at both ends, to make several short lines instead of one or two long lines. In cases of this kind the first line is not indented more than the others, as shown in this paragraph. Squared indention is used for short paragraphs in advertising matter, bits of minor display, and miscellaneous composition.

Example: Diagonal indention is when the lines of type are so arranged that they follow after each other diagonally in this style.

Another manner of indenting lines, somewhat rare in this country but common in Europe, is termed French motto indention. This is usually made with small types, the paragraph being set in squared-up fashion at the right side of the page, within the measure.

An indention should be enough to indicate the paragraph clearly, yet not be so wide as to make it a conspicuouswhite spot on the page. Its purpose is to show the reader a change of subject or a minor subdivision of the matter. The amount of indention necessary to attain this will vary in different forms of composition, and therefore only general rules can be given.

The usual indention of paragraphs in plain reading matter is an em quad at the beginning of the first line. If the lines are more than average length the indention may be increased to one and a half ems, two ems, or more. Indentions of over two ems, however, are seldom allowable in ordinary reading matter like books and periodicals.

Wide indentions should not be made in narrow measures; nor should indistinct, insignificant indentions be made in broad measures.

Paragraphs set in 10-point or 12-point type in measures from 15 to 20 picas wide are sufficiently indented by the em quad, while 6-point type in the same measure should be indented with a two-em quad.

Wide-leaded, open matter will call for a little more paragraph indention, as a rule, than is given to thin-spaced solid-line paragraphs. In pamphlets, circulars, advertisements, and job work, where wide leading and broken lines of a miscellaneous character are frequent, paragraph indentions may be wider than in book pages. On the other hand, in composition of this kind where other means of showing the commencement of a subject are used, indentions are omitted and the paragraphs begun flush at the margin.

The indention of paragraphs should be uniform throughout any single book or job. It is rare that more than two different widths of indention are needed to give a clear idea of the classification of any group of subjects. A variety of indentions on the same page is confusing and often spoils the orderly arrangement of the matter which the copy writer sought to obtain. Even where there are several sizes of type on the page,if the paragraphs are the same width, the indentions should be alike.

A common defect that is made conspicuous when wide indentions are made in paragraphs following each other is the occurrence of a single short word or syllable in the last line of a paragraph, as shown in this example:

Example: Every printer's apprentice should carefully read and study these simple rules for the indention and spacing of type. He should study all the books of this series.

This constitutes a “bad break” and should be avoided either by thin-spacing the last two or three lines of the paragraph to take the short word back and save the line, or by over-running the lines with wider spaces to bring more words to the last line. The choice of these expedients will depend upon the openness or closeness of the composition, in many cases upon the make-up of the page. If a line can be saved, take the solitary word back; if the line is needed, space out the preceding lines, provided it may be done without making bad spacing.

The indention of lines of poetry is sometimes a puzzling matter for the inexperienced compositor, unless he is given printed copy or carefully prepared manuscript in which the line indentions are clearly indicated. There are few rules which govern the subject and these few are sometimes ignored in practice.

If the composing stick will accommodate each line of verse in a line of type the composition will be much simplified. The first consideration will be to indent the lines so that the general body of the poem is approximately near the middle of the page or column. When the lines vary in length a great deal some calculation is needed to get the right indention without going over them the second time. The longest line should be setfirst and the indention of the others made to accord with this. In this case some lines will be set a little at the left of the page.

Indention of poetry is made with even em quads of the type used. The variations in indention are also graduated by ems; usually one em, but sometimes two, three, or more, according to the relative length of lines. The odd spaces needed for justifying are put after the last word in the line.

As a rule, lines which rhyme with each other are indented alike.

Pick and clickGoes the type in the stick,As the printer stands at his case;His eyes glance quick and his fingers pickThe type at a rapid pace.

One of the commonest forms of verse is that in which the alternating lines or the second and fourth lines rhyme. In this case the second line of each pair is indented one em beyond the first. If the lines are long and the type small the indention may be two ems.

(Rhyme of first and third, second and fourth lines.)

When Freedom from her mountain heightUnfurled her standard to the air,She tore the azure robe of nightAnd set the stars of glory there.

(Rhyme of second and fourth lines.)

There is no wrath in the stars,They do not rage in the sky;I look from the Evil WoodAnd find myself wondering why.

In many cases, however, rhymes like those above are set without varying the indention.

When the rhyme follows at certain intervals, the rhyming lines are indented alike:

My country, ’tis of thee,Sweet land of liberty,Of thee I sing;Land where my fathers died,Land of the Pilgrims’ pride,From ev’ry mountain sideLet freedom ring.

In blank verse the indention of lines is uniform, the only consideration being to indent the lines so that the general group will be somewhere near the middle of the page.

Who draws a line and satisfies his soul,Making it crooked where it should be straight?An idiot with an oyster shell may drawHis lines along the sand, all wavering,Fixing no point, or pathway to a point.An idiot once removed may choose his line,Struggle, and be content; but, God be praised!Antonio Stradivari has an eyeThat winces at false work and loves the true,With hand and arm that play upon the tool,As willingly as any singing birdSets him to sing his morning roundelay,Because he likes to sing and likes the song.

A uniform indention is also given to poems in which the rhyme is in two adjoining lines.

He spoke of the grass and flowers and trees,Of the singing birds and the humming bees;Then talked of the haying, and wondered whetherThe cloud in the West would bring foul weather.

When a line is too long to come into the page width the surplus words are turned over to the next line; to avoid confusion this turn-over is indented differently from the beginning of a regular line commencing with a capital.

Gallop and sing, gallop and sing!With the open road before,And my good horse laying his hoofs tothe groundAs I ride by the shouting shore.

If the compositor is given any discretion in setting poetry, care should be taken to regulate the length of line and the indentions so that lines will not turn over into extra lines unnecessarily; yet, when the measure is narrow it is better to turn over an occasional long line rather than to place the whole poem out of the center.

The usual heading, termed a center head, is set in the middle of the line. It may be in capitals of the text or in a larger size. If capitals and lower-case are used the size should be several sizes larger, or the face should be bolder. In any case a main heading should be a little more prominent than a line of the text.

Example: TYPESETTING

A sub-heading is a secondary heading and may be in the center of the measure or a side heading at the beginning of the line. In the latter place it may be in a line by itself, set flush, in italic, in caps. and small caps., or in small bold face; or it may be set in the first line of the paragraph, with the regular indention.

Example: A PRIMER OF INFORMATION

A cut-in head is set in a panel, with or without rule, after the second or third line of the first paragraph.

A running head is at the top of each page of a book or other work of a number of pages. In books and pamphlets the page number is usually at the outside end of the running-head line.

Box headings are enclosed in rules at the top of columns in tabular matter.

In modern practice no punctuation is placed at the end of headings, except the question and quotation marks when these are required. In a heading of twoor more lines where a comma or semicolon comes naturally at the end of the first or second line, its omission may change or confuse the sense of the phrase. In such cases it should be used, even if the period is left off the end of the heading.

For additional comment on headings and punctuation see other titles of this series:Book Composition (No. 20); alsoPunctuation (No. 33)andCapitals (No. 34), etc.

An initial at the beginning of a chapter or other text requires nicety of spacing and justification. In modern practice the use of initials is often overdone, being used in many cases where they might better be omitted. Before the invention of typography, and since, the initial letter has been considered the feature of a page that could be used for decorative purposes. Early manuscripts show many elaborate, beautifully colored initials done by artists and illuminators. It was the custom of early printers to leave blank spaces in their printed pages for initials to be drawn in later. In some cases a small letter was printed in the middle of a large space as a guide to the artist. These small letters would be covered by the larger letter, but sometimes they were left as printed and the decoration drawn around them to fill the space. Later the ornamental initials were cut on wood or cast in metal and printed with the text.

As an initial is usually a prominent spot on a page its selection should be a matter of care. A plain letter of a style of face similar to the text is always a safe choice; an old-style letter for a text set in oldstyle roman, or a modern-cut Bodoni for Bodoni text. If the text is in italic an italic initial is more suitable than an upright letter. Extremely bold initials are not suitable for small types or light-faced text matter.

The size of an initial should be considered in relationto the size of the page and the size of the type used. In small pages of type of 10-point or smaller, a two-line letter will often be large enough; while a large page will require a large initial. If the initial is an ornamental letter it should be of a similar style of ornament to a head-piece or other decoration that may be on the page. Two different styles of initials or other decorative features of a page should be avoided.

In setting an initial into the beginning of a paragraph the letter is placed in the stick and the first line of text set after it. The letters of the first word are set in capitals usually, unless the first word is very long and the line of capitals is too prominent, when small capitals may be used. If the first word contains two or three letters only the next word is also set in capitals. The top of the initial should be even with the top of the first line of the text. If the initial has more shoulder than the body type, which is usually the case, a lead or more may be needed at the top of the first line. This should be properly lined up in the stick.

The spacing between the initial and the text depends upon the particular letter of the alphabet used, if a plain letter, or upon the decoration around the initial. The other letters of the first word are kept close to the initial, but the beginning of the second and succeeding lines are separated from it a little. In this way the initial has a closer relation to the word to which it belongs. The space at the right of the initial, between it and the text, should be apparently equal to that below it. It should not be extra wide in either place, or it will give the initial a detached appearance. To avoid this extra wide space it may be necessary to trim off some of the shoulder from the type, especially below the face. The proper size for an initial-letter should be equal to the number of text lines which it covers. This is not always practicable when miscellaneous types are selected from other fonts. If they are to be put back in their fonts after use as initials they may notbe trimmed to odd sizes of body; nor should they ever be trimmed so without express permission of the foreman. For the usual work it is possible to use an initial that is a multiple of the text size with or without leads. An 18-point letter may be used for two-line initial in an 8-point text with 2-point leads; or a 24-point letter in leaded 10-point text.

The width of initials is very likely to make text lines after them of odd length rather than even picas or nonpareils. If the text is solid, this odd length of line is easily justified to the measure; but in case leads are used and even-pica leads do not fit it may be necessary to cut a few special odd-length leads to fit the lines. First, however, after the top line has been justified, put a few leads of even picas in the stick and try a short lead or two up and down beside the initial to fill in to the even-pica leads. If these extra vertical leads do not leave too much space around the initial they will do to take up the odd measure. Sometimes a thin space of a size two points larger than the text may be used.

Make-up is the term describing the various operations of dividing composed matter into pages of uniform length, adding the headings, page numbers (folios), inserting small engravings, and otherwise preparing the pages for locking up in a chase for the press or the electrotype foundry.

Newspaper pages and other large page forms of two or more columns are customarily made up on the stone or a similar flat surface in a special chase, with side-sticks and lock-up fitted for the form.

Pages for books, catalogs, and other small and medium sizes are made up on a broad galley placed on the inclined top of the compositor’s stand or cabinet. The compositor who does this work regularly has the working top of his stand fitted with material and convenienceswhich should help him to do the work without waste of time. There are several styles of make-up cabinets furnished by dealers in printers’ goods. These are designed with the object of keeping near the workman a supply of leads, rules, furniture, and other articles frequently used, so that he may save steps and minutes in doing his work.

It is important that the make-up galley should set firmly and that the bottom should not sag. If it is liable to move at a slight touch, or the bottom is uneven, the type lines will fall down easily, thereby adding to the care and time needed for the work.

The Make-up GalleyFig. 19

Fig. 19

The galley is laid with its closed end or head at the right hand. A strip should be nailed on the shelf at the right to act as a stop to hold the galley in place while working on it, especially to prevent it from moving when the lines are pushed up to test the length of the page.

The make-up compositor works with his right side inclined toward the stand, as when making corrections on the galley. The galley should not be so high as to be uncomfortable for the right arm, which must be held over it while working on the pages.

The common practice in making up is to handle the pages sideways, with the top toward the right hand, so that the sequence of lines follows to the left down the galley. In this way the beginning of each line rests against the lower galley rim, and by the use of leads orrules one or any number of lines can be taken out or moved back and forth on the galley with safety. Some job compositors handle small forms with the top line along the lower rim of the galley. This method may suffice with a few lines of large type, but it is not recommended. It is not practicable for pages of many lines or for lines without leads.

The galley matter should be corrected and revised before making up begins. This is important in a work of a number of pages, as any considerable changes after the pages are tied up usually require extra labor. If the revise proofs show only a few corrections, these may be made in advance, a galley or more at a time, by the make-up hand.

The justification of the lines requires particular attention, and all faulty lines should be re-justified. If there are many lines requiring extra time for rectifying the fact should be reported to the foreman or the compositor at fault. Badly justified lines should not be passed over and allowed to go to the imposing stone, in the expectation that they may be rectified when the locking up is done. All justifying should be done and all corrections made as far as possible while the matter is on the galley.

When there is enough composition for a number of pages a gage should be made to measure the exact length of the pages. For a few pages, like a circular or a program, an ordinary pica measure may be used, the length being defined as a given number of picas or lines. If there are to be a number of pages, a page gage should be made from a strip of reglet or brass rule. The gage should include the length of a full page, over all, from the top of the running head down to the foot slug. It may be marked on its upper edge to show the depth of the running head and any other uniform division to be repeated on several pages.

For book pages set in one size of type the length should be determined by even lines of the type usedand the running head. No extra leads should be put here and there between the lines or paragraphs of a regular text page; these are used only in broken pages, above and below headings, engravings, or in separating extracts, foot notes, etc. If the pages contain several sizes of type the gage should indicate the exact length of the printed face, as different sizes of type have different amounts of shoulder below the face. For example, a page set in 12-point type would have a pica slug below the last line; if the next page contained a foot note set in 8-point, with the pica slug below, and both pages were exactly the same length, the face of the 8-point note would be a point below the face of the 12-point line on the first page. In this case a 1-point lead should be taken from above the 8-point note and put between the note and the foot slug.

For a book, periodical, or other work that is to be made up frequently from time to time there should be a durable steel or brass page gage, carefully marked for depth of running head, chapter sinkage, drop folio, or any other feature to be kept in uniform position.

Galley matter to be made up into pages of a uniform number of lines should be first marked off with slips of card or slugs at the places where the matter breaks into pages. This is done with the page gage, making allowance for running heads and other features not yet in the matter. If the division comes badly at some places a change of a line more or less at some preceding page and a shifting of the dividing place will eliminate the awkward break. It may happen in the first casting off that a sub-head comes at the bottom of a page, or the last short line of a paragraph comes at the top of a page, or the pages divide in the middle of a short table. These objectionable divisions may usually be overcome by a change in the starting at the first page, taking a line or two from the second page, and so on to the third and succeeding pages; or, on the other hand, adding a line or two to the succeeding page. Sometimesan extra line may be made by over-running two or three lines at the end of a paragraph; or, if a line less is desirable, a short line at the end of a paragraph may be saved by a little thinner spacing of a few preceding lines.

A few moments spent in casting off the matter on two or three galleys ahead of the actual making up will save a great deal of time later in case a bad division makes necessary a little change in pages already completed.

Rules regarding the make-up of book pages must be general for the most part, as many things depend upon the character of the work and the conditions under which it is done. In certain kinds of fine work there are some careful details which can be overlooked in ordinary work that must be done hurriedly and economically. Yet many desirable details of good workmanship may be followed without extra expenditure of time or material if the compositor and make-up hand understand how to do them properly in the first place. A great part of the time and expense devoted to preparing composed type for printing is due to the necessity for going over the pages to correct important matters which could as well have been done right in the first place if it were not for carelessness or lack of knowledge.

The desirable division in a chapter or other composition of plain matter is in the middle of a paragraph of four or preferably more than four lines. There should be at least two lines of a paragraph together on a page. There will thus be a full line at the bottom of one page and another full line at the top of the next.

There are many cases, of course, where the natural division of pages will come between paragraphs. An old-time rule tried to avoid this because of the liability of losing the connection in reading from page to page; but with pages plainly numbered and with consistent running heads this rule has little value. The objectionto ending a page with the end of a paragraph may often be caused by the presence of a very short line which gives a broken outline to an otherwise symmetrical page.

The last line of a paragraph should not be put at the top of a page or a column. This rule may be modified in ordinary work if the last line is full length and its presence at the top of the page will avoid some other objectionable feature.

The first line of a paragraph should not be left at the bottom of a page, especially if there is a short line ending the paragraph immediately above.

If there is no other way of following the two preceding rules, make two facing pages a line shorter than the regular length by carrying the lines backward or forward.

A short word divided by a hyphen at the end of a line should not be divided between two pages. A little respacing of the bottom line of one page and the top line of the next will usually overcome a division of this sort.

In book work, the first page of the preface, introduction, table of contents, and of each chapter should be sunk uniformly about one-sixth of the distance down from the top of a full-length page. This space may be varied in different books according to choice, but the sinkage should be the same throughout any one book. These pages are always on the first side of a leaf. If they make only one page each, the back of the leaf is left blank.

The style of the running head is usually specified in instructions for the work. The wording may be either (a) the title of the book on all full pages, (b) the title of the book on the left-hand pages and the chapter subject on the right-hand pages, (c) the title of a new subject which begins, with or without a sub-head, in the text below. The latter style is desirable in a book of many pages because the running heads, carefullyphrased, serve as a running index of the contents of a book. First pages of chapters with sunken heads do not have running heads.

The page number or folio is in the end of the running head line, the odd numbers at the right and the even numbers at the left. The folio of the first page of a chapter (which has no running head) is put at the bottom of the page in the center, where it is termed a drop folio. This drop folio should not be included in the regular length of the page, but put in the lower margin a lead or two below the text, and set in figures of a type smaller than the text of the page.

The space between the running head and the text matter should be equal to a full line of quads. This is an average for plain book pages which may be varied according to the leading of the page. The running head should not appear disconnected from the page itself, nor on the other hand should it be crowded on the top line of the text, especially if there are likely to be wide gaps between paragraphs or around sub-heads.

A headline or sub-head and one line of text should not be left at the bottom of a page. If it is not possible to get three lines of the paragraph at the bottom of the page, let the page go short and call attention to the irregularity.

A sub-head immediately under the running head is a combination to be avoided if possible, especially if the same kind of type is used for both, as is often the case.

Two or three lone lines should not be left for the last page of a chapter. Try to allow enough for a quarter of a page or more.

Clean printing can not be done from dirty type. For this reason, as well as for greater ease and cleanliness in handling, it is important that type (which has to be used over and over again) should be washed as clean as possible after use. Ink should not be allowedto dry hard on a form, as it will if left over night or over an idle day. The type face should be cleaned after taking proofs. It should show a clean face while corrections are being made, and also when it goes to press or to the moulding room.

Type should not be distributed back into the case until it is well cleaned after use.

Benzine is now very generally used to wash ink from type, electrotypes, and other printing plates. When it can be obtained in good quality it is a convenient washing fluid for printers’ use. It loosens up dry ink quickly, evaporates in a few moments, and leaves the surface dry.

Benzine and other type washes are often used with a brush, but this is not a good practice. The brush cleans the ink off the face of the type, but does not carry off the ink, which is left to dry again down in the hollow parts of the form and around the shoulder of the types where the fluid has washed it. A brush soon becomes foul after repeated use; it cannot be easily cleaned; it is usually retained in this condition and while it rubs off the face it leaves greater foulness than it can take away.

A soft rag rolled into a pad with a little benzine poured on its surface will loosen the ink and take it off the type clean. When the pad gets inky turn another part of the rag out to give a clean wiping surface. When the rag gets dirty enough to soil the hands throw it in the waste can and get a clean one.

Quite often, after the ink has been wiped off with a rag, a fairly stiff, fine brush is needed to clean out dried ink and dirt that has accumulated in small places like the counters of the letters and the screens of halftone plates.

Gasoline is a tolerable substitute for benzine when the latter cannot be obtained. It is not so satisfactory, however, because of the greasiness which it leaves on the surface after evaporation. If the form is to bere-inked immediately after cleaning this greasiness must be removed in order to ink up again for a sharp, clear impression.

Kerosene may be used for washing off ink, but it also leaves a disagreeable greasy surface, even more than gasoline does. For this reason it is not satisfactory for frequent washing of type or printing forms, though it is a good wash for inking rollers.

A weak lye, made from dissolved potash, was formerly used extensively for washing type forms and inking rollers, but its use has been superseded by the safer, cleaner, more convenient benzine or gasoline. It is excellent, however, for washing type forms occasionally, as after a long run on the press or after electrotype moulding, to clean off the accumulation of dried ink or of moulder’s wax and blacklead.

For cleaning with lye the form should be stripped of all wooden material like reglets, wood-base plates, and anything that is liable to be injured by the washing. The type should be placed on a board and set in the sink. The washing is done with a medium stiff brush, care being taken not to allow the hands to get wet with the lye, as the solution will burn and discolor the skin. After a thorough but not hard rubbing, the lye is rinsed off with running water until it has all disappeared. If the type is still a little greasy to the touch after rinsing there is still some lye to be cleared off by further rinsing.

Caustic soda may be dissolved and diluted to the right strength and used in the same manner as potash lye.

The distribution of type and other material into the proper cases after use is too often improperly done. It is important, if work is to be done without waste of time, that the necessary materials should be where they can be found quickly. A cleanly distributed case of type is necessary to good typesetting.

A beginner should go at the work carefully. There are several matters, as well as the lay of the case, with which he should become familiar. If he is not perfectly familiar with every box he should have a diagram of the case before him as a guide. He should take only one line at a time in his hand, at the start, and only two or three types at a time between his thumb and forefinger to drop in the boxes. Later, when he acquires facility, he can take up a number of lines and take off complete words to distribute.

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