DIGYNIA.

73.MANGOS, as they are imported into this country, are the unripe fruit of an East Indian tree(Mangifera Indica)pickled in vinegar.The mango tree grows to a great size, and has spear-shaped leaves, each eight or nine inches long, and two inches wide. The flowers spring, in a loose kind of bunch, from the extremity of the stems.

73.MANGOS, as they are imported into this country, are the unripe fruit of an East Indian tree(Mangifera Indica)pickled in vinegar.

The mango tree grows to a great size, and has spear-shaped leaves, each eight or nine inches long, and two inches wide. The flowers spring, in a loose kind of bunch, from the extremity of the stems.

Thefruitof this tree, when ripe, is as large as a goose's egg, and is much esteemed in India, on account of its invigorating odour; which, it is imagined, will restore health to persons in a declining state. Beneath its rough shell there is a kernel, similar to that of the almond, which may be eaten either fresh or preserved. From the expressed juice of this fruit the Indians prepare a kind of wine. When intended for pickling, the fruit is gathered in an unripe state. An imitation of mangos is made in our own country with a particular sort of melon. A small square piece is cut from the side of the melon, through which the seeds are taken out. It is then filled with mustard seeds and shred garlic, and afterwards pickled with vinegar and spices. Large cucumbers are sometimes prepared as mangos.

74.RED CURRANTS are the fruit of a well known shrub(Ribes rubum),which is cultivated, in gardens; and which also grows wild in woods or thickets of some of the northern parts of England. Its bunches are smooth and pendant; and its flowers are flattish.

The utility of this fruit in domestic economy has long been established. Itsjuice, if boiled with an equal weight of loaf sugar, forms an agreeable substance, calledcurrant jelly, which is much employed in sauces and for other culinary purposes; and also in the cure of sore throats and colds. The French frequently mix currant jelly with sugar and water, as a beverage; and, by many persons, this mixture is preferred to orgeat or lemonade. The juice of currants is a valuable remedy in obstructions of the bowels; and, in febrile complaints, it is useful on account of its readily quenching thirst, and for its cooling effect on the stomach. This juice, fermented with a proper quantity of sugar, becomes a palatable wine, which is much improved by keeping; and which, with care, may be kept for twenty years and upwards. Modes of making this, as well as other British wines, are to be found in all the domestic receipt books.

Theinner bark, boiled with water, is a popular remedy in jaundice; and, by some medical men, it has been administered in dropsical complaints.

Whiteandflesh-coloured currantshave, in every respect, the same qualities as the red species.

75.BLACK CURRANTS are the fruit of a garden shrub(Ribes nigrum)which is distinguished by having its bunches hairy and its flowers oblong.

The berries of the black currant shrub are larger than those of the red; and, in some parts of Siberia, are said to attain the size of a hazel nut. They are occasionally made into wine, jelly, and rob or syrup. The two latter are frequently employed in the cure of sore throats; and, from the great use of black currants in quinsies, they have sometimes been denominatedsquinancyorquincy berries.

The leaves are fragrant, and have been recommended for their medicinal virtues. An infusion of them, in the manner of tea, is very grateful, and, by many persons, is preferred to tea. The tender leaves tinge common spirits so as to resemble brandy; and an infusion of the youngrootsis useful in fevers of the eruptive kind.

Black currant trees grow wild in wet hedges, and near the banks of rivers, in several parts of Norfolk. Thedried currantsof the shops do not belong to this family, but are a small kind of grape (79).

76.GOOSEBERRIES are the fruit of a prickly shrub(Ribes grossularia)which grows wild in Cheshire, Lancashire, and several parts of Yorkshire.

Few of the garden fruits are more esteemed for the table than gooseberries. For culinary purposes, gooseberries are generally employed before they are ripe; but this is founded on erroneous notions of their chemical properties, since, either for sauces or wine, though they are more cool and refreshing, they do not possess the delicate flavour and rich saccharine qualities which are inherent in the ripe fruit. Wine made ofgooseberries has great resemblance to Champaigne. In the making of wine, after the juice has been expressed, it is customary to throw away theskinsof the fruit. These, however, may with advantage be employed in distillation, as they afford an agreeable spirit somewhat resembling brandy. When kept a few months, this spirit is said to be little inferior, either in strength or flavour, to the best Cogniac brandy. Vinegar may be made from gooseberries. Some of the kinds are bottled while green, and kept for winter use; and others are, for the same purpose, preserved with sugar.

Gooseberries vary much in colour, size, and quality. Some are smooth, and others hairy. Some are red, others green, and others yellow or amber coloured. Wild gooseberries are greatly inferior, in size, to those which are cultivated in gardens.

77.IPECACUANHA(Viola ipecacuanha)is a medicinal root, small, wrinkled, bent, and contorted into a great variety of shapes; which is imported from the West Indies and South America, and is given as an emetic.

There are three kinds of ipecacuanha: ash-coloured or grey, brown, and white. Of these, the ash-coloured is usually preferred for medicinal use, from its being more efficacious than the white, and less violent than the brown. Ipecacuanha was first brought into Europe towards the middle of the seventeenth century; but it was not admitted into general use until about the year 1686, when it was introduced into practice under the patronage of Louis the Fourteenth of France. Its taste is bitterish and somewhat acrid; and it seems to cover the tongue with a kind of mucilage. It is one of the mildest and safest emetics with which we are acquainted; and is administered in powder, as a wine, and as a tincture. It has this peculiar advantage, that, if it do not operate as an emetic, it passes off without injury by the skin or bowels. In very small doses it is efficacious in obstinate coughs, and in several other complaints.The roots of a kind of dogsbane (Apocynum) are not unfrequently substituted for those of ipecacuanha; but, in some instances, this substitution has been attended with fatal consequences.

78.VINES are a very important tribe of shrubs, to the fruit of which we are indebted for all our foreign wines, for raisins of every description, and for the dried currants of the shops.Several species of vine are cultivated; but by far the most important of the whole is the common vine(Vitis viniferaof Linnæus).

78.VINES are a very important tribe of shrubs, to the fruit of which we are indebted for all our foreign wines, for raisins of every description, and for the dried currants of the shops.

Several species of vine are cultivated; but by far the most important of the whole is the common vine(Vitis viniferaof Linnæus).

The earliest introduction of the vine into the western parts of Europe is stated to have been about the year 280, under the sanction of Probus, the Roman Emperor, who, throughout his whole dominions, was a zealous encourager of agricultural pursuits. There can be no doubt that vines were anciently propagated in our own island for the purpose of wine, and that there were vineyards of considerable extent in Gloucestershire, Hampshire, and some other counties; but, as vines are principally found to flourish in inland countries, lying betwixt the thirtieth and fifty-first degrees of latitude, it is evident that there can be no part of Great Britain sufficiently adapted to their successful cultivation.

Any person who has seen a hop garden, may easily form an idea of the appearance of avineyard. Vines are usually propagated by slips, cuttings, or offsets from the roots. These, when they have obtained a sufficiency of roots, are transplanted from the nursery-ground into the vineyard, the soil of which ought to be light and rich. They are placed, in this ground, in rows, and at regular intervals, leaving space sufficient for the vine-dressers and the reapers to pass betwixt them; and as soon as the rooted plants are three years old, they begin to bear fruit. The season for pruning and dressing them is the early part of the year, before the sap begins to rise; and about the time when the flowers appear, the plants are fastened to poles, for thepurposes of supporting them, of preventing them from growing entangled with each other, admitting a free circulation of air amongst them, and affording greater convenience for gathering the fruit.

The vintage, which is a season of mirth and delight to the whole country, commences in the early part of autumn. The villagers assemble in the respective vineyards under the direction of overseers. The reaping of the grapes is, in general, performed in three distinct gatherings. The first of these comprehends all the finest and ripest bunches, carefully clearing away from them every grape that appears green or decayed: the second is confined to the large and thick clusters which are not so ripe as the others; and those which are nearly green, withered, or decayed, are gathered last.

To obtain the juice from the grapes, they are subjected to the operation of large presses of somewhat similar construction to the cyder presses of our own country (the separate gatherings being still kept apart), and the juice is received into vessels fixed for that purpose. Afterwards it undergoes the necessary fermentation to convert it into wine. By the ancients the juice was obtained by treading the grapes. This practice is alluded to in various parts of Scripture, but perhaps in none are the characteristics of the ancient vintage expressed more strongly than in the predictions of Isaiah concerning Moab: "And gladness is taken away, and joy out of the plentiful field; and in the vineyards there shall be no singing, neither shall there be any shouting: the treaders shall tread out no wine in their presses; I have made their vintage-shouting to cease." The treading of grapes is still practised in several parts of the world. The ancients frequently kept their wine in skins, or leathern bags, well secured at the seams; hence the passage in the gospels; "neither do men put new wine into old bottles; else the bottles break, and the wine runneth out, and the bottles perish: but they put new wine into new bottles, and both are preserved."

The kinds of wine are extremely various. The difference which exists betwixt them is not, however, so much owing to a distinction in the species of grapes, as in the quality of the fruit, produced by the varieties of soil, cultivation, and climate to which they are subject. This difference likewise depends, in some instances, on the peculiar mode of fermentation, and the state of the grapes from which the wine is produced.

(a)Portuguese Wines.—Of all the kinds of wine that are consumed in England, none are so much in request asred port. This has its name from the city of Oporto, in the neighbourhood of which the vines that produce it are chiefly cultivated. A great proportion, however, of the port that is consumed in England, is said to be mixed with a Spanish red wine of inferior quality, or to be otherwise adulterated. Red port is brought over in casks called pipes, which measure 138 gallons each, and ought to fill fifty-two dozen bottles of legal measure.

The difference in colour betwixt red wines and white does not so much depend upon the quality of the grape, as upon the mode in which the wines are prepared. The juice of red grapes, if carefully pressed, and fermented separately from the skins, forms a white wine. If the skins be pressed so as to discharge the colouring matter they contain, or, if they be allowed to remain in the juice during the fermentation, the wine assumes a red tinge.

White port, andLisbon, are two kinds of white wine which we receive from Portugal. Of these, the former was much in demand some years ago, but it is now seldom called for; the latter is still in use.

(b)French Wines.—Many excellent wines are produced in France. That usually considered the best isBurgundy, a red wine of very delicate flavour, which has its name from the province where it is made. The wines of the neighbourhood of Orleans, however,after having been matured by age, are much like Burgundy.Claretis the only French red wine for which there is any great demand in England. It is thin and highly flavoured, and is chiefly supplied from the neighbourhood of Bourdeaux. Some of the red wines of Champaigne are highly prized for their excellence and delicacy, though they, occasionally, have a pungent and sourish taste.Hermitageis produced from vineyards, at a place so called, near the village of Thein, on the eastern bank of the Rhone; andCôte Rotiefrom vineyards on the opposite side of the river.

No French white wine has so much celebrity asChampaigne. This is of two kinds; one of which, called still or quiet Champaigne, has gone through the whole process of fermentation; the other, which has the name of sparkling Champaigne, has been bottled before the fermentation was complete: this, consequently, proceeds slowly in the bottle, and causes the wine, on the drawing of the cork, to sparkle in the glass.Vin de Graveis produced in the vicinity of Bourdeaux, and the lower parts of Gascoigne:Pontacis made in Guienne; andFrontignacandMuscadelare white wines, the delicious productions of Languedoc.

(c)Spanish Wines.—The country about Xeres, in Andalusia, is celebrated for a grape which produces an excellent wine calledSherry. There are several French and English houses at Xeres and Seville which trade, to great extent, in this wine. It is very strong, and full-bodied, owing, in a great degree, to the quantity of brandy with which it is mixed. In the province of Valencia, some of the proprietors have wines of different kinds, sixty, eighty, and even a hundred years old, the prices of which differ according to their age.Rota, in Seville, produces a rich and sweet white wine; and the country aroundMalaga, near Gibraltar, is celebrated for white wine which is known by that name; and so assiduously is the cultivation of the vine there pursued, that the export of the produce of the vineyards yieldsto the inhabitants an annual revenue of more than 200,000l.sterling per annum. We import from Spain a harsh and inferior kind ofred wine, which, duty free, sells for only 10l.or 15l.per pipe of 126 gallons; but the territory of Alicant produces a very rich and excellent kind of red wine. The sweet red wine which we callTentis a Spanish production; chiefly imported from Cadiz, and in hogsheads of about sixty gallons each. It is made from the juice of a particular kind of grapes, which are not used for this purpose until some time after they have been perfectly ripe.

(d)Italian Wines.—Notwithstanding the ancient celebrity of many of the wines of Italy, by far the greater part of what are now manufactured in that country are thin and bad. Certain vineyards on mount Vesuvius, however, still have great celebrity for a luscious red wine calledLachryma Christi.

(e)German Wines.—Germany produces many excellent wines, of which Tokay, Hock, Rhenish, and Moselle, are the most celebrated.Tokayhas its name from a town in Hungary, near which it is chiefly made. The quantity of this wine is so small that, even on the spot where it is manufactured, it is sold at a very high price. It is made by mixing with the common grapes a portion of luscious, half-dried, and shrivelled grapes; the latter being absolutely necessary to constitute the peculiar quality of the wine. The two kinds of grapes are pressed separately, and the juice is afterwards mixed, fermented, and strained through a cloth or sieve into the barrels in which it is to continue. The best Tokay does not long remain in the place where it is made, a great portion of it being sent into the cellars of the nobility in other parts of Hungary. Tokay is certainly a fine wine, but is no way adequate to the price for which it is sold. Several years ago it could not be purchased, even in Hungary, for much less than half a guinea of English money per bottle; and yet there are few Englishmen, who, except on account of itsscarceness, would prefer it to good Claret or Burgundy. Of all the German wines, that which is in greatest demand in England isHock. This has its name from the town of Hochstadt in Suabia, celebrated for a great battle which was fought in its neighbourhood by the French and the allies in 1704.RhenishandMoselleare produced chiefly on the banks of the rivers Rhine and Moselle, and have a cool, sharp taste, and considerable strength. Anterior to the late wars in Germany, there were wines in the cellars of many of the noble and wealthy inhabitants of that country which were more than a hundred years old, and of such body as to be uninjured even by so great an age.

(f)MadeiraandTeneriffe Wines.—To the Madeira and Canary islands we are indebted for some excellent white wines. Of theseMadeira wineis considered by far the most valuable, particularly after it has been ripened by conveyance into a hot climate. The number of pipes of Madeira annually made is about 30,000. The grapes, when gathered, are put into wooden vessels, and the juice is extracted by persons treading upon them.

The Canary Islands gave name to a rich white wine, which was formerly in great esteem under the name ofCanary sack, and is now usually calledMalmsey Madeira. The genuineMalmseywine, which is of sweet and luscious flavour, and rich golden yellow colour, is the produce of Malvesia, one of the Greek islands, and thence had originally its name, the French merchants denominating itVin de Malvesia: but so little is now made that few persons can possess it.Teneriffe wine, when two or three years old, has much the flavour of Madeira, but, after this age, it becomes so sweet and mellow, as somewhat to resemble Malaga.

(g)Cape Wines.—There are produced, at the Cape of Good Hope, two kinds of peculiarly rich, sweet, and delicate wine, calledredandwhite Constantia. Thefarm from which they have their name is situated about eight miles from Cape Town. The grapes of this farm, owing, as it is supposed, to some peculiarity in the soil, are superior to any other in the whole country. The vintage commences about March or April; and great care is taken in the manufacture of the wine, no fruit being used but such as is fully ripe and in the highest perfection. The annual produce is considered to be about sixty pipes of the red, and 100 pipes of the white wine. Constantia is in perfection when about two years old; but, when kept six or seven years, it sparkles in the glass somewhat like wine which has not undergone a perfect fermentation. What is denominatedCape Madeirais a light kind of white wine, the produce of the Cape of Good Hope. Considerable quantities of this wine are now consumed in England, in consequence of the lowness of its price. This is owing to its paying to government only one-third part of the duty which is imposed on most other wines.

The juice of unripe grapes has a harsh, sour, and rough taste. This, under the name ofverjuice, was formerly much esteemed for culinary and other purposes. The young twigs of the vine, when dried, cut into small pieces, and moistened with water, afford a wholesome food for cattle and horses. Theleavesandtendrilshave an astringent taste, which it is probable they would impart to British made wines, and thus render them somewhat similar to foreign wines. Thewoodof the vine, reduced to charcoal, is used by painters for drawing outlines; and, from the seeds orstones, a kind of oil is sometimes made, which can scarcely be distinguished from olive oil. These stones, when purified, moderately roasted, and ground to a coarse powder, form a tolerable substitute for chocolate.

Brandyis a spirituous liquor, produced by the distillation of wine; and prepared in most of the wine countries of Europe. The principal manufactories of this spirit are in France, particularly in Languedoc, and Anjou, whence comes the well-knownCognac brandy.The distilleries of brandy in Catalonia, in Spain, are so extensive as to yield more than 35,000 pipes per annum. When brandy first issues from the still, it is colourless as water; and the colour, which is given to it by the merchants, is produced partly by the oaken casks in which it is kept, but chiefly by the addition of red saunders wood, burnt sugar, and other colouring matters. These, however, do not in the least affect the quality of the spirit.

In addition to the preceding uses of the vine, we have to add those of its fruit in a recent state, calledgrapes, as a delicious addition to our desserts; and of this fruit, in a dried state, under the appellation of raisins and currants.

Raisinsare grapes which have been suffered to remain on the trees until they are perfectly ripe, and have been dried. They are occasionally dried in ovens. Sometimes the clusters, being tied several together, are dipped in a ley of the ashes of rosemary and vine branches, with a certain portion of slaked lime, and are then dried by exposure to the sun. The best fruit of this description are thesun, andjar raisins; both of which are dried in the sun, without any preparation. These are imported from the southern countries of Europe; and also from the Asiatic provinces of Turkey. They are principally used for desserts, whilstMalaga raisins, and some other kinds, are employed for culinary purposes and the making of wine.

79.The CURRANTS of commerce are a small kind of raisins, or dried grapes, which are produced in the Grecian Archipelago, and particularly in the islands of Zante and Cephalonia.

The chief plantation of these grapes was anciently in the isthmus of Corinth, whence they obtained the name ofCorinths, since corrupted to currants, Few, however, are now produced there, the vineyards having been neglected in consequence of the jealousy of the Turks not allowing large vessels to enter the gulf for theirexportation. These grapes have no stones, are usually either of a red or black colour, and when recently gathered, are an extremely delicious fruit.

The harvest commences in the month of August, and as soon as the grapes are plucked from the trees, they are spread to dry, upon a floor prepared for the purpose by stamping the earth quite hard. This floor is formed with a gentle rising in the middle, that the rain, in case any should fall, may run off, and not injure the fruit. When sufficiently dry, the currants are cleaned, and laid up in magazines, being poured into them through a hole, and stowed so closely that it is necessary to dig them out with an iron instrument. They are packed for exportation in large casks, and by persons who have their feet greased in order to tread them close.

The principal consumption of currants is in England; but the inhabitants of the islands whence they are brought know little of the use we make of them. They imagine that we employ them only in the dyeing of cloth, and are entirely ignorant of our luxury of Christmas pies, and plum puddings. A small but inferior kind of currants are grown in some parts of Spain.

80.BEET(Beta vulgaris)is a well known fleshy or succulent root, which is cultivated in our kitchen gardens, and grows wild in several countries of the south of Europe.There are two principal varieties of beet, one of which is of deep red or purple colour, and the other is white, crossed with bands of red.

80.BEET(Beta vulgaris)is a well known fleshy or succulent root, which is cultivated in our kitchen gardens, and grows wild in several countries of the south of Europe.

There are two principal varieties of beet, one of which is of deep red or purple colour, and the other is white, crossed with bands of red.

Red beet is principally used at table boiled and cut in slices: it is, however, sometimes pickled, and sometimes stewed with onions; but, if eaten in great quantity, it is said to be injurious to the stomach. The roots may be taken out of the ground for use about the end of August, but they do not attain their full size and perfection till the month of October. When good they arelarge, and of deep red colour; and, when boiled, they are tender, sweet, and palatable.

It has lately been ascertained that beet roots may be substituted for malt, if deprived of the greater part of their juice by pressure, then dried, and treated in the same manner as the grain intended for brewing. The beer, made from beet, has been found perfectly wholesome and palatable, and little inferior to that prepared from malt.

Fromwhite beetthe French, during the late war, endeavoured to prepare sugar; that article, as a British colonial produce, having been prohibited in France. For this purpose, the roots were boiled as soon as possible after they were taken from the earth. When cold, they were sliced, and afterwards the juice was pressed out, and evaporated to the consistence of syrup. The sugar was obtained, from this syrup, by crystallization. From 110 pounds' weight of the roots, 41½ pounds of juice were obtained, which, on further evaporation, yielded somewhat more than 4¼ pounds of brown sugar; and these, by a subsequent operation, produced four pounds of well grained white powder sugar. The residuum, together with the syrup or molasses which remained, produced after distillation, 3½ quarts of rectified spirit, somewhat similar to rum.

81.MANGEL WURZEL or ROOT OF SCARCITY, is a plant of the beet tribe(a variety ofBeta cicla)with large and red veined leaves; those arising from the root being on footstalks, and those of the stem being without stalks, and the flowers growing in threes.

The farmers, in some parts of Germany, cultivate this plant as food for cattle, and they are said to prefer it, for that use, to potatoes, turnips, carrots, and indeed to most other vegetables. It was introduced to the public notice in England, by the late Dr. Lettsom; and it has been strongly recommended, not only for the feeding of cattle, but also for the use of man. Both theleavesandrootgrow to very large size; and the former, whichmay be eaten as spinach, continue in season long after that plant is withered. The root is insipid and unpalatable; but the stalks, and the stronger middle part of the leaves, may be stewed, or eaten plain-boiled, as asparagus.

82.BARILLA is the Spanish name of a plant(Salsola soda)from the ashes of which is produced the salt calledkaliorsoda.Soda is also procured from the ashes ofPRICKLY SALTWORT(Salsola kali),SHRUBBY SALTWORT(Salsola fructicosa),and numerous plants of other tribes.

82.BARILLA is the Spanish name of a plant(Salsola soda)from the ashes of which is produced the salt calledkaliorsoda.

Soda is also procured from the ashes ofPRICKLY SALTWORT(Salsola kali),SHRUBBY SALTWORT(Salsola fructicosa),and numerous plants of other tribes.

On the shores of the Mediterranean, where the preparation of soda is pursued to considerable extent, the seeds of the plants from which it is obtained are regularly sown in places near the sea. When at a sufficient state of maturity, the plants are pulled up by the roots, dried, and afterwards tied in bundles to be burnt. In some places, this is done in ovens constructed for the purpose; and in others, in trenches dug near the sea. The ashes, whilst they are hot, are continually stirred with long poles, and the saline matter they contain forms, when cold, a solid mass, almost as hard as stone. This mass is afterwards broken into pieces of convenient size for exportation. The best sort of Spanish soda is in dark-coloured masses of bluish tinge, very heavy, sonorous, dry to the touch, and it externally abounds in small cavities. Its taste is sharp, corrosive, and strongly saline.

Soda is chiefly employed in glass and soap manufactories. See the uses of minerals, Vol. i. No. 200.

83.ELMS are forest-trees well known in almost every part of England. There are several species, of which, however, only three, theCOMMON ELM(Ulmus campestris, Fig. 61,)WYCH HAZEL,orBROAD-LEAVED ELM(Ulmus montana, Fig. 62,)andDUTCH ELM(Ulmus suberosa),grow in this country without cultivation.They are easily distinguishable from most other forest-trees, by their leaves being rough, and doubly serrated at the edge.Of these trees the flowers of the first are four-cleft, and haveeach four stamens, and the fruit is oblong: those of the second are five or six cleft, and have each five or six stamens, the fruit is roundish, and the leaves are broad; those of the third are four-cleft, and have four stamens, and the bark of the branches has a corky appearance.

Of these trees the flowers of the first are four-cleft, and haveeach four stamens, and the fruit is oblong: those of the second are five or six cleft, and have each five or six stamens, the fruit is roundish, and the leaves are broad; those of the third are four-cleft, and have four stamens, and the bark of the branches has a corky appearance.

The Dutch elm is grown in most parts of England. The common elm, though plentiful in Worcestershire, Middlesex, and some other southern counties, is said to be rare further north than Grantham or Stamford. The wych hazel is common in woods and hedges throughout the whole of South Britain.

The use of the elm astimberis chiefly confined to rough and inferior work. Implements of husbandry are almost wholly made of it; and it is employed for waggons, carts, mill-wheels, water-pipes, low-priced chairs, blocks for hat-makers, and various other purposes; and among the lower and middling classes, almost exclusively, for coffins. The preference which it has obtained for the latter purpose, is supposed to have originated in its peculiar durability in moist situations.

Some of the northern writers state that, from theinner barkof the elm, if stripped off in the spring, and boiled in water, a very palatable kind of beer may be brewed; and that this bark, dried and ground to powder, has, in times of scarcity, been mixed with meal to make bread. It is occasionally administered as a decoction for obstinate cutaneous complaints; and it has been proposed for use in rheumatism, dropsy, and other diseases. The youngleavesmay be used for the feeding of silk-worms.

Few trees are better adapted than the elm for planting in hedge rows, along the sides of roads, and along shady walks; but in the latter case the numerous suckers which grow up from its roots give much trouble to keep the ground clear.

84.GENTIAN is a bitter drug, the dried root of a plant(Gentiana lutea)which grows wild amongst the Alps, and in other mountainous parts of the Continent.

The flower-stem of the gentian is two or three feet high, strong, smooth, and erect. The leaves which grow upon its lower part are spear-shaped and ribbed, and those on the upper part are concave, smooth, and egg-shaped. The flowers, which are large and yellow, grow round the upper part of the stem on strong footstalks, and are divided at the edge into five or more segments. The calyx is a kind of sheath.

Gentian is one of the principal bitters that are now used in medicine; and is of considerable service in fevers, and in such complaints as arise from weakness of the stomach. It is externally of a brown colour, and internally yellowish or bright red. Its taste is at first sweetish, but immediately afterwards bitter and pungent. As a simple bitter, it is rendered more grateful to the stomach by the addition of some warm aromatic; and, for this purpose, orange-peel is commonly employed. An extract of gentian root, boiled with water till it has nearly the consistence of honey, is kept in the shops.

85.GARDEN CARROT(Daucus carota)is a plant too well known to need any description.

In few vegetable productions are the effects of cultivation more conspicuous than in the carrot. The wild plants, which are common in most parts of England, have a root so small and woody, that no one could suppose they had any alliance whatever to the large and succulent root of the garden carrot.

The various uses of the carrot in cookery are well known. But, although it contains much nutriment, this root is difficult of digestion; particularly if eaten raw, or imperfectly boiled. Carrots are an excellent fodder for cattle and horses, either alone or mixed with hay; and, if given to cows, in winter or the early part of spring, they are said to cause a great increase of milk. If carrots be boiled with their wash, hogs will thrive well upon them. In some parts of England this vegetable has been cultivated as a winter food for deer; and the leaves have sometimes been madeinto hay. Carrots contain a large proportion of saccharine matter, and various but unsuccessful experiments have been made to extract sugar from them. They have, however, been more advantageously employed in distillation. Ten pounds' weight of carrots will yield about half a pint of very strong, ardent spirit: and the carrots (twenty tons in weight) produced by an acre of ground, have been known to produce 240 gallons of spirit. A syrup made of these roots, and clarified with the white of eggs, has been found useful for many purposes. An infusion of theseedsand the expressed juice of the roots, are said to afford relief in fits of the gravel. A marmalade of carrots has been used with success in sea-scurvy, and a poultice prepared from them is sometimes employed in cancerous ulcers. Crickets are so fond of these roots that they may easily be destroyed by making a paste of flour, powdered arsenic, and scraped carrots, and placing this near their habitations.

86.ROCK SAMPHIRE(Crithmum maritimum)is an umbelliferous plant, with fleshy, spear-shaped leaflets, and small but regular-shaped white flowers.

The cliffs of Dover have long been celebrated for the production of this vegetable, which has received an additional interest from the notice that Shakspeare has taken of the gathering of it:

"Half-way downHangs one that gathers samphire; dreadful trade!"

"Half-way down

Hangs one that gathers samphire; dreadful trade!"

It is also found on cliffs of other parts of the south of England, as well as in Italy, France, and Spain; and generally in inaccessible situations.

In some parts of England theleavesof samphire pickled in vinegar are in use for the table: they are also used in salads, and for other culinary purposes. But their place is frequently supplied by a much more common plant, which grows in salt marshes, and has the name ofmarsh samphire(Salicornia). This,however, is a very inferior substitute, and entirely destitute of the fine aromatic flavour of the former species.

87.ASAFŒTIDA is a resinous gum, procured from the root of a large umbelliferous plant(Ferula asafœtida)which grows in the mountains of some parts of Persia.The leaves of this plant are nearly two feet long, doubly winged, and have the leaflets alternate. The flowers are small, and the seeds oval, flat, and each marked with three longitudinal lines.

87.ASAFŒTIDA is a resinous gum, procured from the root of a large umbelliferous plant(Ferula asafœtida)which grows in the mountains of some parts of Persia.

The leaves of this plant are nearly two feet long, doubly winged, and have the leaflets alternate. The flowers are small, and the seeds oval, flat, and each marked with three longitudinal lines.

No one who has ever smelt the peculiarly powerful, and garlic-like odour of asafœtida, can well forget it. If exposed to the air, but particularly when heated, it will pervade every apartment of a house. Notwithstanding this, it constitutes a favourite seasoning, for food, with the inhabitants of many of the eastern countries of the world. The Banian Indians, who never eat animal food, use it in almost all their dishes; and, before their meals, they even rub their mouths with it, to stimulate their appetite. It is sometimes used by our own cooks, but in very small quantity, in place of garlic. In many parts of Arabia and Persia, asafœtida is much esteemed as a remedy for internal diseases, and even as an external application to wounds; and, with us, it is considered a powerful medicine in several disorders. It has been applied with success, in the cure of hooping-cough and worms; and in flatulent colics, it has, in many cases, afforded great relief. It is imported in masses of various sizes and form, and of yellow, brown, or bluish colour, sometimes interspersed with roundish white pieces.

The plant from the root of which asafœtida is produced grows in the mountains which surround the small town of Disgnun, in Persia; and, at the season when it is collected, the whole place smells of it. The upper part of the roots, which are sometimes as thick as a man's leg, rises somewhat above the surface of the ground. The harvest commences when the leaves begin to decay; and the whole gathering is performed by the inhabitants of the place, in four different journeys to the mountains. The demand for the article inforeign countries being first ascertained to be sufficient for the trouble of collecting, the persons employed proceed to the mountains in companies of four or five each. The juice is obtained by cutting the roots across, at the same time sheltering them by the leaves (which have been previously twisted off) from the intense heat of the sun. Each party takes into its care about 2000 plants. After the first incision has been made, the roots are suffered to remain untouched for about a month, when they are again visited, and the gum which has exuded is taken off. This operation is repeated three times, a few days betwixt each; after which the plants are exhausted and left to die. At the respective gatherings each party generally brings away about fifty pounds' weight of asafœtida. It is stated that a single ship is exclusively devoted to transporting the bulk of this commodity to the ports in the Persian Gulf; and that, when smaller parcels are carried, it is usual to tie them to the top of the mast.

In the year 1784, the asafœtida plant was introduced into the Botanic garden at Edinburgh, from seeds which had been sent by Dr. Guthrie of Petersburgh to Dr. Hope.

Theferula tribeconsists of nine or ten known species of plants, and it is supposed that asafœtida is yielded by several of them.

In some parts of the Levant the sailors are said to use thestalksof a species of ferula to transport fire from one island to another. This custom is of great antiquity, and explains a passage of Hesiod, who, speaking of the fire stolen from heaven by Prometheus, says that he carried it in a ferula. The foundation of this fable is undoubtedly owing to what Diodorus Siculus informs us of Prometheus, that he was the inventor of the steel with which fire is struck from flint; and in all probability that prince made use of the pith of the ferula instead of tinder, to convey it from one place to another.

88.CORIANDER is a small globular seed, produced by an annual umbelliferous plant(Coriandrum sativum),with leaves in slender segments, and small whitish flowers, that grows wild in Suffolk and Essex, and is cultivated in several parts of England.

In several farms in Essex and Kent the cultivation of coriander is pursued to considerable extent. This is done solely for the seed, which is used by distillers, druggists, and confectioners. In some parts of the North of Europe it is ground and mixed with dough, to give an aromatic flavour to bread.

Coriander is usually grown with teasel (53) and caraway (91); but, as neither of the latter come to perfection until the second year after they have been sown, the coriander is harvested without interfering with the other crops. In this labour, which usually commences about the beginning of July, women and children are principally employed: and, to prevent the seeds of the largest and best plants from being shed and lost, each stem is cut separately. The stems are then carried into some convenient part of the field, and threshed all together upon a sail cloth.

So luxuriantly, and, at the same time, so abundantly does this plant grow in a wild state, in some of the southern parts of Europe, as almost to choke the growth of wheat and other grain. Every part of it, except the seed, has a fetid and disagreeable smell. The seeds, when taken in large quantities, have been considered injurious; but Dr. Withering states, that he has known six drams of them taken without any remarkable effect.

89.PARSNIP is the root of an umbelliferous plant(Pastinaca sativa),with winged and serrated leaves, and small yellow flowers, which is cultivated in kitchen gardens, and which also grows wild on the borders of ploughed fields in several parts of England.

The wild and cultivated parsnips differ much from each other, but particularly in the roots of the latter being large and succulent, and those of the former being slender and woody.

Parsnips are propagated by seed sown in February or March, and the roots are in perfection about October. These, besides their use as a vegetable for the table, are of great value for the feeding of cattle, horses, sheep, and hogs. Land in Guernsey, which lets for 7l.an acre, is sown with parsnips to feed cattle; and the milk of the cows so fed is not only richer than it would otherwise be, but yields butter of fine saffron colour and excellent taste.

If parsnips be washed clean, and sliced among bran, horses will eat them. They will fatten sheep and oxen in a short time; and for the feeding of hogs they are at least equal if not superior to carrots. As food for mankind they are considered extremely nutritive; and may, with great advantage, be kept on board ships that are destined for long voyages. It is, however, said that they should not be dug up for use in the spring, because, at that season, the nutritive juices rising upward to produce the seed, they are then unwholesome.

Parsnips abound in saccharine juice; and various experiments have, in vain, been made with a view to extract sugar from them. In several parts of Ireland they are used instead of malt in brewing; and, when properly fermented, they afford an agreeable beverage. Theseedsare considered by some practitioners as an efficacious remedy in intermittent fevers.

90.FENNEL(Anethum fœniculum)is a well known plant, which is cultivated in gardens, and grows wild in several parts of England.

Theleavesof fennel, both boiled and raw, are used in sauce for several kinds of fish. The tender buds are eaten in salads; and, in Italy, thestalksare sometimes blanched as winter salad. A distilled water, prepared from the seeds, is occasionally administered as a medicine; and there was formerly a notion that therootswere peculiarly valuable, as a remedy in several diseases, but they are now almost wholly disregarded.

91.CARAWAY is a small well known seed, produced by an umbelliferous plant(Carum carui),with smooth and double winged leaves, narrow leaflets, and small white, or pale flesh-coloured flowers, of which the petals are bent inward, so as to become heart-shaped.

Theseedsof caraway have a pleasant spicy smell, and a warm aromatic taste. They are much used by pastry-cooks and confectioners in cakes, and for other purposes. Incrusted with sugar, they are called caraway comfits. They are also distilled with spirituous liquors, to improve their flavour; and are recommended as a medicine in several disorders. An essentialoiland aspiritare also prepared from them. In the spring of the year theleavesare sometimes used in soups, or boiled with pot-herbs. Therootsmay be converted into an agreeable pickle; and, if simply boiled, they are said by Parkinson to be better than parsnips.

This plant grows wild in several parts of England, but particularly in meadows and pastures near Bury St. Edmunds, in Suffolk. It is much cultivated in Essex and Kent, sometimes alone, and sometimes mixed with teasel (53) and coriander (88). The season for cutting it is about the beginning of July; and it is threshed in the field on a cloth, in the same manner as rape-seed (187).

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