POLYANDRIA.

262.The ABELE, or GREAT WHITE POPLAR-TREE(Populus alba, Fig. 74),is a British tree which grows in hedges and woods, near brooks, and is known by its leaves being nearly triangular, irregularly jagged at the edges, and cottony underneath.

The quickness of growth of this tree is so great that it will sometimes make shoots from eighteen to twentyfeet in length in one year; and the trees attain their full growth in the course of twenty years. Thewoodis white and soft, but tough and of close grain, and not subject to warp or shrink. Hence it has been found useful for the flooring of rooms, and for making laths and packing boxes. For turnery ware it is preferred to most other kinds of wood, on account of its peculiar whiteness, and the ease with which it is worked in the lathe. "Of this wood," says Evelyn, "people also made shields of defence, in sword and buckler days."

Thebarkof the abele-tree is said to be serviceable as a remedy in intermittent fevers; and Dioscorides informs us that if it be chopped small and sowed in rills, well and richly manured, it will yield a plentiful crop of mushrooms.

263.The ASPEN, or TREMBLING POPLAR(Populus tremula),is a tree which grows in moist woods; has nearly circular leaves, toothed and angular at the edges, smooth on both sides, and attached to footstalks so long and slender as to be shaken by the slightest wind.

There is scarcely any situation in which the aspen will not flourish, but it succeeds best where the soil is moist and gravelly. Itswoodis light, porous, soft, and of white colour; and, though inferior in excellence to that of the white poplar, is applicable to many useful purposes, particularly for field-gates, the frames of pack-saddles, for milk-pails, clogs, and the wood-work of patterns. It is improper for bedsteads, as it is liable to be infested by bugs. In some countries thebarkof the young trees is made into torches.

264.The BLACK POPLAR(Populus nigra, Fig. 75)is a native tree of this country, known by its somewhat trowel-shaped leaves, which taper to a point, and are serrated, and smooth on both sides.

This tree grows rapidly, and attains a considerable size. Itswoodis soft and light, and in some respects useful to engravers; and is occasionally sawed into boards, though these are not in general much esteemed.Thebarkis so thick and light that it is not unfrequently used by fishermen as buoys or floats to support their nets. The inhabitants of Kamtschatka dry and pulverise theinner rindof the black poplar-tree, and use it as an ingredient in bread. Thebuds, when they first appear, are covered with and contain a viscous and fragrant juice, which may be advantageously used in plasters.

265.The LOMBARDY or ITALIAN POPLAR(Populus dilatata)grows wild in Lombardy and the northern parts of Italy, and is distinguished by its somewhat trowel-shaped and serrated leaves, being smooth on both sides, and wider than they are long.

From its slender and perpendicular growth the Lombardy poplar is found useful for hop-poles, and may be formed into masts for small vessels. The wood, which is soft and free from knots, is employed by joiners, carpenters, and cartwrights. It is recommended as peculiarly valuable for the floors of granaries, some persons believing it so obnoxious to insects that weevils will not continue in such granaries. It may be wrought into very flexible shafts for carriages, or felloes for wheels; and, not being liable to split, is peculiarly adapted for packing cases.

The growth of this tree is so rapid, and the space of ground which it occupies is so small, that it is in almost universal request as an ornamental tree, in places that are not sufficiently spacious to admit of trees of more spreading form.

266.SAGO is a granulated preparation from the pith of a species of palm-tree(Cycas circinalis)which grows in India and Africa.This tree attains the height of thirty or forty feet; has a straight and somewhat slender stem, and winged leaves at the summit, each seven or eight feet long, with the leaflets long and narrow.

266.SAGO is a granulated preparation from the pith of a species of palm-tree(Cycas circinalis)which grows in India and Africa.

This tree attains the height of thirty or forty feet; has a straight and somewhat slender stem, and winged leaves at the summit, each seven or eight feet long, with the leaflets long and narrow.

The preparation of sago, under different forms, constitutes a principal source of employment to the inhabitants of many parts of the coast of Malabar, as well as those of several of the islands of the East Indies.

The trunk of the sago-tree contains a farinaceous pith, to obtain which it is sawn into pieces. After the pith is taken out, it is beaten in mortars, and, water being poured upon the mass, this is allowed to stand for some hours to settle; after which it is strained through a coarse cloth, and, the finest particles running through with the water, the grosser ones are left behind and thrown away, or washed over a hair sieve through which only the edible parts can pass. These are allowed to subside. The water is then poured off, and the flour, being properly dried, is made into cakes and baked for use, or is granulated in a manner somewhat similar to that adopted in the preparation of tapioca (251). It is in the latter state that sago is imported into Europe, where it is much used as a nourishing and agreeable diet for sick persons, in puddings and other culinary preparations.

267.The COMMON JUNIPER(Juniperus communis)is an evergreen shrub, with slender and pointed leaves, that grows on heaths in several parts of the south of England.The leaves grow in threes; each is tipped with a spine, and is longer than the ripe fruit, which is a blackish purple berry.

267.The COMMON JUNIPER(Juniperus communis)is an evergreen shrub, with slender and pointed leaves, that grows on heaths in several parts of the south of England.

The leaves grow in threes; each is tipped with a spine, and is longer than the ripe fruit, which is a blackish purple berry.

Juniperberriesare at first green; and they continue upon the trees two years before they become ripe and assume their purple colour. When ripe they have a sweetish aromatic taste. The Swedes prepare, from these berries, a beverage which they consider useful as a medicine; and in some parts of the Continent juniper berries are roasted, ground, and adopted as a substitute for coffee. In Sweden they are eaten at breakfast, in the form of a conserve; and, in Germany, they are frequently used as a culinary spice, and especially for imparting their peculiar flavour to sour crout. Spirits impregnated with an essential oil distilled from them have thename of juniper water orgin. But it is a common practice to adopt spirit of turpentine (246) instead of this. Juniper-berries are imported into this country from Holland and Italy. Their smell is strong, but not disagreeable; and their flavour is warm, pungent, and sweetish, leaving a bitter taste in the mouth. The essential oil of these berries, if mixed with nut-oil (241), makes an excellent varnish for pictures, woodwork, and iron.

Thewoodof the juniper-tree is of reddish colour, very hard, and so durable that it will last more than a hundred years without decay. It is employed in veneering, for making cabinets, and for ornamental furniture. Charcoal formed from it affords a heat so lasting, that live embers are said to have been found in the ashes of juniper-trees after they have been covered up for more than twelve months. Such is the fibrous nature of thebarkthat it may be manufactured into ropes and other cordage.

From the crevices of the bark, or through perforations made in it by insects, a resinous gum exudes, which has the name ofgum sandarach. This, which is of pale yellowish colour, very brittle, and inflammable, possesses a pungent aromatic taste, and emits a fragrant odour when burnt. It is imported from the Continent, in small pieces or tears, about the size of peas. When powdered and passed through a fine sieve, this is the substance calledpounce, which is used for rubbing upon writing paper, in places where it has been scratched. Considerable quantities of this gum are consumed in the preparation of varnish, and particularly of one kind, used by cabinet-makers and painters, calledvernis.

268.The RED or COMMON CEDAR is a species of juniper(Juniperus virginiana)which grows in North America and the West Indies.It is distinguished by its leaves growing in threes, and being fixed by their base, the younger ones lying upon each other, and the older ones spreading.

268.The RED or COMMON CEDAR is a species of juniper(Juniperus virginiana)which grows in North America and the West Indies.

It is distinguished by its leaves growing in threes, and being fixed by their base, the younger ones lying upon each other, and the older ones spreading.

Thewoodof this tree is in much request for the outsides of black lead pencils. It is soft and incapable of high polish, but, on account of its powerful fragrance, and consequently resisting the attacks of insects, it not unfrequently used for the bottoms of drawers, and the inside of cabinets. Some years ago it was in much request for wainscotting and cabinet work; but, since the introduction of mahogany, it has been in great measure neglected for these purposes.

269.The YEW is a well-known evergreen tree(Taxus baccata),which has dark, narrow, pointed, and prickly leaves, and red berries, in the hollow part of the extremity of which a green seed appears.

The cultivation of the yew was formerly very extensive throughout nearly the whole of the British dominions, since of thewoodof this tree, which is peculiarly hard, smooth, and tough, our ancestors manufactured their bows. Hence, as well as on account of its gloomy and funereal aspect, it was usually planted in churchyards. But, when the introduction of fire-arms began to supersede the use of the bow, the yew was no longer cultivated than as an ornamental tree in parks and pleasure grounds.

In the formal style of gardening which was anciently prevalent, few trees were more the subject of admiration than this, from its bearing to be clipped, without injury, into almost any form. Yews were cut into the shape of men, quadrupeds, birds, ships, and other vegetable monsters, but such absurd fancies have of late years almost wholly disappeared. These trees are at present advantageously planted in hedges, as a fence for orchards and shrubberies, which nothing can injure.

Thewoodof the yew-tree is hard, beautifully veined, and susceptible of high polish. Hence it is valuable as a wood for veneering, and is much used for card boxes, small cabinets, and other articles. It is frequently used by turners and cabinet-makers; and might perhaps be advantageously substituted for box(232) by engravers and other artists in that wood. From its hardness and durability, it may be made into cogs for mill-wheels, into axle-trees, and flood-gates for fish-ponds, which are scarcely susceptible of decay. Theberriesare sweet and clammy, and are often eaten by children without inconvenience; though when eaten to excess, and particularly if the stones be swallowed, they are injurious. An ardent spirit might no doubt be obtained from them by distillation. Theleavesof the yew-tree are extremely poisonous both to the human species and to cattle.

270.The PLANTAIN-TREE(Musa paradisiaca),which is much cultivated in the West Indies and South America, has a soft stem, fifteen or twenty feel high, with several leaves on the summit; and bears a fruit of pale yellow colour, somewhat shaped like a cucumber, about a foot in length, and two inches thick.The leaves are frequently eight feet long, and more than two feet broad, and are so thin and tender that they are often torn by the wind. The fruit is produced in bunches so large as each to weigh forty pounds and upwards.

The leaves are frequently eight feet long, and more than two feet broad, and are so thin and tender that they are often torn by the wind. The fruit is produced in bunches so large as each to weigh forty pounds and upwards.

To the negroes of the West Indian islands the plantain is an invaluable fruit, and, like bread to the Europeans, is with them denominated the staff of life. In Jamaica alone many thousand acres are planted with these trees. This fruit is usually gathered before it is ripe, and, after the skin has been peeled off, is roasted for a little while in a clear fire; it is then scraped and eaten as bread, for which it is an excellent substitute. Plantains are sometimes boiled, and eaten with saltmeat; they are also cut into slices and fried, pounded, and made into puddings, and used in various other ways. Horses, cattle, swine, and other domestic animals, are fattened with them. When ripe they may be eaten raw, and, in this state, they have somewhat the taste of a ripe pear.

Theleavesof the plantain-tree, being soft and smooth, are sometimes employed as dressings after blisters; and, when green, are used as food for hogs.

The vegetation of this tree is so rapid that if a line or thread be drawn across, and on a level with the top of one of the leaves, when it begins to expand, it will be seen, in the course of an hour, to have grown nearly an inch.

271.The BANANA is a valuable plant(Musa sapientum)which grows in the West Indies and other tropical countries, and has leaves about six feet in length, and a foot broad in the middle; and fruit four or five inches long, and about the shape of a cucumber.

When ripe, the banana is an agreeablefruit, with a soft and luscious pulp; and is frequently introduced in desserts in the West Indies. The Spaniards have a superstitious dislike to cut this fruit across; they always slice it from end to end, because, in the former case, the section presents an imaginary resemblance to the instruments of our Saviour's crucifixion. The banana is sometimes fried in slices as fritters. If the pulp of this fruit be squeezed through a fine sieve, it may be formed into small loaves, which, after having been properly dried, may be kept for a great length of time.

272.MILLET is a small yellowish seed of a grassy plant(Holcus sorghum),with large and compact stalks which rise to the height of seven or eight feet, and is much cultivated in several parts of India and Africa.

In some countries milletseedis ground into flour and converted into bread; but this is brown and heavy. It is, however, useful in other respects as food, and isan excellent seed for the fattening of poultry. A good vinegar has been made from it, by fermentation; and, on distillation, it yields a strong spirit. Millet seed is imported into this country from the East Indies, for the purpose chiefly of puddings; and, by many persons, it is preferred to rice. Thestalksof the millet plant, if subjected to the same process that is adopted with the sugar-cane, yield a sweet juice, from which an excellent kind of sugar may be made.

273.GUM ARABIC is a well-known drug, obtained from a tree(Mimosa nilotica)which grows in Egypt.This tree has leaves doubly winged, with spines at the base, and small flowers, of globular shape, growing four or five together on slender footstalks.

273.GUM ARABIC is a well-known drug, obtained from a tree(Mimosa nilotica)which grows in Egypt.

This tree has leaves doubly winged, with spines at the base, and small flowers, of globular shape, growing four or five together on slender footstalks.

The principal supply of gum arabic in this country is obtained from Barbary, Turkey, and the Persian Gulf. The average quantity imported from the Persian Gulf, betwixt 1804 and 1808, was about 7500 hundred weight per annum, and the price for which it was vended at the East India Company's sales was about 3l.per hundred weight. It used formerly to be packed in skins, but it is now brought in large casks. The trees which yield it grow abundantly in numerous parts of Africa and Asia, but the gum does not freely exude from them except in tropical regions. It issues from clefts in the bark, in the same manner as the gum of the cherry and plum trees of our orchards and gardens: and, by exposure to the air, it soon becomes hard and solid. We are informed that, in some parts of Egypt, the inhabitants procure this gum, by boiling pieces of the roots of the trees, and afterwards separating it from the water. We receive gum arabic in small irregular masses, or rough pieces, of pale yellowish colour, and roundish shape.

It is, however, to be remarked, that, by far the greatest part of the gum which is sold in the shops under this name is not such, but is the production of another species of tree (Mimosa Senegal), and isproperly calledgum Senegal, The latter is imported from Senegal, Guinea, and other parts of Africa. It is generally seen in large rough pieces, of roundish figure, and brownish hue, more or less pure; possesses similar properties to the other, and is much cheaper.

On account of their mucilaginous qualities, these two kinds of gum, under the name of gum arabic, were formerly used for several purposes in medicine; and, in coughs and hoarsenesses, were considered of great service. They are now principally in request by the manufacturers of water-colours; by dyers, and artificers of different kinds. In Africa the latter constitutes a principal ingredient in the food of the inhabitants. They sometimes dissolve it in milk: and this solution of it is esteemed a favourite repast by some of the tribes.

The driedjuiceof theunripe fruitof Egyptian mimosa is calledacacia, and is to this day much used in medicine by the Egyptians. It is sometimes imported into this country in roundish masses, wrapped in thin bladders; and is externally of deep brown colour, and of a yellowish or reddish brown within.

274.MYRRH is a gummy, resinous substance, obtained from a tree which grows in Abyssinia, Arabia, and other countries of the East, but respecting which we are hitherto possessed of no certain account. Mr. Bruce, however, imagined it to be a species of mimosa.

This drug is generally imported in a kind of grains, of irregular form; of brownish or reddish yellow colour, and somewhat transparent. Its smell is aromatic; and its taste is pungent and bitter. In its medicinal effects, myrrh, when taken into the stomach, is supposed to warm and strengthen it, and also to strengthen the other viscera. It is believed to resist putrefaction in all parts of the body; and, hence, has been recommended as a medicine in malignant, putrid, and pestilential fevers; and in small-pox.

At the East India Company's sales this drug is sold at the rate of about twenty pounds per hundred weight.It is, however, liable to great abuses. The larger masses, in particular, are frequently an artificial composition, skilfully incrusted with a coat of myrrh.

275.MANNA is a concrete or dried juice, procured from several species of ash-tree, but particularly from theFlowering Ash(Fraxinus ornus, Fig. 76),which is much cultivated in Calabria and Sicily.This tree somewhat resembles the common ash. It has winged leaves, with an odd one at the end, the leaflets oblong, pointed, serrated, and veined, standing on footstalks, and of bright green colour. The flowers are whitish, and appear in close bunches, about the month of May or June.

275.MANNA is a concrete or dried juice, procured from several species of ash-tree, but particularly from theFlowering Ash(Fraxinus ornus, Fig. 76),which is much cultivated in Calabria and Sicily.

This tree somewhat resembles the common ash. It has winged leaves, with an odd one at the end, the leaflets oblong, pointed, serrated, and veined, standing on footstalks, and of bright green colour. The flowers are whitish, and appear in close bunches, about the month of May or June.

The trees that are cultivated for the production of manna are chiefly planted on the eastern sides of hills. This substance exudes spontaneously from them; but as the supply thus obtained would be insufficient for the demand, incisions are made in the bark to obtain it more copiously. These incisions are formed, in the summer time, lengthwise in the tree, and each about a span long. They are begun at the lower part of the trunk, and repeated upward, at a little distance from each other, as high as the branches. One side of the tree is first cut; the other side being reserved until the ensuing year, when it undergoes a similar treatment. From the wounds thus made a thick whitish juice immediately begins to flow, which gradually hardens on the bark, and in the course of a few days acquires a sufficient consistence to be taken off. It is collected in baskets, and afterwards packed in chests or boxes. Sometimes the manna flows in such abundance that it runs upon the ground, and thus becomes mixed with various impurities, unless it be prevented, as is sometimes the case, by placing for its reception large leaves, stones, chips of wood, or straw. The collecting of manna generally terminates about the end of September.

This substance is known by druggists underdifferent names, according to its purity, rather than from any essential difference in the article itself. The best Calabrian manna is imported in oblong, light, and crumbly flakes or pieces of whitish or pale yellow colour, and somewhat transparent appearance. The inferior sorts are moist, unctuous, and of darker colour.

Manna is a mild and agreeable laxative medicine, particularly with the addition of a little cinnamon water, or other warm aromatic: and it is useful in asthmatic complaints, as well as in inflammatory affections of the breast. It is sometimes counterfeited by a composition of sugar and honey, mixed with a small portion of scammony.

The miraculous substance mentioned in the Old Testament by the name of manna, cannot, of course, be considered to have any alliance whatever with the manna thus produced. This remark would not have been made, did not young persons sometimes inconsiderately confound the two substances.

276.The ASH-TREE(Fraxinus excelsior, Fig. 79)is a well-known British tree, with winged leaves; the leaflets in four or five pairs, with an odd one, serrated, and without footstalks; and the flowers without petals.

Of late years this valuable tree has been much planted in several parts of England. It is of hardy nature, and thrives even in barren soils. If planted in moist situations, the roots, spreading wide in every direction near the surface, have a tendency to render the ground dry and firm. Thetimber, which has the rare advantage of being nearly as good when young as when old, is white, and so hard and tough as generally to be esteemed next in value to oak. It is much used by coach-makers, wheel-wrights, and cart-wrights; and is made into ploughs, axle-trees, felloes of wheels, harrows, ladders, and other implements of husbandry. It is likewise used by ship-builders for various purposes, and by coopers for the hoops of tubs and barrels. Where, by frequent cutting, the wood has becomeknotty, irregular, and veined, it is in much request for cabinet-work by mechanics on the Continent. The best season for felling ash-trees is from November to February. As fuel, this tree burns better whilst wet and green than other wood.

We are informed that, in the northern parts of Lancashire, when grass is scarce, the small farmers frequently cut off the tops of ash-trees to feed their cows with theleavesand tender branches; but these are said to spoil the taste of the milk. Mr. Pennant states that, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, the inhabitants of Colton and Hawkshead-Fells remonstrated against the number of forges then lately erected in that part of the country, because they consumed the loppings of the trees, which formed the sole winter food for their cattle. The leaves of ash-trees were formerly much used in the adulteration of tea, under the name ofsmouch; but this practice has of late been prohibited by act of parliament.

Thebarkof the ash-tree is employed in the tanning of calf-skins, and sometimes in dyeing black and other colours. Theinner barkhas been proposed as a substitute for Peruvian bark, in the cure of intermittent fevers.

277.EBONY is the wood of a species of palm-tree(Diospiros ebenum),which grows in the island of Ceylon, and has smooth, leathery, oblong, and pointed leaves, and rough-haired buds.

The black and valuable substance known to us by the name of ebony, is the centre part only of the trees. The outside wood is white and soft, and either decays soon, or is destroyed by insects, which leave the black part untouched. Ebony is imported into this country from the East Indies. It is exceedingly hard and heavy, admits of being highly polished, and is principally used by cabinet-makers and inlayers for the veneering of cabinets and other ornamental work. The wood of the pear-tree, stained black, is frequently substituted for ebony.

The ripefruitof the ebony tree is eaten by the natives of Ceylon; but it is astringent, and not very palatable.

Linnæus was of opinion that ebony was the wood of a shrub (ebenus cretica) which grows in the island of Crete, and has silky leaves and rose-coloured flowers.

278.The PAWPAW is a fruit about the size of a small melon, but of very various shape, the production of a species of palm-tree(carica papaya),which grows in tropical climates, both of the eastern and western parts of the world.The tree is twenty feet and upwards in height; naked almost to the summit; and marked, through its whole length, with the scars of fallen leaves. Its leaves are on foot-stalks two feet in length, and deeply divided into seven, nine, or eleven large lobes. The flowers are axillary, white, and sweet scented.

The tree is twenty feet and upwards in height; naked almost to the summit; and marked, through its whole length, with the scars of fallen leaves. Its leaves are on foot-stalks two feet in length, and deeply divided into seven, nine, or eleven large lobes. The flowers are axillary, white, and sweet scented.

In shape thefruitof the pawpaw-tree is sometimes angular, and flattened at both ends; sometimes oval or round; and sometimes pyramidal. When ripe it is of yellow colour; and contains a yellow succulent pulp, of sweetish taste, and aromatic smell, with many black or brown and furrowed seeds. This fruit is seldom eaten raw, but when boiled it is esteemed a wholesome sauce for fresh meat. The inhabitants of the countries where it is found sometimes preserve it in sugar, with oranges, and small citrons. Thus prepared, it may be kept a long time; and, in this state, it is not unfrequently brought into Europe. When about half grown, the pawpaw is sometimes pickled in vinegar with spices.

The fruit of the trifid-fruited custard apple (annona triloba) is called pawpaw in some parts of America.

Thebarkof the pawpaw-tree is manufactured by the Indians into cordage. Theleavesare used in place of soap; and water-pipes are sometimes made of thestemof the tree.

279.The FIG is the pulpy fruit of a shrub, or low tree(Ficus carica, Fig. 83),which is a native of the South of Europe, and some parts of Asia.Fig-trees are branched from the bottom, and the leaves are large, smooth, and irregularly divided into from three to five deep and rounded lobes. The fruit grows on short and thick stalks, of purplish colour, and contains a soft, sweet, and fragrant pulp, intermixed with numerous small seeds.

279.The FIG is the pulpy fruit of a shrub, or low tree(Ficus carica, Fig. 83),which is a native of the South of Europe, and some parts of Asia.

Fig-trees are branched from the bottom, and the leaves are large, smooth, and irregularly divided into from three to five deep and rounded lobes. The fruit grows on short and thick stalks, of purplish colour, and contains a soft, sweet, and fragrant pulp, intermixed with numerous small seeds.

It appears from history, both sacred and profane, that the fig-tree was an object of attention in the earliest times. This fruit was one of the most common and favourite aliments of the ancient Greeks, and constituted a very valuable food with the peasants of some parts of Italy. Fig-trees are now much cultivated in Turkey, Italy, and the Levant, as well as in Spain and some of the southern parts of France. All the islands of the Archipelago yield figs in abundance, but these are in general of very inferior quality.

The trees are propagated either by suckers, by layers, or by cuttings; and the process of increasing and ripening the fruit is an art which requires much attention. This, as it is practised in the Levant, is calledcaprification, and is performed by wounding the buds of the figs, with a straw or feather dipped in sweet oil at a certain period of their growth.

Figs are dried either by a furnace or in the sun, after having been dipped in a scalding ley made of the ashes of the fig-tree. In this state they are used both in medicine, and as food; and are considered more wholesome and more easy of digestion than when fresh. They form a considerable branch of commerce, and are exported, in boxes of different size and shape, to nearly all the northern parts of Europe. When we receive them, their surface is usually covered with a saccharine matter which has exuded from the fruit. A small and cheap kind of fig is imported in small frails or baskets from Faro.

There are numerous varieties of the fig, but thecommon purple kind is the hardiest of the whole. This is frequently cultivated in our gardens; and, if screened from the north-east winds, it ripens, even: with us, in tolerable perfection.

The wood of the fig-tree is of spongy texture, and, when charged with oil and emery, is much used on the Continent by locksmiths, gun-smiths, and other artificers in iron and steel, to polish their work. It is almost indestructible, and on this account was formerly employed in eastern countries as coffins for embalmed bodies.

280.FERN, or BRAKE(Pteris aquilina),is a well-known cryptogamous plant, which grows wild on heaths, in woods, and in barren places.

Though this plant is an extremely troublesome weed to the farmer, from the roots penetrating deep into the ground, it is applied to various uses in rural œconomy. When cut and properly dried, it serves as litter for horses and cattle; and it supplies the place of thatch for covering the roofs of cottages and stacks. Where coal is scarce, it is used for the heating of ovens and burning of lime-stone.

Theashesof fern, from their yielding a tolerably pure alkali, are frequently used by manufacturers of glass, particularly in France. And, in some parts of our own country, the poor people mix these ashes with water, and form them into round masses which they callfern balls. These are afterwards heated in a fire, and then, with water, are made into a ley for the scouring of linen. They thus furnish a cheap substitute for soap.

Swine are fond of the roots of fern, and will feedfreely upon them. We are even informed that, with the inhabitants of Palma, one of the Canary islands, they are sometimes made to supply the place of bread.

It is deserving of remark that, when the root of the fern is cut obliquely across, it presents a kind of figure of the Imperial or Russian eagle; from which circumstance Linnæus was induced to name itPteris aquilina, or "Eagle brake."

281.TheLICHENSconstitute a very numerous family of plants, which grow on the bark of trees, on rocks, stones, and other substances; and have an indistinct fructification, in scattered wart-like tubercles, or excrescences, and smooth saucers or shields, in which the seeds are imbedded.Some of them have a powdery appearance, and others are crustaceous, leaf-like, shrub-like, herbaceous, or gelatinous.

Some of them have a powdery appearance, and others are crustaceous, leaf-like, shrub-like, herbaceous, or gelatinous.

282.The CALCAREOUS LICHEN(Lichen calcareus)consists of a white crust with black tubercles.

This plant, which is found on lime-stone rocks in Wales, and the north of England, is used in dyeing woollen and other cloths a scarlet colour.

283.CRAB'S-EYE LICHEN(Lichen parellus)is a crustaceous, whitish, and granulated vegetable substance, with cups of the same colour, which have a thick and blunt border.

From this lichen, which is found on rocks and stones in mountainous countries, and sometimes on stones near the sea-shore, is prepared the bluish pigment calledlitmus. It is chiefly collected from rocks in the north of England, packed in casks, and sent to London for sale.

284.TARTAREOUS LICHEN(Lichen tartareus)is a whitish, crustaceous, vegetable production, with yellow cups or shields, which have a whitish border.

The inhabitants of the Highlands of Scotland gather this species of lichen from the rocks, and, after cleaning, and some further preparation, which is kept a secret by the manufacturers, they form it into cakes. These,when dried, are pulverized, and sold to dyers by the name ofcudbear, which is a corruption of Cuthbert, the name of its inventor. In conjunction with alum, the powder of the tartareous lichen is used in dyeing scarlet, and also for striking a purple dye; but the colour produced by it is not very permanent.

285.ARCHELL, or PURPLE ROCK LICHEN(Lichen omphalodes),is a vegetable production, of somewhat crustaceous consistence, and leaf-like form; the segments with many lobes, and of dark purplish brown colour, with dull purple saucers.

This kind of lichen grows upon rocks on the high stony moors of several parts of England, Wales, and Scotland. When properly prepared, it imparts to woollen cloth a reddish brown colour, or a dull but durable crimson. If wool that has been dyed with it be dipped into a blue vat, it will acquire a beautiful purple tinge. It is sometimes used as a styptic; and was formerly applied as a remedy in inflammatory fevers and other complaints; but, in the latter respect, it is now entirely neglected.

286.ORCHALL, or DYER'S LICHEN(Lichen rocella),is a somewhat crustaceous and shrub-like vegetable production, of nearly cylindrical form, solid, without leaves, but little branched, and with blackish brown alternate tubercles.

In the Canary and Cape de Verd Islands, as well as in the Grecian Archipelago, orchall is found in great abundance. It likewise grows in Guernsey and in some parts of England, and is employed by dyers chiefly for giving a bloom to other colours. This is effected by passing the dyed cloth or silk through hot water slightly impregnated with it; but the bloom thus communicated soon decays after it has been exposed to the air. When prepared in a peculiar manner, orchall yields a rich purple tincture, fugitive indeed, but very beautiful. Mixed with a solution of tin it is said to dye a permanent scarlet. Orchall is thesubstance generally adopted for colouring the spirits of thermometers. And it is a remarkable circumstance that, as exposure to the air destroys its colour upon cloth, so the exclusion of the air produces, in a few years, a like effect upon the fluid in those tubes; but on breaking the tubes the colour is restored.

287.ICELAND LICHEN(Lichen islandicus)is a leafy, membranous, vegetable production, of brownish green colour, jagged at the edges, and fringed, having large and purplish brown saucers or shields.

The name of this lichen is derived from that of the island in which it chiefly grows. It is, however, also found in the Highlands of Scotland, and in some of the northern parts both of England and Wales.

It abounds with nutritious mucilage; and, after having been steeped in water to extract its bitter and laxative qualities, it is sometimes used as medicine in coughs and consumptions. One ounce of Iceland lichen, boiled in a pint of water, yields about seven ounces of mucilage. The inhabitants of Iceland prepare from it a kind of gruel, which they mix with milk. They also boil it in several waters, and then dry and make it into bread. In Germany a durable brown dye is made by means of it; and, under another mode of preparation, it imparts an excellent black tinge to white woollen yarn.

288.BLADDER FUCUS(Fucus vesiculosus)is a species of sea-weed, of flat shape, with a middle rib, the edges entire, forked, and sometimes tumid at the ends, and furnished with several air bladders imbedded in the substance of the plant.

By far the most important application of this, one of the commonest of all our marine plants, is for the making ofkelp, which, in Scotland, affords employment to many industrious families. So lucrative and so highly esteemed is the bladder fucus, and some other plants nearly allied to it, that the natives of several parts of the Western Islands have rolled large massesof stone into the sea, with a view to promote and extend their growth.

For the preparation of kelp these plants are dried, by exposure for some time to the sun and air. They are then burnt by degrees in a kelp furnace, which is generally a round hole dug in the earth. When the furnace is nearly filled with the remains of the burnt sea-weeds, the whole is briskly agitated with a rake or hook, till it is compacted, or becomes of a shining glutinous consistence, in appearance not unlike melted iron. It is then allowed to cool, and is afterwards placed in storehouses for exportation. In this state it is an impure kind of carbonat of soda. In the Orkney Islands every consideration is sacrificed to the making of kelp, nearly 3,000 tons of which are annually sent to market and sold at Leith, Newcastle, and other places, at the rate of from seven to ten pounds per ton of twenty-one hundred weight.

The inhabitants of Gothland boil this plant with coarse meal, as food for swine; and the poorer classes of Scania thatch their cottages with it, and also employ it as fuel. In the Hebrides it is customary to dry cheese, without using any salt, by covering it with the ashes of the bladder fucus, which abound in saline particles. This and other sea-weeds serve as a winter food for cattle, which regularly frequent the shores for them at the ebb of the tide: they are also used as manure for land.

A soapy liquor which is found in the bladders of this plant is sometimes externally applied as a medicine for dispersing scrofulous and scorbutic swellings, by simply bruising them in the hand and rubbing them on the parts affected. When this plant is calcined or burnt in the open air, a black and saline powder is produced, which, under the name ofvegetable æthiops, has been recommended as a dentrifice, and for other uses.

289.EATABLE WINGED FUCUS, or BLADDERLOCKS(Fucus esculentus),is a simple, undivided, andsword-shaped sea-weed, which is olive-coloured, and sometime several yards in length.Its stem is four-cornered, runs through the whole length of the leaf, and is winged at the base.

This plant, which is very common on some of the shores of Scotland, and also on those of Cornwall, and several parts of North Wales, is a grateful food to cattle; and its stalk, when boiled, constitutes a very favourite dish in Scotland. The proper season for gathering it is the month of September, when it is in higher perfection than at any other time of the year.

290.SWEET FUCUS(Fucus saccharinus)is a simple, undivided, and sword-shaped sea-weed, without any rib, of leathery consistence, and tawny green colour; and frequently five or six feet in length.Its stalk is round and hard.

This plant abounds on all our sea-shores: and, if slightly washed from the sea-water, and dried in the air, it becomes covered with a sweet powdery efflorescence. It is edible either in a raw state, or boiled as a pot-herb. Sometimes it is hung up to serve the purpose of an hygrometer, which it does in some degree by becoming flaccid during a moist state of the atmosphere, and hard in dry weather.

291.DULSE, or RED PALMATE FUCUS(Fucus palmatus),is a flat, membranous, and hand-shaped, sea-weed, of brownish crimson colour, smooth on both sides, and without any mid-rib.

In the markets of Edinburgh, and other parts of Scotland, this plant, which is common on most of the British shores, is exposed for sale as an article of food. After having been washed in fresh water, it is eaten raw, by itself, in salad, or by poor people with other provisions. Sometimes it is boiled and used as a pot-herb. If gradually dried, it gives out a whitish powdery substance, which covers the whole plant, and has a sweet and agreeable taste, somewhat resembling that of violets. In this state it is frequently packed in casks for exportation. Some persons chew it astobacco. In Scotland it is occasionally used as a medicine, and it is supposed to sweeten the breath and destroy worms.

292.GREEN or EDIBLE LAVER(Ulva lactuca)is a thin, membranous, pellucid, and green vegetable substance, which is found on rocks, stones, and shells, in the sea and salt-water ditches in nearly all parts of Great Britain.

Of late years this plant, stewed with lemon juice, has been introduced to the tables of the luxurious, as a sauce to be eaten with roast meat. Though in a recent state it has a salt and bitterish flavour, and even when thus prepared is not always relished at first, yet by habit most persons become partial to it. The laver which is consumed in London is chiefly prepared in the west of England, and packed in pots in a state ready for the table. Some persons use laver medicinally, and it is esteemed wholesome for scrofulous habits; but it can scarcely be taken in sufficient quantity to do much good, without having too strong an effect on the bowels.

293.The MORELL(Phallus esculentus, Fig. 84)is a kind of fungus with a naked and wrinkled stem, and an egg-shaped head, full of cells on its external surface.

As an ingredient for thickening and heightening the flavour of sauces and soups, morells, which are chiefly found in woods and hedges in a loamy soil, are in great esteem. For this purpose, after they are gathered, they are strung upon pack-thread to be dried; and, when dry, they may be kept without injury for many months.

In Germany, the persons employed in gathering morells found that they always grew most abundantly in woods that had been burnt: and, with a view of promoting their increase, they were accustomed to set fire to the woods, until this practice was prohibited by the Government. Useful and palatable as these plants are, it has been ascertained that, if gathered after havingbeen exposed for some days to wet weather, they are extremely pernicious.

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