FOOTNOTES:

Aquilegia vulgaris.Chelidonium majus.Corydalis aurea.Nymphæa Lotus!*Brassica oleracea!Bunias.Hesperis matronalis.*Sinapis arvensis!Sisymbrium officinale.Erucastrum canariense.Diplotaxis tenuifolia.Lychnis dioica!Cerastium glomeratum!triviale.Stellaria media.Poterium polygamum.Torilis anthriscus.Seseli, sp.Selinum caruifolium.Epilobium hirsutum!Begonia fuchsioides.Gomphia, sp.Scabiosa Columbaria.Dipsacus fullonum.Matricaria Parthenium.Calendula officinalis.Campanula pyramidalis.Reseda odorata!Vitis vinifera.Dictamnus Fraxinella!Triumfetta, sp.!*Tropæolum majus!Rhamnus Frangula.*Trifolium repens!Lupinus, sp.Rosa diversifolia!Potentilla nepalensis.argentea.Fragaria vesca!Geum rivale.Rubus fruticosus.cæsius.Saxifraga foliosa.Verbascum phlomoides.Scrophularia nodosa.aquatica!*Primula sinensis!Lysimachia Ephemerum.Anagallis arvensis.Webbiana.Nicotiana rustica.Anchusa ochroleuca.Myosotis cæspitosa.Stachys sylvatica.Gilia capitata.Euphorbia segetalis.Rumex arifolius.scutatus.Juncus lampocarpus.uliginosus.

In addition to the publications before cited the following may be named as containing valuable information on the subject of this chapter.

Jæger, 'Missbild. Gewächs.,' 1814, p. 83,Trifolium repens. For other accounts of similar malformations in the same plant, see Schmitz, 'Linnæa,' xv, p. 268. Unger, 'Flora' (B. Z.) xxv, p. 369. Caspary, 'Schrift. der. Physik. ökon. Gesellsch. zu Königsberg,' 2, 1861, p. 51, tabs. ii, iii. Fleischer, 'Missbilld. verschied. Cult. Pflanz.,' 1862, p. 55, &c., t. v, vii, &c. ForPrimulasee Brongniart, 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' ser. 2, t. i, p. 308. A. P. and Alph. De Candolle in 'Neue Denkschrift.' Morren, C., 'Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg.,' xix, part 2, p. 539. Molkenboer, 'Tijdschr. voor Natuurl. Geschied.,' 1843, p. 355, tabs. vi, vii. Marchand, 'Adansonia,' iv, p. 167 and p. 159.Anagallis, p. 171,Lonicera, p. 83,Juncus. For other plants see Fresenius, 'Mus. Senk.,' 2, p. 35, &c. Norman, 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' ser. 4, 1858, vol. ix, p. 220. Christ, 'Flora' (B. Z.) 1867, p. 376, tabs. v, vi,Stachys. Cramer, 'Bildungsabweich.,' p. 26, &c. Baillon, 'Adansonia,' ii, p. 300. Moquin-Tandon, 'El. Ter. Veg.,' p. 230. Schauer's translation, p. 220. Hallier, 'Phytopathologie,' p. 160.

FOOTNOTES:[245]Engelmann makes use of the word frondescence in the same cases. 'De Anthol.,' p. 32, § 38, while Morren adopts the term Phyllomorphy, 'Lobelia,' p. 95.[246]See Schlechtendal, 'Bot. Zeit.,' vol. xv, 1857, p. 873; also Marchand, 'Adansonia,' iv, p. 156.[247]For instances of similar changes inComposites, see De Candolle, 'Prod.,' t. vi, p. 571,Centaurea Jacea phyllocephala. Clos, 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' ser. iii, tom. xvi, 1851, p. 41. 'Science Gossip,' 1865, p. 104, &c.[248]Kickx, 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' t. xviii, part 2, p. 288.[249]Weber, 'Verhandl. Nat. Hist. Vereins. f. Preuss.,' &c., 1860, p. 381.[250]Weber, loc. cit.[251]Sauter, 'Flora v. Bot. Zeit.,' 1831, p. 11.[252]'Descr. et Icon. Plant.' tab. 20.[253]For referencessee p. 115; see also to Eichler, 'Excurs. Morpholog. de format. flor. Gymnosperm.,' in "Mart. Flor. Brasil," abstracted in English in 'Natural History Review,' April, 1864.[254]"Calyx tunc plane non differt a foliis proxime ipsi præcedentibus." Wolff, 'Theor. Gener.,' § 114. Linn., 'Proleps.,' § 6. Goethe, 'Versuch.,' §§ 31–38.[255]'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' vol. viii, 1861, p. 697.[256]'Organ. Véget.,' t. i, p. 492, pl. xxxii, f. 6.[257]This distinction between laminar and vaginal venation is well seen in cases likeMussaenda,Calycophyllum, orDipterocarpus, where the enlarged calycine segment has a strictly vaginal arrangement of its veins, very different from that which occurs in the true leaf-blades. These are cases, therefore, where the sheath of the leaf is unusually enlarged, and are not to be referred, as is often done, to metamorphosis of one or more sepals to perfect leaves. Prolified roses, cherries, &c., furnish frequently parallel cases. With reference toMussaenda, C. Morren held the view that the petal-like sepal was really a bract adherent to the calyx, and incorporating with itself one of the calycine lobes—"soudée au calice et ayant dévorée, en englobant dans sa propre masse, un lobe calicinal." The Belgiansavantconsiders this somewhat improbable explanation as supported by a case wherein there were five calyx lobes of uniform size, and a detached feather-veined leaf proceeding from the side of the ovary lower down ('Bull. Acad. Belg.,' xvii, p. 17,Fuchsia, p. 169).[258]In this orderAgrostemma Githagooffers an illustration of a normally leafy calyx.[259]'Bull. Bot.,' i, p. 6.[260]Wolff's original opinion was that the stamens were equivalent to so many buds placed in the axil of the petals or sepals (see 'Theoria Generationis,' 1759, § 114)—an opinion which more recently has received the support of Agardh and Endlicher. Wolff himself, however, seems to have abandoned his original notion, for in his memoir, "De formatione intestinorum præcipue tum et de amnio spurio aliisque partibus embryonis gallinacei, nondum visis," &c., in 'Comm. Acad. Petrop.,' xii, p. 403, anno 1766, he considers the stamens as essentially leaves. See also Linn. 'Prolepsis,' § viii; Goethe, 'Metam.,' § 46.[261]Müller (Argov.), in 'Mém. Soc. Phys. et d'Hist. Nat. Genev.,' t. xvii.[262]"If we keep in view the observations which have now been made, we shall not fail to recognise the leaf in all seed-vessels, notwithstanding their manifold forms, their variable structure, and different combinations."—(Goethe, 'Metam.,' § 78.) Wolff, 'N. Comm. Acad. Petrop.,' 1766, xii, p. 403, expresses precisely the same opinion as to the nature of the seed-vessel.[263]'El. Terat. Veg.,' p. 205.[264]'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 4th series, vol. ix, p. 209.[265]'Adansonia,' iv, p. 70. A similar deviation has been observed by M. van Tieghem in the ovary ofTropæolum majus, 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1865, p. 411.[266]Planchon et Marès, 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' ser. 5, vol. vi, 1866, p. 228, tab. xii.[267]'Act. Acad. Nat. Cur.,' 22, 11. 1850, p. 543, t. v, vi.[268]'Neue Denkschrift der allg. Schweiz. Gesellsch.,' band v. p. 9, tab. 3, 4.[269]'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 2 ser., vol. i, p. 308, pl. ix, c.[270]'Adansonia,' vol. iv, pp. 159, 171.[271]'Bildungsabweichungen,' &c., tab. iv, figs. 1, 2, 21, 28, 29, &c.[272]'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' viii, p. 395.[273]'Notulæ,' p. 125, atlas, pl. xxxv; and 'Journals of Travels,' 1847, p. 475,Lonicera.[274]'Ann. Science Nat.,' 3rd ser., vol. ix, p. 86, tabs. 5, 6.[275]'Comptes Rendus,' vol. xviii, March 25th, 1864, and 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 3 ser., vol. ii, p. 32.[276]'Mém. Acad. Sc. Toulous.,' ser. 5, vol. iii.[277]'Bildungsabweich. Pflanz. Famil.,' p. 89, tab. xi.[278]'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1865, p. 411.[279]Translated in 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 4th series, t. xiv, p. 24.[280]The calyx is not unfrequently excepted.[281]'Bull. Bot.,' t. i, p. 6.[282]Lindley, 'Theor. Horticult.,' ed. 2, p. 84, f. 17.[283]Gris, 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1858, vol. v, p. 261, and 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' ser. 4, vol. ix, p. 80. Planchon, 'Flore des Serres,' vol. i, 1856, p. 129.[284]'Flora,' 1856, p. 711.[285]'Theory of Horticult.,' ed. 2, p. 90, f. 25.[286]As considerable interest attaches to the "Plymouth strawberry," and very little is known of it in this country, or on the continent, the author gladly avails himself of this opportunity of inserting an account of it, for which he is indebted to the kindness of Dr. Robert Hogg.—The Plymouth Strawberry (Fragaria vesca fructu hispido) is a sort of botanical Dodo upon which many have written, and which few have seen. Many years have elapsed since it was first discovered; and although a century and a half have passed since there was any evidence of its existence, it serves still as an illustration for students in morphology of one of those strange abnormal structures with which the vegetable kingdom abounds.It is to old John Tradescant we are indebted for the earliest record of this plant. Johnson, in his edition of 'Gerard,' says; "Mr. John Tradescant hath told me that he was the first that tooke notice of this strawberry, and that in a woman's garden at Plimouth, whose daughter had gathered and set the roots in her garden, in stead of the common strawberry; but she, finding the fruit not to answer her expectation, intended to throw it away; which labour he spared her in taking it and bestowing it among the louers of such varieties, in whose garden it is yet preserved." Doubtless one of those "lovers" was his friend John Parkinson, who, in the year 1629, thus wrote concerning it: "One strawberry more I promised to shew you, which, although it be a wilde kinde, and of no vse for meate, yet I would not let this discourse passe without giuing you the knowledge of it. It is in leafe much like vnto the ordinary, but differeth in that the flower, if it haue any, is greene, or rather it beareth a small head of greene leaues, many set thicke together like vnto a double ruffe, in the midst whereof standeth the fruit, which, when it is ripe, sheweth to be soft and somewhat reddish, like vnto a strawberry, but with many small harmlesse prickles on them which may be eaten and chewed in the mouth without any maner of offence and is somewhat pleasant as a strawberry; it is no great bearer, but those it doth beare, are set at the toppes of the stalks close together, pleasant to behold, and fit for a gentlewoman to weare on her arme, &c., as a rairitie in stead of a flower."Merret, in his 'Pinax.' published in 1667, says he found it growing in the woods of Hyde Park and Hampstead, and Zanoni was the first to figure it (with the exception of Parkinson's rude woodcut) in his 'Istoria Botanica,' published in 1675. It is mentioned by Morison and also by Ray, the latter of whom inserts it in his Synopsis, but without any habitat; though in his 'Historia Plantarum' he says: "Cantabrigiæ in horto per aliquot annos colui." From this time henceforth the Plymouth strawberry has become a botanical Dodo, nothing more having been seen or heard of it except the mere record of the name. In 1766, M. Duchesne informed the world of the generosity of "M. Monti, Docteur de Philosophie et de Médecine à Boulogne en Italie," who divided with him a dried specimen taken from his own herbarium, "Ce présent prétieux m'ôte toute incertitude sur la nature de ce Fraisier et sur ses caractères monstrueux. Il paroît ne pas avoir aujourd'hui plus d'existence."[287]'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' 1856, vol. iii, p. 477.[288]'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 3 ser., vol. ix, p. 86, tabs. v, vi.[289]'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' vol. viii, 1861, p. 695.[290]Ibid., vol. iii, 1856, p. 475.[291]'Flora,' 1856, p. 712.[292]'Trans. Linn. Soc.,' vol. xxvi, p. 37.[293]'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' 1862, vol. ix, p. 36, tab. i, and also p. 291.[294]Ibid., 1857, vol. iv, p. 761.

[245]Engelmann makes use of the word frondescence in the same cases. 'De Anthol.,' p. 32, § 38, while Morren adopts the term Phyllomorphy, 'Lobelia,' p. 95.

[246]See Schlechtendal, 'Bot. Zeit.,' vol. xv, 1857, p. 873; also Marchand, 'Adansonia,' iv, p. 156.

[247]For instances of similar changes inComposites, see De Candolle, 'Prod.,' t. vi, p. 571,Centaurea Jacea phyllocephala. Clos, 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' ser. iii, tom. xvi, 1851, p. 41. 'Science Gossip,' 1865, p. 104, &c.

[248]Kickx, 'Bull. Acad. Belg.,' t. xviii, part 2, p. 288.

[249]Weber, 'Verhandl. Nat. Hist. Vereins. f. Preuss.,' &c., 1860, p. 381.

[250]Weber, loc. cit.

[251]Sauter, 'Flora v. Bot. Zeit.,' 1831, p. 11.

[252]'Descr. et Icon. Plant.' tab. 20.

[253]For referencessee p. 115; see also to Eichler, 'Excurs. Morpholog. de format. flor. Gymnosperm.,' in "Mart. Flor. Brasil," abstracted in English in 'Natural History Review,' April, 1864.

[254]"Calyx tunc plane non differt a foliis proxime ipsi præcedentibus." Wolff, 'Theor. Gener.,' § 114. Linn., 'Proleps.,' § 6. Goethe, 'Versuch.,' §§ 31–38.

[255]'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' vol. viii, 1861, p. 697.

[256]'Organ. Véget.,' t. i, p. 492, pl. xxxii, f. 6.

[257]This distinction between laminar and vaginal venation is well seen in cases likeMussaenda,Calycophyllum, orDipterocarpus, where the enlarged calycine segment has a strictly vaginal arrangement of its veins, very different from that which occurs in the true leaf-blades. These are cases, therefore, where the sheath of the leaf is unusually enlarged, and are not to be referred, as is often done, to metamorphosis of one or more sepals to perfect leaves. Prolified roses, cherries, &c., furnish frequently parallel cases. With reference toMussaenda, C. Morren held the view that the petal-like sepal was really a bract adherent to the calyx, and incorporating with itself one of the calycine lobes—"soudée au calice et ayant dévorée, en englobant dans sa propre masse, un lobe calicinal." The Belgiansavantconsiders this somewhat improbable explanation as supported by a case wherein there were five calyx lobes of uniform size, and a detached feather-veined leaf proceeding from the side of the ovary lower down ('Bull. Acad. Belg.,' xvii, p. 17,Fuchsia, p. 169).

[258]In this orderAgrostemma Githagooffers an illustration of a normally leafy calyx.

[259]'Bull. Bot.,' i, p. 6.

[260]Wolff's original opinion was that the stamens were equivalent to so many buds placed in the axil of the petals or sepals (see 'Theoria Generationis,' 1759, § 114)—an opinion which more recently has received the support of Agardh and Endlicher. Wolff himself, however, seems to have abandoned his original notion, for in his memoir, "De formatione intestinorum præcipue tum et de amnio spurio aliisque partibus embryonis gallinacei, nondum visis," &c., in 'Comm. Acad. Petrop.,' xii, p. 403, anno 1766, he considers the stamens as essentially leaves. See also Linn. 'Prolepsis,' § viii; Goethe, 'Metam.,' § 46.

[261]Müller (Argov.), in 'Mém. Soc. Phys. et d'Hist. Nat. Genev.,' t. xvii.

[262]"If we keep in view the observations which have now been made, we shall not fail to recognise the leaf in all seed-vessels, notwithstanding their manifold forms, their variable structure, and different combinations."—(Goethe, 'Metam.,' § 78.) Wolff, 'N. Comm. Acad. Petrop.,' 1766, xii, p. 403, expresses precisely the same opinion as to the nature of the seed-vessel.

[263]'El. Terat. Veg.,' p. 205.

[264]'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 4th series, vol. ix, p. 209.

[265]'Adansonia,' iv, p. 70. A similar deviation has been observed by M. van Tieghem in the ovary ofTropæolum majus, 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1865, p. 411.

[266]Planchon et Marès, 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' ser. 5, vol. vi, 1866, p. 228, tab. xii.

[267]'Act. Acad. Nat. Cur.,' 22, 11. 1850, p. 543, t. v, vi.

[268]'Neue Denkschrift der allg. Schweiz. Gesellsch.,' band v. p. 9, tab. 3, 4.

[269]'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 2 ser., vol. i, p. 308, pl. ix, c.

[270]'Adansonia,' vol. iv, pp. 159, 171.

[271]'Bildungsabweichungen,' &c., tab. iv, figs. 1, 2, 21, 28, 29, &c.

[272]'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' viii, p. 395.

[273]'Notulæ,' p. 125, atlas, pl. xxxv; and 'Journals of Travels,' 1847, p. 475,Lonicera.

[274]'Ann. Science Nat.,' 3rd ser., vol. ix, p. 86, tabs. 5, 6.

[275]'Comptes Rendus,' vol. xviii, March 25th, 1864, and 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 3 ser., vol. ii, p. 32.

[276]'Mém. Acad. Sc. Toulous.,' ser. 5, vol. iii.

[277]'Bildungsabweich. Pflanz. Famil.,' p. 89, tab. xi.

[278]'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1865, p. 411.

[279]Translated in 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 4th series, t. xiv, p. 24.

[280]The calyx is not unfrequently excepted.

[281]'Bull. Bot.,' t. i, p. 6.

[282]Lindley, 'Theor. Horticult.,' ed. 2, p. 84, f. 17.

[283]Gris, 'Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr.,' 1858, vol. v, p. 261, and 'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' ser. 4, vol. ix, p. 80. Planchon, 'Flore des Serres,' vol. i, 1856, p. 129.

[284]'Flora,' 1856, p. 711.

[285]'Theory of Horticult.,' ed. 2, p. 90, f. 25.

[286]As considerable interest attaches to the "Plymouth strawberry," and very little is known of it in this country, or on the continent, the author gladly avails himself of this opportunity of inserting an account of it, for which he is indebted to the kindness of Dr. Robert Hogg.—The Plymouth Strawberry (Fragaria vesca fructu hispido) is a sort of botanical Dodo upon which many have written, and which few have seen. Many years have elapsed since it was first discovered; and although a century and a half have passed since there was any evidence of its existence, it serves still as an illustration for students in morphology of one of those strange abnormal structures with which the vegetable kingdom abounds.It is to old John Tradescant we are indebted for the earliest record of this plant. Johnson, in his edition of 'Gerard,' says; "Mr. John Tradescant hath told me that he was the first that tooke notice of this strawberry, and that in a woman's garden at Plimouth, whose daughter had gathered and set the roots in her garden, in stead of the common strawberry; but she, finding the fruit not to answer her expectation, intended to throw it away; which labour he spared her in taking it and bestowing it among the louers of such varieties, in whose garden it is yet preserved." Doubtless one of those "lovers" was his friend John Parkinson, who, in the year 1629, thus wrote concerning it: "One strawberry more I promised to shew you, which, although it be a wilde kinde, and of no vse for meate, yet I would not let this discourse passe without giuing you the knowledge of it. It is in leafe much like vnto the ordinary, but differeth in that the flower, if it haue any, is greene, or rather it beareth a small head of greene leaues, many set thicke together like vnto a double ruffe, in the midst whereof standeth the fruit, which, when it is ripe, sheweth to be soft and somewhat reddish, like vnto a strawberry, but with many small harmlesse prickles on them which may be eaten and chewed in the mouth without any maner of offence and is somewhat pleasant as a strawberry; it is no great bearer, but those it doth beare, are set at the toppes of the stalks close together, pleasant to behold, and fit for a gentlewoman to weare on her arme, &c., as a rairitie in stead of a flower."Merret, in his 'Pinax.' published in 1667, says he found it growing in the woods of Hyde Park and Hampstead, and Zanoni was the first to figure it (with the exception of Parkinson's rude woodcut) in his 'Istoria Botanica,' published in 1675. It is mentioned by Morison and also by Ray, the latter of whom inserts it in his Synopsis, but without any habitat; though in his 'Historia Plantarum' he says: "Cantabrigiæ in horto per aliquot annos colui." From this time henceforth the Plymouth strawberry has become a botanical Dodo, nothing more having been seen or heard of it except the mere record of the name. In 1766, M. Duchesne informed the world of the generosity of "M. Monti, Docteur de Philosophie et de Médecine à Boulogne en Italie," who divided with him a dried specimen taken from his own herbarium, "Ce présent prétieux m'ôte toute incertitude sur la nature de ce Fraisier et sur ses caractères monstrueux. Il paroît ne pas avoir aujourd'hui plus d'existence."

It is to old John Tradescant we are indebted for the earliest record of this plant. Johnson, in his edition of 'Gerard,' says; "Mr. John Tradescant hath told me that he was the first that tooke notice of this strawberry, and that in a woman's garden at Plimouth, whose daughter had gathered and set the roots in her garden, in stead of the common strawberry; but she, finding the fruit not to answer her expectation, intended to throw it away; which labour he spared her in taking it and bestowing it among the louers of such varieties, in whose garden it is yet preserved." Doubtless one of those "lovers" was his friend John Parkinson, who, in the year 1629, thus wrote concerning it: "One strawberry more I promised to shew you, which, although it be a wilde kinde, and of no vse for meate, yet I would not let this discourse passe without giuing you the knowledge of it. It is in leafe much like vnto the ordinary, but differeth in that the flower, if it haue any, is greene, or rather it beareth a small head of greene leaues, many set thicke together like vnto a double ruffe, in the midst whereof standeth the fruit, which, when it is ripe, sheweth to be soft and somewhat reddish, like vnto a strawberry, but with many small harmlesse prickles on them which may be eaten and chewed in the mouth without any maner of offence and is somewhat pleasant as a strawberry; it is no great bearer, but those it doth beare, are set at the toppes of the stalks close together, pleasant to behold, and fit for a gentlewoman to weare on her arme, &c., as a rairitie in stead of a flower."

Merret, in his 'Pinax.' published in 1667, says he found it growing in the woods of Hyde Park and Hampstead, and Zanoni was the first to figure it (with the exception of Parkinson's rude woodcut) in his 'Istoria Botanica,' published in 1675. It is mentioned by Morison and also by Ray, the latter of whom inserts it in his Synopsis, but without any habitat; though in his 'Historia Plantarum' he says: "Cantabrigiæ in horto per aliquot annos colui." From this time henceforth the Plymouth strawberry has become a botanical Dodo, nothing more having been seen or heard of it except the mere record of the name. In 1766, M. Duchesne informed the world of the generosity of "M. Monti, Docteur de Philosophie et de Médecine à Boulogne en Italie," who divided with him a dried specimen taken from his own herbarium, "Ce présent prétieux m'ôte toute incertitude sur la nature de ce Fraisier et sur ses caractères monstrueux. Il paroît ne pas avoir aujourd'hui plus d'existence."

[287]'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' 1856, vol. iii, p. 477.

[288]'Ann. Sc. Nat.,' 3 ser., vol. ix, p. 86, tabs. v, vi.

[289]'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' vol. viii, 1861, p. 695.

[290]Ibid., vol. iii, 1856, p. 475.

[291]'Flora,' 1856, p. 712.

[292]'Trans. Linn. Soc.,' vol. xxvi, p. 37.

[293]'Bull. Soc. Bot. France,' 1862, vol. ix, p. 36, tab. i, and also p. 291.

[294]Ibid., 1857, vol. iv, p. 761.

One of the main arguments adduced by Goethe and others in support of the now generally received doctrine of the essential morphological identity of the various whorls of the flower is derived from the frequent appearance of one organ in the guise of another. The several parts of the flower become, as it is said,metamorphosed; sometimes the change is complete, while at other times there may be every conceivable intermediate condition between one form and another. The sense in which the terms metamorphosis, substitution, transformation, and the like, are herein used has already been explained. For the convenience of arrangement, metamorphosis of the parts of the flower may be divided into several subdivisions, according to the particular organ affected, and according to the special kind or degree of change manifested, the main subdivisions being here classed as Sepalody, Petalody, Staminody, and Pistillody.

Sepalody of the petals.—This change, spoken of by most authors as retrograde metamorphosis of the petals into sepals, or as a substitution of sepals for petals, is obviously a condition that is in most cases hardly distinguishable from virescence of the corolla, or from multiplication of the sepals. Nor is this of much consequence unless there are some special structural features which render the discrimination a matter of importance, in which case the difficulty is generally easily surmounted. The flower of the Saint-Valèry Apple may perhaps be cited under this head. In the flower in question there are neither stamens nor petals, unless the second or inner of sepals be considered as sepaloid petals (fig. 152).

Fig.152.—Flower of St. Valèry apple, with sepaloid petals.

M. Alph. de Candolle[295]describes an instance inPrimula Auriculain which the corolla had assumed the appearance of the calyx, but neither calyx nor corolla in this case possessed perfect stomata.

This malformation is much less common than the converse one of calycanthemy. Many of the recorded instances of so-called metamorphosis of the parts ofthe flower to sepals have occurred in monocotyledonous plants, or others in which the calyx and corolla are of the same colour, and constitute what is frequently termed the perianth; and as this is usually brightly coloured (not green) it is more convenient to group the metamorphoses in question under the general term Petalody, which thus includes all those cases in which the organs of the flower appear in the form of coloured petal-like organs, whether they be true petals or segments of a coloured perianth. As the morphological difference between the organs is one of position merely, there is little objection to be raised to this course, the less so as the term petalody merely conveys an idea of resemblance and not of absolute identity.

Petaloid coloration of the ordinary leaves, or of the bracts, is mentioned under the chapter relating to colour.

Petalody of the calyx—Calycanthemy.—As with the bracts, so the calyx in certain instances is naturally coloured, as inDelphinium,Tropæolum, and others. InMussænda,Calycophyllum,Usteria, &c., one or more of the calyx lobes become enlarged normally. Considered teratologically, petaloid coloration of the sepals is either general or partial; in the latter case the nerves retain their green colour longest. There is in cultivation a variety of the primrose calledPrimula calycanthema, in which the upper part of the calyx becomes coloured, so that the flower seems to have two corollas placed one within the other; a similar thing happens inMimulus, in which plant, as the calyx is permanent while the corolla is deciduous, the coloured calyx is a great advantage in a horticultural point of view. Morren[296]says that in order to produce the fine colour of the calyx ofPrimula officinalis(var.smaragdina) the Belgian gardeners cut away the corolla in a very early stage, and that in consequence the colouring matterproper to the corolla is developed in the tube of the calyx, the edges of the limb remaining green, the middle of the limb being purple (Primula tricolor).

Fig.153.—Flower ofMimulus, with petaloid calyx.

Under this head may be mentioned the occurrence of tubular sepals in place of the ordinary flat ones inHelleborus olympicus; only two of the sepals were thus affected in a specimen recently observed—a third exhibited an intermediate condition.

The normal coloration of the calyx occurs most frequently in polysepalous calyces; teratological coloration, on the other hand, occurs especially in gamosepalous flowers. This assertion is borne out by the frequency of the change in the plants already mentioned, and also in the following:—Campanula persicifolia,Anagallis arvensis,Gloxinia,Syringa persica,[297]Calceolaria,&c. &c.In the last-named plant one or more of the lobes of the calyx may frequently be seen replaced by a slipper-like petal.

Among polysepalous plants petaloid sepals have been observed inRanunculus auricomus,Rubus cæsius,&c.Fleischer also describes a case of this kind inCarum carui.[298]

It will be seen from the above that in the majority of cases there is no real metamorphosis or substitution of petal for calyx, but simply an alteration in colour; nevertheless, a change in form may accompany a change of colour: this happens especially if there has been any displacement of organs. Thus, if, in an orchidaceous plant, a sepal be displaced from any cause, or a petal be twisted out of its natural position to occupy the place of an absent sepal, that petal will be sepal-like in form, andvice versâ.

Petalody of the stamens.—A petaloid condition of the stamens is one of the commonest of all malformations. A large number of so-called double flowers (flores pleni)[299]owe their peculiar appearance to this circumstance.

It is necessary to distinguish carefully this petaloid development of the stamens from the corresponding condition of the pistils, and from that kind of doubling which is a result of multiplication of the corolla, as inDatura,Campanula,Primula, &c. (flores duplices, triplices, &c.), or from that produced by true median prolification (flores geminati, &c.).

In cases of true petaloid development of the stamens there are usually numerous intermediate forms between that of the true petals and that of the perfect stamens; indeed, inNymphæa,Canna, and in some other plants, such a transition occurs normally. Petalody of the stamens may occur either without material change in the flower or it may exist in combination or in conjunction with an increased development of parts (Multiplication), or with a similar change in the carpels, and it is either partial or complete.

Among the flowers in which petaloid development of the stamens happens most frequently may be mentioned those in which the calyx is normally coloured, as inNigella damascena,Aguilegia, andDelphinium.

M. Alph. de Candolle, in the 'Neue Denkschriften,' 1841, described and figured a singular form ofViola odorata, known under the name of "Bruneau," in Switzerland, in which the stamens are absent, and their place supplied by a second row of petals, within which is a third series of petals, representing, says M. de Candolle, the inner row of stamens that theory suggests should exist in the natural condition. Moreover, the carpels in this variety are five in number instead of three. InErica Tetralixthe corolla may not unfrequently be found divided to the base into its constituent petals, and the place of the stamens occupied by a series of petal-like structures entirely destitute of anther.

In monocotyledonous flowers, especially those with a coloured perianth, the substitution of segments of the perianth for stamens occurs not unfrequently. M. Seringe has observed this in the stamens ofLilium Martagon, and there is in cultivation a variety of the white lily,Lilium candidum, sometimes called the double white lily, in which the segments of the perianth, in place of being arranged in two rows, are greatly increased in number, and disposed in a spiral manner. In these flowers, not only are the stamens and pistils thus modified, but also the upper leaves of the stem. In so-called double tulips there is likewise a replacement of stamens by coloured segments of the perianth, but this happens generally in connection with an increase in the number of organs. Moquin-Tandon remarks having seen in a garden in the environs of Montpelier a tulip, the stamens of which showed all possible stages of transition between the form proper to them and that of the perianth. The pistil in this case was transformed into several small leaves. Similar appearances have been observed in Iris, Hyacinths, Narcissus,Colchicum, and Crocus. M. Fournier[300]describes a flower ofNarcissus Tazettafrom within the normal perianth of which sprang a second one, equally provided with a cup and occupying the space usually filled by the stamens. Flowers ofNarcissus poeticusmay also be met with in which the stamens are replaced by six distinct segments exactly resembling those of the perianth in miniature.[301]

Fig.154.—Double columbine,Aquilegia—petalody of the filament.

From an examination of these flowers it becomes evident that petalification is brought about in different flowers in different ways; sometimes it is the filament which becomes petaloid, sometimes the anther-lobes, while at other times it is the connective which assumes the appearance of petals.[302]For instance, inSolanumtuberosum,S. Dulcamara, inAnagallis, inFuchsia, and some other plants, the anther-lobes themselves become petaloid, while the filament remains unchanged.

In gardens two distinct varieties of Columbine are cultivated, the one in which the filaments are dilated into the form of flat petals almost entirely or quite destitute of anthers, while in the other the filament is present in its usual form, but the anther is developed in the shape of a tubular hood or spur.

De Candolle[303]observes that in theRanunculaceæthe species ofClematisbecome double by the expansion of the filament, those ofRanunculusby the dilatation of the anther, and those ofHelleborusby the petal-like development of both filament and anther. In some cases even on the same plant all three modifications may be seen, as in Camellias, some of which may be found with petaloid filaments with anthers on the top, others with the filaments unchanged, but supporting petaloid anthers, while in others it is the connective alone which is petal-like. Where the flower naturally contains a large number of stamens, as in Mallows, Roses, Magnolias, &c., petaloid expansion of the filament is most common, though it is by no means confined to such flowers, the change occurring inAllamanda cathartica,Jasminum grandiflorum, and many other flowers with few stamens. A similar change in the anther and connective takes place more frequently in flowers where the number of stamens is smaller, but there are of course numerous exceptions to this rule.

In those cases where there is more than one row of stamens, the outermost are most liable to this change: thus inSaxifraga decipiens, as shown by Ch. Morren,[304]the outer series of stamens—those opposite to the sepals—become first affected, and, at a more advanced stage, the inner row also; and this is the case in mostflowers that have their stamens in two rows. Occasionally it happens that an outer series of stamens is abortive, or wholly suppressed, while the inner row becomes petalodic; this was the case in some flowers ofLilium auratumlately exhibited by Messrs. Veitch.

Those flowers in which only a portion of the stamens undergo this change are called semi-double, while in other cases that will be hereafter mentioned, not only are the stamens thus rendered petaloid, but their number is also augmented, as in most double roses, pinks, anemones, poppies, &c.

In some double flowers, in which the stamens assume more or less completely the appearance of petals, a singular appearance is afforded by the presence of four wing-like processes emanating from the central filaments, two on each side, so that the arrangement may be compared to two sheets of paper folded in the centre and adherent in that situation, though perfectly separate elsewhere, except sometimes at the top, where they form a sort of hood. This change results from an imperfect petalody of the anther; the two wings on each side of the central vascular cord represent the front and back walls of an anther lobe, or rather of that portion of the anther which, under ordinary circumstances, produces pollen. In the malformed flowers no pollen is formed, at least in the more complete states of the malformation, but the walls of the anther lobe become preternaturally enlarged, and petaloid in texture and appearance. This change occurs in some semi-double rhododendrons and azaleas, in crocuses, and in a species of violet found at Mentone by Mr. J. T. Moggridge.

There are numerous intermediate forms wherein the wing-like processes may be traced all the way along the filament till they ultimately lose themselves in the anther-lobes, with which they become continuous. In some cases, as inCrocusandRhododendron, this is shown even more clearly by the existence of two perfect pollen-sacs or quarter-anthers, the remaining portionsbeing petaloid and continuous with the dilated filament. Not unfrequently these semi-petaloid stamens adhere to the fronts of the petals, and then it appears, at a first glance, as if three organs were stuck together, one in front of another, while in reality there are but two.[305](Seeantè, p. 35, fig. 12.)

Fig.155.—Four-winged filaments ofRhododendron.

The change in the anther, above alluded to, must not be mistaken for that far more common one in which only a small portion of the anther becomes petaloid, forming a sort of lateral wing or appendage to the polliniferous portion, as happens normally inPterandra, and is common in some double fuchsias. In this latter instance there is but a single wing, and the nature of the case is obvious.

Double flowers ofOrchidaceægenerally arise from petalification of the filaments, with or without other coincident changes. What makes double flowers in this order the more interesting is the development, in a petaloid condition, of some or all of those stamens which under ordinary circumstances are wholly suppressed, so that the morphological structure of the flower, at first a matter of theory, becomes actuallyrealised. Fig. 156 is a diagram showing the presence of two additional labella within the ordinary one in a species ofCatasetum, and representing two petaloid stamens, thus evidently completing the outer staminal whorl, of which there is usually but a single representative (see Peloria, Multiplication, Prolification). In some of these double orchids it is, however, necessary not to confound a petaloid condition of the existing column with the development of usually suppressed stamens in a petaloid form. Thus, inLycaste Skinnerithe column is frequently provided with two petal-like wings, which might readily be supposed to be two stamens of the inner whorl adherent to the column; a little attention, however, to the relative position of these adventitious wings is generally sufficient to enable the observer to ascertain the true nature of the appearance.[306]

Fig.156.—Diagram of flower ofCatasetum, with two labella.

Some forms of duplicate or hose in hose corollas are apparently due, not so much to the formation of a second corolla within the first, as to the presence of an inner series of petal-like stamens, which, by their cohesion, form a second pseudo-corolla within the first. The staminal nature of this pseudo-corolla is inferred from the occasional presence of anthers on it.[307]InDatura fastuosa, as well as inGloxinia, a pseudo-corolla of this kind sometimes occurs with the addition of a series of petaloid stamens attached to its outer surface.[308]

When the petalody specially affects the anther-lobes, as inArbutus,Petunia,Fuchsia,&c., the venation of the petal-like portion is very frequently laminar, thustending to show that the anther is in such cases really a modification of the blade of the leaf; but as, on the other hand, we often find petal-like filaments bearing pollen-sacs on their sides, it is clear that we must not attribute the formation of pollen to the blade of the leaf only, but we must admit that it may be formed in the filament as well.[309]

Fig.158.—Portion of a double columbine (Aquilegia), showing petalody of the connective.

Fig.159.—Petaloid stamens,Hibiscus.

Petalody of the connective is of less frequent occurrence than the corresponding change in the other portions of the stamen. It may be seen in some forms of double columbine,[310]in which the connective forms a tubular petal or nectary, and in double petunias and fuchsias. When it occurs, the trueanther-lobes are usually atrophied, and little or no pollen is formed.

An occurrence of this nature inTacsonia pinnatistipula, in conjunction with the partial detachment of the stamens from the gynophore, led Karsten to establish a genus which he calledPoggendorffia.[311]

From the subjoined list of genera in which petalody of the stamens, in some form or other, has been observed, it will be seen that it happens more often in plants with numerous distinct organs (Polypetalæ, Polyandria, Polygynia, &c.) than in other plants with a smaller number of parts, and which are more or less adherent one to the other. The tendency to petalification is, moreover, greater among those plants which have their floral elements arranged in spiral series, than among those where the verticillate arrangement exists; and in any given flower, if the stamens are spirally arranged while the carpels are grouped in whorls, the former will be more liable to petalody than the latter, andvice versâ. It has been before remarked, that this condition is far more common in plants whose petals, &c., have straight veins, like those in the sheath of a leaf, than in those the venation of which is reticulate, as in the blade of the leaf. It must also be remembered that in the same genus, even in the same species, different kinds of doubling occur. Familiar illustrations of this are afforded in the case of anemones, columbines, fuchsias, and other plants.

The existence of "compound stamens" in some flowers, as pointed out by Payer, and others, and the researches of Dr. Alexander Dickson, confer additional importance on the subject of petalody, and necessitate the examination of double flowers with special reference to these compound stamens, and to the order of their development.[312]The presence of these compound stamensaffords a satisfactory explanation of the appearance in some doubleMalvaceæ, wherein the tufts of adventitious petals are very liable to be mistaken for buds, produced by axillary prolification in the axils of the petals, but which are in reality compound and petaloid stamens. At other times, however, true axillary prolification exists in these flowers; but then the supplemental florets have always a calyx, which is wanting in the other instances.

Petalody of the stamens has been met with most frequently in the following genera:

*Ranunculus!*Anemone!*Papaver!*Clematis!*Hepatica!*Ficaria!Thalictrum.*Caltha!*Trollius!*Nigella!*Aquilegia!*Delphinium!*Adonis!*Pæonia!*Nelumbium!*Nymphæa!*Berberis!*Papaver!*Chelidonium!Sanguinaria.Podophyllum.*Mathiola!*Cheiranthus!*Iberis!*Cardamine!*Hesperis.*Barbarea!*Sinapis!*Brassica!*Helianthemum!*Viola!*Dianthus!*Saponaria!*Lychnis!*Silene!*Sagina!*Hibiscus!*Althæa!*Malva!Æsculus!*Geranium!*Pelargonium.*Tropæolum!Oxalis!*Impatiens!*Camellia!Thea!Trifolium!Medicago!*Ulex!Spartianthus.Clitoria.Pisum!Orobus!Genista!Spartium!Cytisus!Anthyllis.Coronilla.Lotus!*Rosa!*Kerria!*Spiræa!*Fragaria!*Potentilla!*Cratægus!Cydonia.*Pyrus!Eriobotrya!*Amygdalus!*Prunus!*Myrtus!*Punica!*Philadelphus!*Deutzia!*Fuchsia!Godetia!Clarkia!Portulaca!Ribes!Saxifraga!Daucus.Ixora.Serissa!Gardenia!Lonicera!Sambucus.Viburnum.Scabiosa.*Campanula!Platycodon!Calluna!Azalea!Rhododendron!*Arbutus!*Erica!*Anagallis!*Primula!*Jasminum!Syringa!*Vinca!*Nerium!Allamanda!Tabernæmontana.*Calystegia!Convolvulus!Ipomœa.*Datura!*Petunia!Solanum!Orobanche.Gentiana.Mimulus.*Antirrhinum!Gratiola!*Digitalis!*Linaria!Veronica!Calceolaria!Achimenes.Gloxinia!Clerodendron!Bignonia.Cyclamen!Mirabilis.Laurus!Gladiolus!Crocus!Iris!*Galanthus!Leucojum!Sternbergia!Hippeastrum.*Narcissus!*Orchis!Catasetum!Hydrocharis.Asphodelus.*Tulipa!Scilla.*Convallaria!Fritillaria!*Lilium!*Hyacinthus!*Polianthes!*Hemerocallis!*Colchicum!*Sagittaria!*Tradescantia!Commelyna!Tofieldia.

Petalody of the pistils.—Taken by itself, this is much less common than the corresponding change in the stamens. It generally affects the style and stigma only, as happens normally inPetalostylis,Iris, &c., but this is by no means always necessarily the case. In some of the cultivated varieties ofAnemoneandRanunculusall the parts of the flower remain in their normal state, except the pistils, which latter assume a petaloid appearance.

Many of the double flowers owe their peculiar appearance to the combination of the following appearances—a petal-like form of the stamens, increase inthe number of these organs and similar changes affecting the pistils, and is applied to several distinct conditions. If in any given flower all the stamens and all the pistils become wholly petaloid, no pollen is formed, and of course no seeds can be produced, but this very rarely happens, as usually some pollen is produced, and some ovules capable of being fertilised are developed.

In double flowers ofPrimula sinensisit frequently happens that the capsule is either partially leafy or partly petal-like; in either case the fruit is open at the extremity, and often destitute of the style and stigma. It is, however, doubtful if the ovules can be fertilised in these flowers.

The following list comprises the names of those genera in which this change has been most frequently observed, independently of corresponding alterations in the stamens, but it is more usual for both sets of organs to be similarly affected.

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