Fig. 25.—Skull ofNaja tripudians. (After G. A. Boulenger,op. cit.)
Fig. 25.—Skull ofNaja tripudians. (After G. A. Boulenger,op. cit.)
Several varieties occur, and of these the principal are:—
(1) Var.Typica(fig. 27), with a black-and-white spectacle-shaped mark on the middle of the dorsal surface of the most dilatable portion of the neck, and one or more dark transverse bands on the ventral surface, behind the head.
Habitat: India, Ceylon.
(2) Var.Cæca.—Colour, pale brown or uniform dark grey, without mark on the neck, and with one or more dark transverse bands on the anterior part of the belly.
Habitat: Transcaspian region, India, Java.
Fig. 26.—Naja tripudians(Cobra-di-Capello)on the Defensive, preparing to Strike.
Fig. 26.—Naja tripudians(Cobra-di-Capello)on the Defensive, preparing to Strike.
(3) Var.Fasciata.—Colour, brown, olive, or black, with more or less distinct light transverse bands. White spot edged with black in the shape of a ring or of a U on the neck, behind; a black spot on each side in front.
Habitat: India, Indo-China and South China, Hainan, Cambodia, Siam, Malay Peninsula.
(4) Var.Sputatrix.—Black or dark brown, with yellow or orange-coloured spots on the sides of the head and neck. The young have a pale spot in the shape of a U or an O on the middle of the dorsal surface of the neck, and the throat is whitish.
Habitat: Chusan Islands and South China, Burma, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java.
(5) Var.Leucodira.—Brown or black, without mark on the neck. Throat yellowish-white, followed by a black transverse band.
Habitat: Sumatra, Malay Peninsula.
(6) Var.Miolepis.—Brown or black; sides of the head and throat yellowish, no mark on the neck. Young with white rings completely encircling the body and tail.
Habitat: Sarawak, Labuan, Borneo.
Fig. 27.—Naja tripudians(Cobra-di-Capello). (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)
Fig. 27.—Naja tripudians(Cobra-di-Capello). (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)
Internasal shields shorter than the præfrontals, and in contact with the præoculars; 1-3 large occipital shields behind theparietals; 1 præocular and 3 postoculars; 2 + 2 or 2 + 3 temporals; 7 supralabials, 4 infralabials; 21-23 scales across the neck, 17-19 across the middle of the body; 159-175 ventrals; 45-50 subcaudals.
Coloration black or sometimes yellowish above; pale brown or yellowish on the belly; neck black.
Total length, 1,000 millimetres; tail 160.
Habitat: Philippine Islands.
A pair of large occipital shields; 1 præocular; 3 postoculars; 2 + 2 temporals; 7 supralabials, 4 infralabials; 19-21 scales across the neck, 15 across the middle of the body; 215-262 ventral scales, 80-117 subcaudals. Neck dilatable.
Coloration very variable, yellowish, brown, olive, or black, with or without dark transverse bands.
Total length, 3,900 millimetres; tail 630.
Habitat: India, Burma, Indo-China, Siam, Southern China, Malay Peninsula and Archipelago.
The species ofNajaare oviparous, and usually lay some twenty eggs, elliptical in shape and as large as those of a pigeon, with a soft shell.
These snakes do not fear the proximity of man, and feed upon rats, mice, and birds; they seek their prey chiefly in the evening, after sunset.
They swim extremely well, and frequent the neighbourhood of water-courses.
Indian legends relate that Brahma, having descended on earth and fallen asleep one day at high noon, aNajaplaced itself in front of him and, dilating its broad neck, procured for him kindly shade. In order to repay it for the service rendered, Brahma gaveNajathe marks that it bears on its neck, intended to frighten the kites and other birds of prey, which are implacable enemies of this snake.
When a native of the Malabar Coast finds aNajain his dwelling, he begs it in a friendly way to depart; if the request be without avail, he offers it food in order to attract it outside; if the snake still does not move, the Hindu goes in search of the pious servitors of one of his divinities, who, procuring an offering, address the most touching supplications to it (Brehm).
The mortality due to the bite of this snake, which is by far the most common in India, is considerable. In the course of a period of eight years, from 1880 to 1887, it amounted on the average to 19,880 human beings and 2,100 head of cattle every year.
In 1889, 22,480 persons and 3,793 head of cattle perished from snake-bite. Since then, the annual tale of fatalities always fluctuates between 16,000 and 22,000, in spite of the rewards for the destruction of snakes which the Indian Government has been obliged to institute, which represent an expenditure of about £10,000 per annum.
For every 100 persons bitten, it is estimated that on an average from 25 to 30 die, and in most cases death supervenes in from two to twelve hours after the bite.
Naja bungarus, or the Hamadryad, is the largest and most formidable of poisonous snakes. It is very vigorous and very aggressive, but is more rarely met with thanNaja tripudians. It loves the vicinity of rivers and streams, lives in forests and jungles, and climbs trees with facility. It feeds upon other snakes (whence its nameOphiophagus), and also on birds, fish, and small mammals.
Hindu snake-charmers assert that it is very difficult to capture, and dangerous owing to its strength; they handle it only after having extracted its poison-fangs.
A very intelligent Hindu told Torrens how he had seen the way in which the Hamadryad procures the snakes that form its favouritefood. The Hindu in question happened to be on the flat roof of his house, when a young Hamadryad appeared quite close to him. The snake raised its head, expanded its neck, and emitted a shrill hissing noise. Thereupon a dozen snakes came crawling up from all directions and assembled round the Hamadryad, when the latter made a dart at one of them and hastened to devour it (Fayrer).
The Hamadryad is dreaded with good reason, for not only is it aggressive, and hurls itself boldly upon its adversary, but it also pursues him, a trait exhibited by no other poisonous snake.
Cantor relates that in Assam an officer met with several young Hamadryads which were being watched over by their mother. The latter turned towards its enemy, who took to his heels with all speed, pursued by the terrible reptile. The course taken led to a river, which the fugitive did not hesitate to swim in order to gain the opposite bank, hoping thus to make good his escape; all, however, to no purpose. The snake still pursued him, and the officer saved himself only by a stratagem. He dashed his turban on the ground; the snake threw itself upon it and savagely bit it several times, thus giving the officer time to reach a place of safety.
Cantor’s experiments show that the venom of the Hamadryad is extremely rapid in its action. A dog usually dies a quarter of an hour after being bitten, and Nicholson states that he has seen an elephant bitten by a snake of this species die in three hours.
This genus includes several species of snakes of somewhat small size, rarely exceeding 700 millimetres in length, with an elongate, cylindrical body; the head is scarcely distinct from the neck, the pupil round, and the tail short, while the nostril is situate between two nasal shields. The temporal shields are arranged in a single row. The poison-glands sometimes extend into the abdominalcavity. Scales in 13 or 15 rows; 190-260 ventrals, 12-44 subcaudals in 2 rows.
Four species belonging to this genus are known:—
(1)H. calligaster.—2 + 3 temporal scales, 6 supralabials.
Colour purple, with black transverse bands separated by narrow white bars; belly and end of tail red; snout yellow, with a black band on the upper lip below the eyes.
Total length, 520 millimetres; tail 30.
Habitat: Philippine Islands.
(2)H. collaris.—No anterior temporal scales.
Colour black on the back, with black and red bands on the belly; a yellow collar on the occiput.
Total length, 430 millimetres; tail 15.
Habitat: Philippine Islands.
(3)H. nigrescens.—Scales in 13 rows. A single temporal scale; 218-251 ventrals; 33-44 subcaudals.
Belly uniformly red; upper lip yellow in front of and behind the eyes.
Total length, 1,100 millimetres; tail 115.
Habitat: Hills of Western India, from Bombay to Travancore.
(4)H. japonicus.—Scales in 13 rows; 190-216 ventrals; 28-29 subcaudals; temporals 1 + 1.
Colour red on the back, with 1-5 black bands crossed by other black bands edged with yellow. Snout and sides of head black. Belly yellow, with large black spots alternating with black transverse bands.
Total length, 520 millimetres; tail 40.
Habitat: Loo Choo Islands.
This genus is characterised by the maxillary bones extending forwards beyond the palatines, with a pair of large poison-fangs, but without other teeth. Head and eyes small, pupils round;nostril between two nasal shields. Body cylindrical, greatly elongate. Scales smooth, in 13 rows; ventrals rounded; subcaudals in 2 rows.
Five species are known:—
(1)C. gracilis.—Red or pale brown, with three longitudinal black lines passing through brown, or black spots; the lateral spots alternating with the vertebræ. Black and yellow bands under the tail and on the belly.
Total length, 740 millimetres; tail 35.
Habitat: Malay Peninsula, Sumatra.
(2)C. trimaculatus.—Head and nape black, with a yellow spot on each side of the occiput; belly uniform red; tail with two black rings.
Total length, 335 millimetres; tail 21.
Habitat: India and Burma.
(3)C. maculiceps.—Head and nape black, with one or two yellow bands on each side. Belly red, two black rings on the tail. Diameter of the eyes equal to two-thirds of the space separating them from the mouth.
Total length, 485 millimetres; tail 30.
Habitat: Burma, Indo-China, Malay Peninsula.
(4)C. macclellandii.—Head and neck black, with a yellow transverse band behind the eyes. The space separating the eyes equal to that separating them from the mouth. Colour reddish-brown on the back, with regular and equi-distant black streaks; belly yellow, with black bands or quadrangular spots. The head exhibits two black transverse bands separated by a yellow band.
Total length, 620 millimetres; tail 55.
Habitat: Nepal, Sikkim, Assam, Burma, Southern China.
(5)C. bibronii.—Met with by Beddome in the forests of Malabar, at an altitude of 3,280 feet. Back purplish-brown, with a pearly lustre, and about forty irregular black transverse bands, extending to the tip of the tail. Head black in front, cherry-red on the occiput.
Total length, 640 millimetres; tail 50.
Habitat: Malabar.
All the snakes belonging to the genusCallophisare remarkable for their bright and varied colours, whence the generic name, which signifies “beautiful snakes.”
They feed exclusively on other snakes belonging to the FamilyCalamaridæ; consequently they are not found in regions whereCalamaridædo not occur, as, for instance, in Ceylon.
They are essentially terrestrial, and live in old tree-trunks, or clefts in rocks. They are sluggish, slow-moving, and chiefly nocturnal.
As a rule they do not seek either to defend themselves or to bite; consequently fatal accidents caused by them are scarcely known in the case of human beings. Their venom, however, is very toxic to animals.
This genus exhibits the same characters asCallophis, except that the poison-glands, instead of being confined to the temporal region, extend a very long way on each side of the body, to about one-third of its length, gradually growing thicker and terminating at the base of the heart.
It includes four species:—
(1)D. bivirgatus.—Colour reddish-purple or black on the back, red on the head, tail, and belly.
Total length, 1,610 millimetres; tail 190.
Habitat: Burma, Indo-China, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo.
(2)D. intestinalis.—Brown or black on the back, with darker or lighter longitudinal streaks; tail red beneath; belly red, crossed with black streaks.
Total length, 580 millimetres; tail 45.
Habitat: Burma, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes.
(3)D. bilineatus.—Black on the back, with two white streaks along the whole length of the body. Snout white; belly striped with black and white bands. Tail orange, with two or three black rings or spots.
Total length, 710 millimetres; tail 45.
Habitat: Philippine Islands.
(4)D. philippinus.—Back with dark brown cross-bands, merging into black transverse ventral streaks, which are separated by yellow or red interspaces. Head brown, with small yellow spots.
Total length, 430 millimetres; tail 35.
Habitat: Philippine Islands.
The FamilyViperidæis represented in Asia by a considerable number of snakes belonging to the two SubfamiliesViperinæandCrotalinæ.
The AsiaticViperinæbelong to the genera:—
(a)Vipera.(b)Pseudocerastes.(c)Cerastes.(d)Echis.
TheCrotalinæconsist of only two genera:—
(e)Ancistrodon.(f)Lachesis.
We shall not recapitulate here the characters of the GenusVipera, which we described in dealing with the vipers of Europe. The genus is represented by several species, the geographical range of which is chiefly confined to Eastern and Central Asia.
(1)Vipera renardi.—ResemblesV. berus, but the snout is pointed and soft, with a turned-up tip; a single series of scales between the eyes and the lips; nostril pierced in the lower half of a single nasal shield; 8-9 supralabial shields; 4 infralabials. Body scales in 21 rows; 130-150 ventrals; 24-37 subcaudals.
Coloration the same as in the EuropeanV. ursinii, but the snout and lips are spotted with black or brown.
Total length, 395-620 millimetres; tail 40-75.
Habitat:Central Asia, Turkestan.
(2)V. raddii.—Snout rounded; supraocular shields erectile; eyes surrounded by a complete circle of 14-17 scales; 9-10 supralabials; body scales in 23 rows; 150-180 ventrals; 23-32 subcaudals.
Coloration pale brown or grey on the back, with a dorsal series of small reddish spots arranged in alternating pairs. A black mark like a circumflex accent on the occiput, and a black band behind the eyes. Belly yellow, speckled with black and white.
Total length, 740 millimetres; tail 50.
Habitat: Armenia.
(3)V. lebetina.—Snout rounded and obtuse, with a well-marked prominence; 7-12 longitudinal series of scales between the eyes; supraocular shields well developed or narrow, or broken up into several small portions; 12-18 scales round the eyes; 9-12 supralabials; 4-5 infralabials; body scales in 23-27 rows; 147-180 ventrals; 29-51 subcaudals.
Coloration variable, grey or pale brown on the back, with a series of large dark spots. Large brown mark like a circumflex accent on the crown of the head and another on the occiput. Belly whitish, speckled with grey-brown; end of tail yellow.
Total length, 960 millimetres; tail 120. The female may attain the length of 1,350 millimetres.
Habitat: Cyprus, Galilee, Syria, Asia Minor, Transcaspia, Persia, Mesopotamia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Cashmir.
(4)V. russellii(Daboia, or Russell’s Viper). (fig. 28.)—This viper, which may attain a length of as much as 2,000 millimetres, is magnificently coloured. Its dorsal surface is brownish-yellow, marked with large oval spots of blackish-brown, edged with yellow or white. The belly is covered with transverse bands, with beautiful triangular black spots, bordered with white. The head, which is long, ends in front in a thick, rounded snout; it is covered abovewith small keeled scales. The nostril, which is large and laterally placed, is surrounded by three shields and soft smooth skin.
Fig. 28.—Vipera russellii(Syn.Vipera elegans. Daboia, or Russell’s Viper). India.(After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)
Fig. 28.—Vipera russellii(Syn.Vipera elegans. Daboia, or Russell’s Viper). India.(After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)
The species is found throughout India, from Bombay to Bengal, in Ceylon, Burma, and Siam. It is particularly common in Burma, around Rangoon. For walking in the jungle and rice-fields, the natives of this region encase their feet and legs in a special kind of jack-boots made of coarse jute-cloth, in order to protect themselves from the bites of this snake, which cause a large number of fatal accidents.
The Daboia ascends the Himalayas to an altitude of 5,250 feet. It lives in thickets, under stones, and in the clefts of rocks. When disturbed it makes a terrible hissing, but bites only when attacked or irritated.
It feeds upon small vertebrates, such as mice, rats, birds, and frogs, and often enters houses in pursuit of rats.
“Schrott had the opportunity of observing a Daboia on the defensive. A lady carrying a child on her arm was returning home towards evening; she had almost reached her house when a bulldog accompanying her began to bark furiously. Although the lady saw nothing, she was, nevertheless, frightened and called for help. Schrott, who was not far away, ran to the spot, and saw a Daboia lying across the path by which the lady had to proceed. The reptile had its neck thrown back and its head in a horizontal position; its bright eyes followed all the movements of the dog, to whose barks it replied by shrill hisses. It was only waiting for an opportunity to strike. Schrott called off the dog, and the snake at once disappeared among the high grass close by. Next day it was killed at the same spot” (Brehm).
The venom of this viper is terribly potent. According to Russell, a large dog exhibited symptoms of poisoning five minutes after being bitten. At the end of a quarter of an hour it lay down, uttering heartrending cries, began to breathe with difficulty and noisily, was seized with spasms of the jaws and cramps, and died in frightful agony less than half an hour after the wound was inflicted. Fowlsin most cases die in less than two minutes. A horse succumbed in half an hour, and another in eleven hours.
It appears that in India many cattle are killed by Daboias while grazing (Fayrer).
This genus is represented by a single species (Pseudocerastes persicus), which appears to be exclusively confined to Persia.
The head is very distinct from the neck, and covered with small imbricate scales; the eyes, which are small, have vertical pupils; they are separated from the lips by small scales. The nostrils are directed upwards and outwards. The snout is very short and rounded. The cylindrical body has 23-25 rows of scales; 151-156 ventrals; 43-49 subcaudals.
Fig. 29.—Pseudocerastes persicus.(After Duméril and Bibron.)
Fig. 29.—Pseudocerastes persicus.(After Duméril and Bibron.)
The coloration is gray or brown, with four series of large black spots, and the head exhibits two longitudinal black streaks behind the eyes. The belly is whitish, dotted with black.
Total length, 890 millimetres; tail 110.
The vipers belonging to this genus are much more common in North Africa, and we shall therefore study them in conjunction with the African snakes.Cerastes cornutusalone, the special habitat of which is Egypt, is sometimes met with in Arabia and on the eastern bank of the Suez Canal.
Echis carinatus(the Phoorsa). (Fig. 30).—This viper is characterised by the subcaudal shields being arranged in a single row. It is savage and very aggressive, being always ready to attack. Its length does not exceed 600 millimetres at the most. The colour of the body is grey, more or less dark and adorned with streaks, spots, and dots of blackish-brown. The back displays yellowish-white wavy lines, forming X-shaped markings. The upper side of the head exhibits a yellow spot surrounded by brown, and other small black spots, the whole arrangement forming a fairly good representation of a cross.
Fig. 30.—Echis carinatus.India. (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)
Fig. 30.—Echis carinatus.India. (After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)
This species is found in India, Persia, Baluchistan, Arabia, and Palestine; while, as we shall see, it also occurs in Africa. It is fairly common in the environs of Aden.
In moving over the ground a peculiar sound is produced by the friction of its scales. It is capable of springing with great agility a fairly long distance on to its prey. When it believes itself in danger it coils up, doubling its body twice in the shape of a crescent, in the middle of which it places its head, ready to strike. Its venom is very rapid in taking effect.
The snakes belonging to this genus ofCrotalinæare found in Central and Eastern Asia, but three important species occur in the New World, in the United States and Central America. The head is covered with nine large symmetrical shields, but the internasals and præfrontals are sometimes broken up into scales. The body is cylindrical; the tail rather short; the subcaudal scales are arranged in one or two rows.
A. acutus.—The snout of this snake is prolonged into an appendage directed forwards. The head-shields are finely granulate. Body scales arranged in 21 rows; 162-166 ventrals; 58-60 subcaudals.
Coloration brown on the back, with blackish-brown X-shaped spots; head dark brown, yellow on the cheeks, with a black band running from the eye to the angle of the jaw; belly yellowish, spotted with brown, with a series of large black transverse blotches.
Total length, 1,500 millimetres; tail 200.
Habitat: Upper Yang-tse, China.
A. halys.—Snout prolonged into an upturned appendage, blunt at the tip; 7-8 supralabial scales, the third of which forms part of the margin of the eye; body scales in 23 rows; 149-174 ventrals; 31-44 subcaudals.
Coloration yellowish, grey, red, or pale brown above, with darker spots or cross-bars. A black spot on the snout; two black spotson the vertex; a dark, light-edged band on the temple; belly whitish, more or less speckled with grey or brown.
Total length, 490 millimetres; tail 65.
Habitat: From the borders of the Caspian Sea and the Ural River to the Upper Yenisei; Turkestan.
A. intermedius.—Resembles the foregoing very closely, but the snout is not turned up at the end.
Total length, 750 millimetres; tail 85.
Habitat: Central Asia, Eastern Siberia, Mongolia, and Japan.
A. blomhoffii.—Similar toA. halys, but the snout is not turned up at the end, and the body scales are in 21 rows; 137-166 ventral scales; 29-55 subcaudals.
Coloration very variable; grey, brown, or red above, with large black-edged spots arranged in pairs; black, light-edged band on the temple; upper lip uniformly yellow or red; belly yellow or reddish, more or less spotted with black, or almost entirely black.
Total length, 720 millimetres; tail 100.
Habitat: Eastern Siberia, Mongolia, China, Japan, Siam.
A. himalayanus.—Snout scarcely turned up, with a hard tip; 5-7 supralabial shields. Body scales in 21 (rarely 23) rows; 144-166 ventrals; subcaudals in 35-51 pairs.
Fig. 31.—Ancistrodon hypnale.(TheCarawallaof Ceylon.)(After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)
Fig. 31.—Ancistrodon hypnale.
(TheCarawallaof Ceylon.)(After Sir Joseph Fayrer.)
Coloration brown, with black spots or transverse bands; black, light-edged band from the eye to the angle of the mouth; belly dark brown, or more or less whitish.
Total length, 590 millimetres; tail 90.
Habitat: Himalayas (5,000 to 10,000 feet), especially in the North-west; Khasi Hills.
This snake feeds chiefly on mice.
A. rhodostoma.—Snout pointed, somewhat turned up at the tip: 7-9 supralabial shields; body scales in 21 rows; 138-157 ventrals; 34-54 subcaudal pairs.
Coloration reddish, grey, or pale brown above, with large angular, dark brown, black-edged spots arranged in pairs or alternating. Vertebral line almost black; lips yellow, speckled with brown; brown, black-edged band, running from the eye to the angle of the mouth. Belly yellowish, spotted with greyish-brown.
Total length, 810 millimetres; tail 90.
Habitat: Java.
A. hypnale(fig. 31).—Snout more or less turned up, with a hard, pointed end; 7-8 supralabial shields; body scales in 17 rows; 125-155 ventrals; 28-45 subcaudal pairs.
Coloration very variable; brown, yellowish, or greyish above, sometimes with dark brown spots or transverse bands. Cheeks brown, with a longitudinal, white, black-edged streak on each side of the neck. Belly more or less speckled with dark brown.
Total length, 480 millimetres; tail 65.
Habitat: Ceylon, and Western Ghats of India as far north as Bombay.
In Ceylon this snake is known as theCarawalla. It is much dreaded, but its bite is not rapidly fatal.
This genus has many representatives in Asia and the New World. The American species are for the most part of larger size and more formidable.
They are characterised by a triangular head, covered with small scales or small shields, and by a cylindrical or compressed body. The Asiatic species have the subcaudal scales in two rows and the tail short, and often prehensile, which enables them to climb trees or bushes, where they lie in wait for their prey.
Their classification is based upon the following characters:—
A. First infralabial scale in contact with its fellow.
I. Scales in 21-25 (rarely 27) rows; 129-158 ventrals; 21-57 subcaudals; 5-9 series of scales between the supraocular shields; tailnon-prehensile.
Fig. 32.—Lachesis okinavensis.(After G. A. Boulenger,op. cit.)
Fig. 32.—Lachesis okinavensis.(After G. A. Boulenger,op. cit.)
(1)L. monticola.—Supraocular shields large, separated by 5-8 scales; snout obtuse.
Colour brown or yellowish above, brown or pale yellow on the sides, with a brown temporal streak. Belly white, spotted with brown.
Total length, 740 millimetres; tail 115.
Habitat: Tibet, Himalayas (2,000 to 8,000 feet), Hills of Assam, Burma, Malay Peninsula, Singapore, Sumatra.
(2)L. okinavensis(fig. 32).—Supraocular shields large, separatedby a transverse series of 6-9 scales; end of snout pointed and turned up.
Colour brown above, with dark transverse bands and a light temporal streak. Belly brown, spotted with black, especially on the sides.
Total length, 350 millimetres; tail 60.
Habitat: Okinawa, Loo Choo Islands.
(3)L. strigatus.—Supraocular shields small, sometimes broken up, separated by 8-11 convex scales in juxtaposition.
Colour brown above, with black spots often forming a median zigzag band; temporal band black; belly whitish, spotted with grey or black; end of tail yellow or reddish.
Total length, 480 millimetres; tail 55.
Habitat: Hills near Bombay, Deccan, Anamallays and Nilgherries.
II. Scales in 27-37 rows; 174-231 ventrals; 54-90 subcaudals; tailnon-prehensile.
(4)L. flavoviridis.—Scales in 33-37 rows; 222-231 ventrals; 75-90 subcaudals; 8-9 supralabials.
Coloration pale brown or greenish-yellow above, marbled with black; longitudinal black streaks symmetrically disposed on the head; belly yellow or greenish, with darker spots.
Total length, 1,215 millimetres; tail 220.
Habitat: Loo Choo Islands.
This snake is not infrequently termed by naturalistsTrimeresurus riukianus.
(5)L. cantoris.—Scales in 27-31 rows; 174-184 ventrals; 55-76 subcaudals; 13 supralabials.
Coloration pale brown or dull green, with small black spots; a whitish streak along the sides of the body; belly white or greenish.
Total length, 1,020 millimetres; tail 140.
Habitat: Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
III. Scales in 21-27 rows; 160-218 ventrals; 54-92 subcaudals; tailnot or scarcely prehensile.
(6)L. jerdonii.—7-9 scales in a line between the supraocular shields; scales in 21 or 23 rows; 164-188 ventrals; 54-67 subcaudals.
Coloration greenish-yellow or olive above, mixed with black, a dorsal series of reddish-brown transverse rhomboidal spots; upper lip yellow, with one or two black spots; belly yellow, more or less marbled with black.
Total length, 930 millimetres; tail 145.
Habitat: Assam, Tibet, Upper Yang-tse.
(7)L. mucrosquamatus.—10-15 scales in a line between the supraocular shields; scales in 25-27 rows; 183-218 ventrals; 72-92 subcaudals. Colour brownish-grey above, with a series of large black median spots and smaller ones on the sides; a black streak from the eye to the angle of the mouth; belly brownish, spotted with white.
Total length, 1,050 millimetres; tail 210.
Habitat: Formosa, Assam.
(8)L. luteus.—12 or 13 scales in a line between the supraocular shields; scales in 23-25 rows; 182-186 ventrals; 72-74 subcaudals; supraocular shields large.
Colour yellow above, with a series of dark rhomboidal spots, and a dorsal, black-spotted zigzag band; a black streak on each side of the head behind the eyes; belly yellowish, spotted with grey.
Total length, 945 millimetres; tail 164.
Habitat: Loo Choo Islands.
(9)L. purpureomaculatus.—12-15 scales in a line between the supraocular shields; scales in 25-27 rows; ventrals 160-182; subcaudals 55-76; supraocular shield very narrow, sometimes broken up.
Coloration purplish-black above, sometimes variegated with pale green; flanks pale green; belly olive or greenish-white, uniform or spotted with black. Some specimens are entirely green.
Total length, 980 millimetres; tail 150.
Habitat: Himalayas, Bengal, Assam, Burma, Malay Peninsula, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Pulo-Pinang, Sumatra.
IV. Scales in 21 rows (rarely 19 or 23); 7-13 series of scales between the supraoculars; tailmore or less prehensile.
(10)L. gramineus(Syn.Trimeresurus gramineus. The Green Pit Viper).—145-175 ventral scales; 53-75 subcaudals; snout slightly projecting; supraocular shield narrow.
Colour bright green, rarely olive or yellowish, with or without darker transverse bands; end of tail yellow or red; belly green, yellow, or white.
Total length, 870 millimetres; tail 150.
Habitat: South-eastern Asia, Darjeeling, Himalayas, Ganges Delta, Siam, Southern China, Hong Kong, Formosa, Java, Sumatra, Timor.
Fig. 33.—Lachesis flavomaculatus.(After G. A. Boulenger,op. cit.)
Fig. 33.—Lachesis flavomaculatus.(After G. A. Boulenger,op. cit.)
(11)L. flavomaculatus(fig. 33).—170-187 ventral scales; 53-73 subcaudals; snout projecting, obliquely truncate; supraocular shield narrow.
Colour bright green or olive, sometimes barred with reddish-brown; belly green, olive, or greenish-yellow; end of tail sometimes red.
Total length, 1,060 millimetres; tail 160.
Habitat: Philippine Islands.
(12)L. sumatranus.—180-191 ventral scales; 58-82 subcaudals; supraocular shield large.
Coloration bright green, with or without black transverse bands; yellowish band on each side; belly yellow or green, with or without black speckles; end of tail red.
Total length, 1,100 millimetres; tail 180.
Habitat: Singapore, Sumatra, Borneo, Palawan.
(13)L. anamallensis.—138-158 ventral scales; 44-58 subcaudals.
Colour green, olive, yellowish, or reddish-brown; a black temporal band; belly pale green, olive, or yellow; tail usually black and yellow.
Total length, 730 millimetres; tail 110.
Habitat: Anamallay and Nilgherry Hills, South India.
(14)L. trigonocephalus.—Scales in 17-19 rows, 145-170 ventrals; 53-67 subcaudals.
Coloration green, with or without black transverse bands or spots; a black temporal streak; belly green or yellow; end of tail usually black.
Total length, 790 millimetres; tail 130.
Habitat: Ceylon.
(15)L. macrolepis.—Scales in 13-15 rows; 134-143 ventrals; 48-56 subcaudals.
Colour bright green or olive; belly pale green.
Total length, 680 millimetres; tail 120.
Habitat: Southern India.
B. First lower labial shield divided; the portion separated off forms a pair of small supplementary dental shields; 144-176 ventral scales; 38-57 subcaudals; tailprehensile.
(16)L. puniceus.—Scales in 21-23 rows; 12-14 series of scales between the supraocular shields.
Colour grey, brown, or red; belly spotted with brown; end of tail red.
Total length, 640 millimetres; tail 90.
Habitat: Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Natuna Islands.
(17)L. borneensis.—Scales in 19-21 rows; 10-11 series of scales between the supraocular shields; 152-168 ventrals; 43-65 subcaudals.
Total length, 770 millimetres; tail 105.
Habitat: Borneo, Sumatra.
C. (18)L. wagleri.—Scales in 19-27 rows, 127-154 ventrals; 45-55 subcaudals; tailprehensile.
Colour green, with darker or lighter markings, black and yellow, or nearly entirely black.
Total length, 980 millimetres; tail 150.
Habitat: Malay Peninsula and Archipelago.
In Africa, poisonous snakes abound throughout the whole of the tropical and sub-tropical zones. The fatal accidents to human beings caused by them in this continent are fewer than in India, since the population of Africa is less dense, but several species occur, the venom of which is especially dangerous to life.
These species belong in nearly equal numbers to the FamiliesColubridæandViperidæ.
The poisonousColubridæof Africa are all included in the SubfamilyElapinæ, of which the following are the eight principal genera:—
(a)Boulengerina.(b)Elapechis.(c)Naja.(d)Sepedon.(e)Aspidelaps.(f)Walterinnesia.(g)Homorelaps.(h)Dendraspis.
A small snake 240 millimetres in length, the principal characters of which are as follows:—
Maxillary bones equal to the palatines in length, with a pair of relatively large poison-fangs, followed by three or four small teeth.
Head hardly distinct from the neck. Eye small, with round pupil; nostril between two nasal shields. Body cylindrical; scales smooth, in 21 rows; ventrals rounded. Tail moderate; subcaudal scales in 2 rows.
The only known species,B. stormsi, is brown, with black transverse bars on the neck; tail black; belly white in front, brown behind, with a black border to the scales.
It is found in the region of Lake Tanganyika.
This genus is characterised by the size of the maxillary bones, which is equal to that of the palatines; a pair of large poison-fangs followed by two to four small teeth; head not distinct from the neck; eye small with round pupil; nostril between two nasal shields. Body cylindrical; scales oblique, smooth, in 13 or 15 rows; ventrals rounded. Tail very short, subcaudal shields in 2 rows.
Six species are known:—
(1)E. guentheri.—Scales in 13 rows. Snout short, rounded; first lower labial shield in contact with its neighbour behind the symphysis. Internasal shorter than the præfrontals; length of frontal three-fourths of that of the parietals.
Coloration whitish or grey above, with black, white-edged cross-bands. Belly dirty white, brownish, or grey.
Total length, 520 millimetres; tail 50.
Habitat: Gaboon, Congo, Angola, Central Africa.
(2)E. niger.—Snout and arrangement of scales as before.Internasal shields three-fourths of the length of the præfrontals; frontal two-thirds of the length of the parietals.
Colour, black all over.
Total length, 420 millimetres; tail 30.
Habitat: Zanzibar.
(3)E. hessii.—Snout as in foregoing. Symphysial shield of the lower lip in contact with the anterior chin-shields.
Colour grey, with black cross-bars; a series of black spots on the sides, between the bars; large black blotch on nape; belly white.
Total length, 160 millimetres; tail 12.
Habitat: Congo.
(4)E. decosteri.—Snout obtusely pointed.
Colour, dark grey, each scale edged with black; belly white.
Total length, 380 millimetres; tail 38.
Habitat: Delagoa Bay.
(5)E. sundevallii.—Snout obtusely pointed.
Colour reddish-brown, with yellow transverse bands, the scales in which are edged with reddish-brown; upper lip and belly yellow.
Total length, 510 millimetres; tail 43.
Habitat: Caffraria.
(6)E. boulengeri.—Scales in 15 rows.
Colour black on the back, with narrow white transverse bands; head white, with a black streak along the parietal suture; belly blackish-grey.
Total length, 170 millimetres; tail 14.
Habitat: Zambesi.
Six species ofNajaare found in Africa:—
(1)N. hajeorhaie.—Scales in 21-23 rows on the neck, which is dilatable, although slightly less so than that ofN. tripudians, the Cobra-di-Capello of India.
Six or seven large supralabial shields, sixth or seventh in contact with the lower postocular. Eyes separated from the labial shields by the suboculars. 191-214 ventral scales; 53-64 subcaudals.
Colour yellowish, olive, or uniform black; belly yellowish; black or brown band on the neck; head sometimes blackish.
Total length, 1,180 millimetres; tail 290.
Habitat: Borders of the Sahara, Egypt, Southern Palestine, East Africa as far south as Mozambique.
Naja haje(the Egyptian Cobra) is common throughout the Nile Basin, the Sudan and Central Africa. Livingstone mentions it several times. In Egypt it is met with in the vicinity of ruined monuments, under the large blocks of stone or among brushwood.
The Egyptians are greatly in dread of it, and hunt it down as often as possible. When pursued,N. hajeturns bravely and faces its adversary, raising itself upon its tail, puffing out its neck and hissing fiercely. If too hard pressed it strikes at its enemy.
“A friend of mine,” writes Anderson, “had great difficulty in escaping from one of these snakes. While botanising one day aNajapassed quite close to him. My friend darted backwards with all speed, but theNajapursued and was about to attack him, when he stumbled against an ant-hill and fell flat on his back. This, no doubt, frightened the snake, which disappeared in a twinkling.”
Another case of the same kind is narrated by Waller, who writes: “A young girl met with her death in a truly dramatic fashion. She was walking behind some porters on a narrow path, when suddenly an Aspic came out of a thick bush, attacked and bit her in the thigh; in spite of all efforts to save her the unfortunate girl died in less than ten minutes.” This instance, which is absolutely authentic, proves the truth of the statements made by various travellers. Natives assert that a full-grownNajainvariably pursues either a man or an animal, however large, when either passes within its range (Brehm).
Snake-charmers, of whom there are many in Egypt, always employNaja hajefor their performances. They know how to capture it, and tear out its fangs by making it bite a bundle of rags.
This species rarely lives more than six or eight months in captivity, and is quite untamable. It is fond of bathing, and remains in the water for hours together.
“The Ancient Egyptians,” write Duméril and Bibron,3“are known to have worshipped theNaja, which they regarded as the protector of their crops. They allowed it to live and multiply among the cultivated lands, which they apparently entrusted to the care of their tutelary guardian, recognising that this snake freed them from the ravages of the rats, the immense number of which otherwise caused terrible destruction and even actual famine. It was, therefore, from motives of gratitude that the Egyptian Cobra was venerated in this way; that its image was hung up in the temples; that its skin was embalmed; and that its effigy, so easy to recognise and to reproduce roughly, was graven or sculptured on the stones of their monuments. This is the explanation of the fact that paintings representingN. hajeare frequently reproduced in hieroglyphics and on Egyptian sarcophagi.”
TheNajawas the tutelary deity of the temples, whose duty was to prevent the profane from entering. Thus, in one of the crypts of Denderah we find representedSerpent-genie, figures with a head like that of aNajasupported by the body of a man, with the hands armed with enormous cutlasses (Mariette,Dendérah, p. 91, 1875).
(2)N. flava.—Same arrangement of scales. Neck dilatable. 200-227 ventrals; 50-67 subcaudals.
Colour very variable, yellowish, reddish, brown, or black, uniform or with light spots; sometimes a black transverse band on the neck.
Total length, 1,470 millimetres; tail 230.
Habitat: South Africa.
(3)N. melanoleuca.—Coloration very variable. Sides of the head yellow or whitish; labial shields tinged with black on the posterior edge.
Total length, 2,400 millimetres; tail 400.
Habitat: Tropical Africa.
(4)N. nigricollis.—Third supralabial shield the deepest, sixth and seventh not in contact with the postoculars; 183-228 ventral scales; 55-68 subcaudals.
Coloration very variable; lower surface of the neck with a black transverse bar.
Total length, 2,000 millimetres; tail 300.
Habitat: From Senegambia and Upper Egypt to Angola and the Transvaal.
(5)N. anchietæ.—Scales in 17 rows on the neck and on the body; 181-192 ventrals; 52-62 subcaudals.
Colour blackish or brown above; end of snout and cheeks yellow; belly yellow or pale brown, with or without black cross-bar under the neck.
Total length, 1,800 millimetres; tail 340.
Habitat: Angola and Ovamboland.
(6)N. goldii.—Eyes large, two-thirds the length of the snout in adults. Scales in 15 rows on the neck and on the body; 194—195 ventrals; 88 subcaudals.
Colour black, uniform, or with transverse series of small whitish spots; cheeks and end of snout white, with a black border at the margin of the shields; belly white in front, black behind; subcaudal scales black.
Total length, 1,750 millimetres.
Habitat: Lower Niger.
Maxillary bones projecting considerably beyond the palatines, with a pair of large poison-fangs; no other maxillary teeth. Head not distinct from neck; eyes of moderate size, with round pupils;nostril between two nasal shields and an internasal. Body cylindrical; scales oblique, keeled, in 19 rows; ventrals rounded. Tail moderate; subcaudal scales in 2 rows.
S. hæmachates(The Spitting Snake, or Ring Hals Slang).—This snake, which is about 700 millimetres in length, is of a bluish-brown colour, with numerous narrow, undulating and denticulate cross-bands of yellow or yellowish-white. The throat is black or dark red; the belly grey.
It is met with throughout West, East, and South Africa, as far as the Cape of Good Hope, where it is very common. It lives among bushes in sandy places, where the ground is full of the holes of rats, moles, and small rodents, upon which it feeds. It is very active and exhibits great ferocity.
Natives at the Cape declare that this snake is able to project its venom to a distance of more than a yard, especially if the wind is blowing in the same direction, and that, if the poison happens to enter the eye, the inflammation that results therefrom often leads to loss of sight (Smith).
As to this, a very definite statement is given by Bavay,4on the authority of Le Naour:—
“While hunting in Dahomey,” wrote Le Naour to Bavay, “I thrice met with the snake called theSpitter. On two occasions my dog was struck in both eyes by the liquid projected by the reptile. Immediately (less than two minutes afterwards), symptoms of conjunctivitis manifested themselves, with considerable swelling of the pupils; the conjunctivitis seemed as though it were going to be very serious, and yielded only after twelvedays’ treatment with boracic lotion, aided by a few cauterisations with sulphate of copper.
“During my sojourn at Porto-Novo, a store-keeper at the Dogba trading station was a victim of theSpitter. While working at his store he received in his eye a jet of liquid, which produced violent conjunctivitis.”
Maxillary bones extending forwards beyond the palatines, as inSepedon, with a pair of large poison-fangs; no other maxillary teeth. Head slightly distinct from the neck. Eyes of moderate size, with round or vertically elliptic pupils. Rostral shield very large, detached on the sides. Body cylindrical; scales oblique, smooth or keeled, in 19-23 rows; ventrals rounded. Tail short, obtuse; subcaudal scales in 2 rows.
(1)A. lubricus.—146-167 ventral scales; 20-28 subcaudals.
Colour orange or red, with black rings; a black bar below the eyes; upper surface of head sometimes entirely black.
Total length, 590 millimetres; tail 55.
Habitat: Cape Colony and Namaqualand.
(2)A. scutatus(Fula-fula of Mozambique).—115-135 ventrals; 24-38 subcaudals.
Colour pale grey, with black spots or cross-bars, and a black mark shaped like a circumflex accent on the head. A black collar encircling the neck, and a black vertical streak below the eye. Belly whitish.
The total length may be as much as 520 millimetres.
Habitat: Natal, Delagoa Bay, Mozambique.
Maxillary bones prolonged forwards beyond the palatines, with a pair of large poison-fangs; no other maxillary teeth. Head distinct from the neck; eyes rather small, with round pupils;nostril between two or three nasal shields and the internasal. Body cylindrical; scales smooth or feebly keeled, in 23 rows; ventrals rounded. Tail rather short; subcaudal scales for the most part in 2 rows.
W. ægyptia.—Colour blackish-brown on the back, paler on the belly.
Total length, 1,170 millimetres; tail 170.
Habitat: Egypt.