Preliminary trialcalledinitial trialMedian of trials 1 to 5called5th trialMedian of trials 20 to 25called25th trialMedian of trials 46 to 50called50th trialMedian of trials 76 to 80called80th trialMedian of trials 126 to 130called130th trialMedian of trials 171 to 175called175th trial
At each of these points the thirteen subjects were arranged in order of relative ability for the test at the given stage of practice. Each of these orders, or cross sections, of the group of practice curves was then correlated with the final order of position as shown in trials one hundred and seventy to one hundred and seventy-five. Table 24 gives the coefficients of correlation derived in this way. A careful study of this table will prove instructive.
The TestPreliminary5th Trial25th Trial50th Trial80th Trial130th TrialFinal Trial 175thAdding.15.19.87.87.97.961.00Opposites-.08.62.49.83.94.981.00Color Naming.68.89.86.91.97.971.00Discrimination.68.62.60.50.50.791.00Cancellation.67.68.88.69.93(1.00)—Coördination.52.79.77.90.95(1.00)—Tapping.23.48.63.68.69.891.00Averages.41.61.73.77.85.921.00
It is at once evident that the preliminary trial is by no means always a measure of the final relative capacities of the individuals tested. The average of all seven coefficients increases from .41 at the preliminary trial to .92 at the one hundred and thirtieth trial. As the trials proceed then, the relative positions of the thirteen individuals become more and more definitely fixed, but in the beginning the indication is obscure. The rate of this process, however, varies with the test, and to a considerable degree. Adding shows changes in position which effect a correlation of .87 only after the twenty-fifth trial. Beyond this point there is little change, the eightieth and one hundred and thirtieth trials correlating equally well, and practically perfectly, with the final order. After twenty-five trials, then, the final capacities of the individuals in the adding test may be said to be indicated fairly accurately. Opposites, inthe fiftieth trial, yields a coefficient equal to that of addition in the twenty-fifth trial, and by the eightieth trial the correlation may be said to be complete. Only after fifty trials, then, can the test be said to yield comparative measures which reflect the individual's final capacity in this form of controlled association. In the case of tapping it is only at the one hundred and thirtieth trial that the correlation with final position exceeds .69.
These results may be easily comprehended by thinking of each test (as for instance the tapping test) as a prolonged race, consisting of a large number of heats (205 separate trials). All individuals begin with a running start, their respective initial speeds depending on the momentum they have acquired through a certain amount of previous practice, and on such momentary ability and zeal as they possess at the time. But as the succeeding "heats" or trials occur some individuals who were originally in the lead begin to lose ground in relation to others who, though initially slower, are now speeding up and overtaking the leaders. Still others may retain their original relative positions to the end of the race. In the table of coefficients, a correlation of 1.00 indicates that at that point the ultimate relative positions of the contestants have at last become established. Thenearer the figure approaches zero the more uncertain are the relative positions at the particular trial. To terminate the race at a point where the correlation is low and to reward the contestants according to the position they had reached at that point would be manifestly unfair to those who were still speeding up and partial to those who were losing ground.
Color-naming, discrimination, cancellation, and coördination show up to much greater advantage. Even the preliminary trials in these tests show fairly high correlations with the final orders. The first two of these show little change as practice proceeds. In the case of the latter two tests, although the initial correlations are fairly high, there is nevertheless considerable increase as the trials proceed.
The meaning of these results seems to be that before one attempts to interpret individual differences as disclosed by performance in such a series of simple tests, he should have clearly in mind the distinction between temporary proficiency and ultimate capacity. If he is interested, for example, in determining the vocational prospects of a youth, or the relative merits of candidates or culprits, it is important that he realize that relative abilities in many of these laboratorytests may be changed quite beyond recognition by continued work. It is highly desirable to know more than we now know concerning the degree to which initial and intermediate trials in these tests reflect final capacity. In the past the question seems hardly to have been asked. Individual differences in early trials, in some tests, are fairly significant of the working level to which the performer may be brought later. In other tests this is not the case. On the significance of these early trials may depend, in many cases, the vocational value of the particular test.
Changes in the nature of the tests, variations of methods of attack, and specific improvement in the directness, independence and rapidity of the special nervous connections concerned—these three factors would all declare themselves in the form of "changes in ability." A useful piece of work in the case of all tests will be the analysis of the nature of the changes resulting from practice. But in any case the presence of these changes in correlation shows that we are not, in early trials, measuring the same tendency or capacity in all performers. The concrete tasks of daily life doubtless show just such qualitative changes, during practice, as we may suppose to be present in some of these tests. Just as it is ultimate capacityin daily life that is, with a given set of incentives, most important, so in the laboratory the measurement of "ability after practice" ought to be more emphasized than it is at present.
If it is true that with practice all tests correlate with one another, so that an individual who is good in one type of work is also, when his practice level has been reached, good in other types of work, the task of vocational psychology is at once enormously simplified. In place of further search for special occupational tests adapted in some peculiar way to particular types of work, our task is rather that of extending the general intelligence scales until they represent higher and higher degrees of general ability.
It is quite probable that further advance in this direction will come, not from the elaboration or invention of more tests, but by the selection of a very few tests, and the examination of the final limits of practice with respect to them. The problem will then be the selection of sets of tests in which initial performance shows high correlation with ultimate capacity in the tests themselves, or else the laborious and undramatic, but perhaps preferable, alternative of continuing every test until the practice limit is reached by the individual. In the latter case it would be well to learnmore about the nature and range of these limits than we know at present.
In so far as particular tasks are actually found to call for highly specialized aptitudes, for the detection of which tests are sought, there will be the further problem of correlating these various tests with the particular aptnesses or fitnesses toward the detection of which diagnosis is directed.
There will also be the problem of the alignment of the various types of work along the general intelligence scales, as rapidly as these are extended and elaborated. In so far as this method is followed, the task of selecting from candidates those best fitted for the accomplishment of special types of work will be easily handled. Vocational selection will readily find methods suited to its purposes. But vocational guidance, as distinguished from vocational selection, must for some time to come depend largely on the determination of interests, incentives, satisfactions, emotional values and preferences, and the discovery and direction of these through general channels of information and through the methods of industrial and pre-vocational education.
This is a hard and an arduous program. It calls for strenuous work on the part of investigators, patience and faithfulness on the part of observers,and wide coöperation of investigators with each other. From the immediately practical point of view it also offers an inviting opportunity to those foundations and individuals who are interested in supporting the further development of "the arts of social control over human nature."
FOOTNOTES:[16]For explanation of the technique and meaning of correlation see the footnote on p. 45.
[16]For explanation of the technique and meaning of correlation see the footnote on p. 45.
[16]For explanation of the technique and meaning of correlation see the footnote on p. 45.
The leading problems of vocational psychology we have seen to be three in number: First, how may the individual achieve the most adequate knowledge of his own peculiar mental and instinctive constitution, his equipment of capacities, tendencies, interests and aptitudes, and the ways in which he compares, in these respects, with his fellows? Second, how may the individual acquire information concerning the general or special traits required for successful participation in the various vocations, in order to select a line of activity for which he is constitutionally adapted? Third, how may the employer determine the relative desirability, fitness and promise of those who may offer themselves as his associates and assistants, or for minor positions in his employ? Obviously, if vocational psychology were in its maturity, rather than in its infancy, these various questions would resolve themselves into a single problem. The traits required in the various types of work would be fully known and specified, so thatboth the choice of the individual and the selection by the employer would proceed directly, once the individual's characteristics were known.
From this goal we are very far, but by no means hopelessly, removed. As we have seen in the preceding chapters, the line of attack is being advanced very unevenly at its various points. It is indeed characteristic of any new branch of science that it does not advance symmetrically and at a uniform rate, but moves ahead, now in this direction, now in that, so that the line of complete development is some distance behind the outposts of exploration. So in the case of vocational psychology we may draw a rough line which shall represent the main region of advance, and may indicate the various points where the line lags behind or goes conspicuously forward.
The main line of advance has left far behind it the magical ritual of primitive thought, the medieval search for significant omens and clairvoyant signs, the pseudo-scientific faith in the structural characteristics elaborated in physiognomy and phrenology, and has taken its stand firmly at the point where emphasis is laid on the objective study of the individual's behavior. Educationally this position shows itself in the abandonment of the purely disciplinary ideal of abstracttraining, and the substitution of training in specific forms of conduct, exercise, and occupation, accompanied by concrete experience with industrial opportunities, rewards, and satisfactions. From the more strictly psychological point of view the position shows itself in the experimental application of mental tests. In the measurement of the more strictly intellectual capacities, the line has shown a very decided advance since the beginning of the present century. The available intelligence scales make possible the diagnosis of intellectual defect, normality or precocity in units of considerable reliability, in the case of pre-adolescents. This step in itself is sufficient to put educational, industrial and social enterprise deeply in debt to the new science of experimental psychology.
But this by no means constitutes the only point of marked advance. Thanks to the elaboration of more complex and more diversified tests, and the gradual accumulation of norms, it is now possible to make mental measurements in the case of individuals considerably beyond the age of adolescence. By means of such methods, degrees of sensitivity, dexterity, accuracy, speed, comprehension, docility, discrimination, ingenuity, information, observation, and numerous other general aspectsof mental alertness may be recognized. Comparison of such measures, in the case of adult workers with actual success in the field of their activity, tends constantly to show high degrees of positive correlation. The fact that the correlations are not perfect raises numerous problems, the solution of which is now being attempted.
The evidence now at hand suggests that the incomplete correlation comes, in part at least, from the fact that some of the tests of momentary achievement do not fully represent the ultimate capacities of the individuals measured. At this point the line is relatively slow in advancing. The obstacles encountered consist partly in our incomplete information concerning which of the tests at once reveal final capacity and which do not. This information must necessarily come slowly because of the difficulties involved in securing the coöperation of subjects who will submit to the prolonged series of measurements which such investigations involve. Such data as are available, while inadequate to constitute proof, suggest very strongly that those tests which are now in most common use correlate closely with each other when the limit of practice is reached in all of them. If subsequent work confirms this suggestion, the determination of the factor of general intelligencemay proceed on either of two bases. Either we may use a very few trials of tests in which such trials may be found to indicate ultimate capacity, or we may use a small number of tests, but continue the measures until the limits of practice are reached.
But there is probably another factor in part responsible for the incompleteness of the correlations between test records and direct measures of vocational success. This is the fact that characteristics other than general intelligence play a conspicuous part in daily life. The interests, the incentives, the emotions, and the equipment of instinct and habit, which show themselves in such traits as curiosity, competition, honesty, loyalty, promptness, patience, the play impulse, etc., do not count for nothing in vocational activity. Moreover, it is quite likely that, in addition to the common fund of intelligence, each individual possesses in his or her own degree, certain more specialized capacities and aptitudes, for the complete measurement of which the available tests are inadequate. The graded "product scales," however, represent a definite step toward the measurement of many of these specific capacities.
Another difficulty encountered at this point is the fact that such direct measures of vocationalsuccess as have been utilized in these comparisons are in themselves subject to very large error. Only in recent years, and as a result of the emphasis of the human factor in industry, has it come to be the common practice to secure adequate records of the work of the individual as contrasted with the work of the gang. Even today such records are available in accurate form for only the simpler operations, in which standardized conditions of work can be maintained. The relative success of salesmen, for example, is not fairly measured in terms of the amounts of their sales, the number of prospects interviewed, or the frequency with which the assigned tasks are accomplished, unless the local trade conditions of the respective territories are fully taken into account. Inasmuch as such errors of measurement tend to reduce the apparent correlation between the traits measured, it is extremely probable that the psychological tests are even more significant than their present results indicate. Refinement of the tests must be accompanied by more accurate and precise measurement of the actual working efficiency of individuals in the industrial field, if the results of the one are ever to represent the amount of the other. In this as in many other respects, the development of vocational tests depends asmuch upon the active and intelligent coöperation of industrial concerns as it does upon the enthusiasm and diligence of the psychological investigators.
From the point of view of the employer, the incompleteness of the correlation between tests and direct measures is of little concern. Even a very small positive correlation affords him a degree of guidance in the selection of his workers that was far from forthcoming under the haphazard methods of employment that have been traditional. But from the point of view of the individual who is seeking guidance, or who is accepted or rejected on the basis of his performance in psychological tests, any correlation which is imperfect may lead to occasional injustice and misdirection.
The diagnosis of the instinctive and attitudinal characteristics and the recognition of the more specialized aptitudes constitute two points at which the line of advance is relatively slow. It is at these points that the psychographic methods find their task. As we have already seen in detail, the methods of the individual and the vocational psychograph are still in the stage of empirical procedure. In this stage of their development nearly any effort to amplify or apply themis certain to contribute results of positive value. The recent studies that have contributed most notably toward the further development of the psychographic technique have been in the form of the specialized vocational tests and methods. Such studies, in addition to yielding results of immediate applicability in the description and analysis of the special tasks at which they are directed, also constitute positive progress towards the more elaborate psychographic pictures of individuals and of tasks.
Meanwhile groups of further problems have been definitely organized, and preliminary steps taken toward their solution. The formulation of systematic guides to self-analysis and introspection and the study of the reliability to be placed in the individual's estimates of his own characteristics are making definite and interesting progress. The examination of the time-honored "recommendation" and the estimates of associates and friends, and the investigation of the accuracy of such judgments as are based on these testimonials, on letters of application, on the school records, etc., have already thrown long-desired illumination on several aspects of vocational psychology. The effort to base the vocational endeavors of women on the data of exact inquiry,rather than on the maintenance of primitive taboos and domestic and literary traditions, has played its own valuable part in one of the most vital economic adjustments of our age.
The very fact that a systematic presentation of the problems and methods of vocational psychology is possible signifies an enormous advance beyond the very recent stage in which all vocations were mysteries, all choices a serious form of gambling, and all employment confessedly a matter of impressionistic prejudice. To those who become familiar not only with the program of this new branch of applied science, but as well with the outstanding definite and positive contributions which that program has already yielded, the words of a constructive pioneer in this branch of scientific inquiry seem to be already becoming a statement of fact, rather than the mere expression of a hope. "The nineteenth century witnessed an extraordinary increase in our knowledge of the material world, and in our power to make it subservient to our ends; the twentieth century will probably witness a corresponding increase in our knowledge of human nature, and in our power to use it for our welfare."
1.Motives of Vocational Psychology
Bloomfield, M.: The Vocational Guidance of Youth
—— Readings in Vocational Guidance
Davis, J. B.: Moral and Vocational Guidance Hollingworth, H. L.: Vocational Psychology
Münsterberg, H.: Psychology and Industrial Efficiency
Parsons, F.: Choosing a Vocation
Puffer, J. A.: Vocational Guidance
Thorndike, E. L.: "Educational Diagnosis," Science, Jan. 24 1913
2.The Methods of Industrial Education
Bonser, F. G.: Fundamental Values in Industrial Education
Bonser and Russell: Industrial Education
Hanus, P.: Beginnings in Industrial Education
Righter and Leonard: Educational Surveys and Vocational Guidance
Weeks, R. M.: The People's School; a Study in Vocational Training
3.Pseudo-psychological Methods
Those interested in the historical features of vocational psychology will find innumerable books and monographson magic, clairvoyance, astrology, chiromancy, palmistry, phrenology, physiognomics, character-analysis, etc. All of these have only historical interest. See also an interesting survey of the development and motives of these systems, by Prof. Joseph Jastrow, inPopular Science Monthly, June, 1915
4.History of Psychological Tests
Cattell and Farrand: "Physical and Mental Measurements of the Students of Columbia University,"Psychological Review, Nov., 1896
Stern, W.: Die Differentielle Psychologie
—— The Psychological Methods of Testing Intelligence
Thorndike, E. L.: Educational Psychology, Vol. III
Whipple, G. M.: Manual of Mental and Physical Tests
Whitley, M. T.: Tests for Individual Differences
Wissler, C.: "Correlation of Mental and Physical Tests,"Psychological Review Monograph Supplement, No. 16, 1901
5.Graded Intelligence Tests and Product Scales
Binet and Simon: A Method of Measuring the Development of Intelligence of Young Children
Hillegas, M. B.: "Scale for Measurement of Quality in English Composition by Young People,"Teachers College Record, Sept., 1912
Pyle, W. H.: The Examination of School Children
Sylvester, R. H.: "The Form Board,"Psychological Review Monograph Supplement, No. 65, 1913
Thorndike, E. L.: "Handwriting,"Teachers College Record, March, 1910
Thorndike, E. L.: "Measurement of Achievement in Drawing,"Teachers College Record, Nov., 1913
Trabue, M. R.: A Graded Series of Completion Tests,School and Society, April 10, 1915
——"Completion-test Language Scales."Contribution to Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, No. 77, 1916
Whipple, G. M.: Manual of Mental and Physical Tests
Yerkes and Bridges: Point Scale for Measurement of Intelligence
6.The Individual Psychograph
Hollingworth, H. L.: "Review of Toulouse,"Psychological Bulletin, Nov., 1912
Stern, W.: Die Differentielle Psychologie
Toulouse, E.: Henri Poincaré
7.The Vocational Psychograph
Münsterberg, H.: Vocation and Learning
Parsons, F.: Choosing a Vocation
Schneider, H.: "Selecting Young Men for Particular Jobs," Bulletin 7,National Association of Corporation Schools
Seashore, C. E.: "The Measurement of a Singer,"Science, Feb. 9, 1912
Seashore, C. E.: Psychology in Daily Life
Trade Educational League Bulletins, Boston
8.Specialized Vocational Tests and Methods
Ayres, L.: "Psychological Tests in Vocational Guidance,"Journal of Educational Psychology, April, 1913
Hollingworth, H. L.: "Specialized Vocational Tests and Methods,"School and Society, June 26, 1915
Lahy, J. M.: "Les conditions psychophysiologiques de l'aptitude au travail dactylographique,"Journal de Physiology, 1913
Lough, W. H.: "Experimental Psychology and Vocational Guidance,"Proceedings Second Conference on Vocational Education
McComas, H. C.: "Some Tests for Efficiency of Telephone Operators,"Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods
Münsterberg, H.: Psychology and Industrial Efficiency
—— Business Psychology
Scott, W. D.: "The Scientific Selection of Salesmen,"Advertising and Selling, October, 1915
Taylor, F. A.: Scientific Management
Woolley and Fischer: "Mental and Physical Measurements of Working Children,"Psychological Review Monthly Supplement, No. 77
9.Self-Analysis of the Individual
Cattell, J. McK.: "Homo Scientificus Americanus,"Science, XVII
Davenport, C. B.: "The Trait Book,"Eugenics Record Office
Partridge, S. E.: An Outline for Individual Study
Parsons, F.: Choosing a Vocation
Thorndike, E. L.: The Original Nature of Man
—— "Professor Cattell's Relation to the Study of Individual Differences." InPsychological Researches of J. McKeen Cattell, Archives of Psychology, 30
Wells, F. L.: "The Systematic Observation of the Personality,"Psychological Review, July, 1914
Yerkes and LaRue: Outline for a Study of the Self
10.The Judgment of Associates
Cattell, J. McK.: "Homo Scientificus Americanus,"Science, XVII
Cogan, Lucy G., Conklin, Agnes M., and Hollingworth, H. L.: "Self-Analysis, Estimates of Associates, and Psychological Tests,"School and Society, Vol. II, 1915
Norsworthy, N.: "On the Validity of Judgments of Character,"Essays in Honor of William James
Simpson, B. R.: "Reliability of Estimates of General Intelligence, with Applications to Appointments to Positions,"Journal of Educational Psychology, April, 1915
11.The School Curriculum As a Vocational Test
Dearborn, W. F.: "The Relative Standing of Pupils in the High School and in the University," Bull. 312, Univ. of Wisconsin, 1909
Jones, A. L.: "The Value of College Entrance Examinations,"Educational Review, Sept., 1914
Kelley, T. L.: Educational Guidance
Lowell, A. L.: "College Studies and the Professional School,"Harvard Graduates' Magazine, Dec., 1910;Educational Review, Oct., 1911
Miles, W. R.: "Comparison of Elementary and High School Grades,"Iowa Studies in Education, I, 1
Nicholson, F. W.: "Success in College and in After Life,"School and Society, Aug. 14, 1915
Smith, F. O.: "A Rational Basis for Determining Fitness for College Entrance,"University of Iowa Studies in Education, N. S., 51, Dec., 1912
Thorndike, E. L.: "Educational Diagnosis,"Science, Jan. 24, 1913
—— "The Future of the College Entrance Examination Board,"Educational Review, May, 1906. AlsoScience, Vol. 23, p. 289
—— "The Permanence of Interests and Their Relation to Abilities,"Popular Science Monthly, Nov., 1912
12.The Determinants of Vocational Aptitude, and the Vocational Aptitudes of Women
Castle, Cora Sutton: "A Statistical Study of Eminent Women,"Archives of Psychology, No. 27, August, 1913
Hollingworth, Leta S.: "An Economic Study of Feeble-minded Women,"Medical Record, June 6, 1914
—— Functional Periodicity,Teachers College Studies, No. 69, 1914
—— "Variability as Related to Sex Differences in Achievement,"American Journal of Sociology, Jan., 1914
Jastrow, J.: Character and Temperament
Montague, Helen, and Hollingworth, L. S.: "The Comparative Variability of the Sexes at Birth,"American Journal of Sociology, Oct., 1914
Münsterberg, H.: Vocation and Learning
—— Psychology and Industrial Efficiency
Pearson, K.: "Variation in Man and Woman," in "Chances of Death," 1897
Schneider, H.: "Selecting Young Men for Particular Jobs,"Bulletin 7, National Association of Corporation Schools
—— "The Problem of Selecting the Right Job,"National Association of Corporation Schools, Bulletin June 9, 1915
Thompson, Helen B.: The Mental Traits of Sex
Thorndike, E. L.: Educational Psychology, Part III, 1914
Wells, F. L.: "The Principle of Mental Tests,"Science, Aug. 22, 1913
Woolley, Helen: "Sex Differences in Mental Traits,"Psychological Bulletin, Oct., 1914
13.Theory and Principle of Mental Tests as Applied in Vocational Analysis
Brown, W.: Habit Interference,University of California Publication in Psychology, I, 4
Hollingworth, H. L.: "Correlation of Abilities as Affected by Practice,"Journal of Educational Psychology, Jan., 1912
—— "Individual Differences Before, During and After Practice,"Psychological Review, Jan., 1914
Stern, W.: Die Differentielle Psychologie
Thorndike, E. L.: "Educational Diagnosis,"Science, Jan. 24, 1913
—— Mental and Social Measurements
Wells, F. L.: "The Principle of Mental Tests,"Science, Aug. 22, 1913
Wells, F. L.: "Systematic Observation of the Personality,"Psychological Review, July, 1914
Whipple, G. M.: Manual of Mental and Physical Tests
Whitley, M. T.: Tests for Individual Differences
On the back of this sheet will be found the record of the student to whom it is sent, together with the results obtained with about 250 college freshmen. The individual student may thus see how certain of his physical and mental traits compare with those of other students. Some of the records are given in percentages: Thus, in the case of eyesight, if the student has a record of 44 cm. or under he is among the third or fourth having the worst eyesight and should consult an oculist. Others of the records are given in averages, and the student can readily see whether he is above or below the average. After the average is given a number in parenthesis which is the probable error. If the record of an individual departs from the average by less than this quantity he belongs to the half of the students who are medium or normal. Thus in the case of the reaction-time, if a student has a time more than 0.019 sec. below 0.159 sec. he is among the quarter of the students who are the quickest.
In several of the tests, especially sensation-areas, force of movement, perception of pitch, of size and of time, and memory for size, the number of trials is not sufficient to establish certainly the place of the student among the others.
Tests such as these are of importance for science. They teach us the normal type of individual and the normal variation from this type. They show us how different classes in the community differ, and on what conditions of heredity, education, etc., these differences depend. They show us how physical and mental traits are interrelated, how they alter with growth, and on what conditions development depends. The tests should be of interest to the individual as they show how he compares with his fellows, indicating defects and special aptitudes, and if repeated later in the college course or in after life the comparison may prove of great value. This record should be compared with the measurements taken in the gymnasium.
Record of ______________________________________________________Together with the averages and percentages of about 250 students.
Head: { length, 19.4 cm. (0.43)______________{ breadth, 15.3 cm. (0.38)______________Vision: Right eye, 72 cm. and over, 15%; 61 to 52 cm.,52%; 44 cm. and under, 33%______________Vision: Left eye, 72 cm. and over, 16%; 61 to 52 cm.,60%; 44 cm., and under, 24%______________Color vision: Normal, 94.5%; defective, 4%; blind, 1.5%______________Preference for color: Blue, 42%; red, 22%; violet, 19%;yellow, 2%; green, 7%; white, 3%,; none, 5%______________Hearing: Right ear, abnormal, 3%______________Hearing: Left ear, abnormal, 2%______________Perception of pitch: Error less than 1/10 tone, 10%;1/10 to one tone, 53%; more than one tone, 37%______________Sensation areas: Correct 4 or 5 times, 63%; 3, 2, 1 or0 times, 37%______________Force of movement: Error, 1.44 cm. (0.51)______________Sensitiveness to Pain: Right hand, 5.9 kg. (2.4)______________Sensitiveness to Pain: Left hand, 5.6 kg. (2.2)______________Strength: Right hand, 36.3 kg. (4.9)______________Strength: Left hand, 33.5 kg. (4.7)______________Fatigue: Work done 284.3 kg______________Fatigue: Amount of fatigue, 65% (27)______________Reaction-time: 0.159 sec. (0.019)______________Marking 100 letters: 100 sec. (12)______________Naming 100 colors: 85 sec. (14)______________Making 100 movements: 34 sec. (4)______________100 accurate movements: {time, 49 sec. (47)______________{av. error, 0.8 mm. (0.3)______________Perception of size: Error, 2.4 mm. (2.0)______________Perception of time: Error, 2.4 mm. (2.0)______________Memory: Numerals, heard, 7.6 (0.4)______________Memory: Numerals, seen, 6.9 (0.5)______________Memory: logical, 44.5% (11)______________Memory retrospective, error, 4.5 mm. (2.6)______________Association time, 55.4 sec. (22.9)______________Association of opposites______________Imagery: Visualization, distinct, 83%______________Imagery: Auditory, distinct, 23%______________
The following tables illustrate the principle of norms and standards for mental and physical characteristics. In these cases various traits or measures of performance have been recorded on large numbers of children at each age from six years to eighteen years. The figures under a given age column indicate what should be expected from the average or normal person of that age, in the trait in question. If the individual is precisely "at age" in all the traits measured, all his records will fall in the vertical column under the figure indicating age. Deviation above or below the average will be indicated by position above or below this column. For description of the tests and instructions for their administration the reader should consult the references given on pages 275-282.
TraitYear6789101112131415161718Height (cm) Boys111116121126131135140146152158164168171Height (cm)Girls110115120125130135141148154157158159159Weight (kg) Boys20222426293134384348535761Weight (kg) Girls19212325283134394448515253Skull L. (mm)Boys177179180181182183183184187188191191192Skull L. (mm)Girls172174175176177180180181183184184185186Skull W (mm) Boys142142143144144145145147147148149150151Skull W (mm) Girls139140140141142142143144145146146146147Vital Capacity (cc) Boys1023116813161469160317321883210823952697312034833655Vital Capacity (cc) Girls950106111651286140915261664182720142168226623192343Tapping (Right Hand) (30 sec.) B......147151161169170184184191196196197Tapping (Right Hand) (30 sec.) G......146149157169169178181181184188193Grip (kg) Right, Boys9111214171921242833394549Grip (kg) Right, Girls8101113151719222527293030Pain Limen (kg) Boys1.31.41.71.71.72.02.02.12.12.42.72.82.9Pain Limen (kg) Girls1.20.91.21.41.51.61.51.71.81.81.91.91.8