The Oroya Railroad, Peru, showing four sections of the roadThe Oroya Railroad, Peru, showing four sections of the roadLINK TO IMAGE
Thinking that he could more easily govern the empire through a native ruler subservient to himself, Pizarro placed Manco, the true heir, on the Peruvian throne. In the meantime, however, parts of the empire rebelled against the new ruler and the Spanish usurpers. Then, when the rebellious tribes had been brought back to their former allegiance, the Spanish leaders quarrelled and fought among themselves.
It was not long before the arrogant and cruel conduct of the Spaniards alienated all friendship on the part of both ruler and his subjects. Manco broke from his masters and, aided by his people, raised the standard of rebellion, determining to make a last supreme effort to rid his subjects of the incubus that was sapping the life of the country.
After many bloody encounters in which both sides sustained severe losses, Manco was killed and the Spanish yoke was firmly fixed on the neck of the people, who for the greater part were consigned to a most inhuman slavery. Thousands perished by the brutal treatment inflicted upon them in the silver mines.
In the course of time Indian slavery was abolished in a great measure by royal proclamation; nevertheless, Spain continued to rule this land for three hundred years before the oppressive yoke was cast off by a successful uprising. It is a pleasure to know that many of the Spanish leaders who were guilty of this heartless cruelty suffered violent deaths in quarrels among themselves or in rebellion against the crown of Spain.
During the period of Spanish rule an immense revenue accrued from working the rich silver mines. Those that filled the Spanish treasure ships so eagerly sought by buccaneers were the mines of Potosi. These silver lodes, extensively worked through Indian slave labor by Hernando and Gonzalo Pizarro, brothers of Francisco Pizarro, were discovered in 1546.
So rich did the lodes prove to be that the city of Potosi sprang up near them and was supported by them, althoughthe site was far from being desirable. Its altitude is about thirteen thousand feet, and it is, therefore, the highest city in the world. It is situated on the bleak side of the Andes, from whose snow-clad peaks cold, piercing winds sweep down over the city. Towering above it is a mountain, honeycombed with shafts, tunnels, and drifts, from which has been taken silver to the value of two billion dollars.
At first it was thought that a location so high above sea level would be unhabitable, but the immense wealth of the silver lodes required many workmen for their development, and these laborers had to be housed and fed.
At the zenith of its prosperity Potosi possessed one hundred seventy thousand inhabitants, and had the distinction of being the largest city in the New World during the first two centuries of its existence. A mint built in 1562, at the expense of over a million dollars, is long since unused. A splendid granite cathedral ornamented with beautiful statuary still attests to the former grandeur of the city.
Some of the richest veins of silver ore in the Potosi mines have been worked out and many mines have been allowed to become filled with water. These conditions, coupled with the low price of silver for many years, have caused the population of the city to dwindle until now there are scarcely more than ten thousand inhabitants and very many of the buildings are in ruins. These mines have produced twenty-seven thousand tons of silver since their discovery, and at the present day many of them are yielding large returns.
The Bolivian plateau is one vast mineral bed abounding in rich mines of copper, tin, silver, and gold. In Bolivia alone there are upward of two thousand silver mines; while some of the richest tin mines in the world are found here. Lodes of pure tin several feet in width have been followed down six hundred feet. Tin mines were recently discovered among the mountains thirteen thousand fivehundred feet above the level of the sea, near the shores of Lake Titicaca.
Two railroads now reach this high plateau, one from the seaport town of Antofagasta, Chile, to Oruro, Bolivia; the other from Molendo, Peru, to Puno, on Lake Titicaca. The most wonderful railroad in the world and the most costly in its construction, the Oroya Railroad is about one hundred fifty miles long. It begins at Callao, Peru, and ends at Oroya. The highest point reached by it in crossing the Andes is fifteen thousand six hundred and sixty-five feet. It is said that seven thousand lives were lost in its construction. Much of the road-bed was blasted through solid rock on the sides of the mountains. The cost of construction was about three hundred thousand dollars per mile. It has seventy-eight tunnels, the longest being the Gallera tunnel, which pierces Mount Meiggs at the altitude of fifteen thousand six hundred and sixty-five feet. This is the highest place in the world where steam is used as a motive power. Ultimately the road is to be extended to the celebrated mines of Cerro de Pasco, fifty-one miles beyond its present terminus, Oroya.
The chief business of these railroads extending into the Andes is carrying ore, bullion, and wool. Their construction marks the acme of engineering skill; the scenery along them surpasses that of all other regions in its wild ruggedness, grandeur, and sublimity.
In ascending to such great heights quickly one not accustomed to high elevations is apt to experience dizziness, headache, and nausea. At first even the effort to talk on reaching these lofty places by train is laborious. Dogs taken from the lowlands to these elevations are unable to run with speed for a long time, but those which are born and reared in this region easily pursue wild animals.
When the New World was discovered the llama was theonly animal used there as a beast of burden. Thousands of these diminutive creatures are still used for transporting ore and bullion in the Andes. Each animal can carry a load of seventy-five pounds or more. This sure-footed animal can travel with its load about fourteen miles a day.
Llamas restingLlamas restingLINK TO IMAGE
Lake Titicaca is one of the famous lakes of the world. Its name means tin-stone and was doubtless derived from the tin ore found in the vicinity. The lake has an elevation of twelve thousand five hundred and fifty feet, and although nine streams run into it, only one, the Desaguadero, flows out, carrying its waters to Lake Poopo, a small body of salt water nearly three hundred miles south. Lake Titicaca has the same surface level both summer and winter. The outflow never reaches the sea; it is lost by evaporation mainly in Lake Poopo, but the latter frequently overflows into the salt marshes lying to the southward.
Though thin ice may be found in the quiet bays and inlets nearly every morning during the year, the expanse of the lake is never frozen even in the severest weather. A peculiarity about the lake is that not only will iron not rust when left in its waters, but that which was before rusted soon loses its scales of rust after being immersed a few days.
Several steamers ply on the lake carrying chiefly ore and wool. Some of the islands in the lake are inhabited by Indians who eke out a precarious living.
A civilization antedating that of the Incas formerly occupied the region about the lake, as is proved by the remarkable ruins along the shores concerning which the natives told the early Spaniards that they had no record. Three square miles are covered by these ruins, whose walls were made of immense blocks of stone most accurately fitted together, thus giving evidence of the great skill in stone-cutting possessed by the pre-Inca people.
The Inca rulers had beautiful palaces and other edifices on some of the islands. Titicaca Island was regarded as sacred, and at the time of the Spanish conquest was the site of a large temple richly ornamented with gold and silver.
Prospecting in the Andes is attended with great hardships. Few wild animals can be found to furnish food. Food and utensils must be carried on the backs of men, and the greatest difficulty is experienced in traversing the almost inaccessible steeps and deep ravines.
Coal of inferior quality has been found near the shores of Lake Titicaca and is used by the steamers sailing on its waters. Many rich mineral lodes yet remain undiscovered, and a vast number of valuable mines languish for lack of capital to develop them. Frequent revolutions and the insecurity of private property prevent the investment of foreign capital.
The Andes will continue to be a great storehouse of minerals for many years to come.
Silver-smelting works at Cassapalca, on the Oroya Railroad, Peru, 13,600 feet highSilver-smelting works at Cassapalca, on the Oroya Railroad, Peru, 13,600 feet highLINK TO IMAGE
Muffling the feet of the Peruvian Andes is a long narrow strip—drifting dunes of rock waste—known as the Atacama Desert. In comparison with this awful desert, the Sahara is said to be a botanical garden. Here during a part of the year a fierce, relentless sun pours down its burning rays on the shifting sands, keeping the air at a scorching heat both day and night. Formerly the region belonged to Bolivia, but it was annexed to Chile as a result of the war of 1881.
For miles and miles not a blade of grass, not a tree, not a shrub is to be seen. All around is a bleak, barren waste destitute of water. Yet underneath these sandslie concealed immense deposits of "nitrates" of untold wealth.
Although small quantities of the nitrates had been sent to Europe for chemical purposes—chiefly the manufacture of gunpowder—no considerable amount was exported until a fortuitous discovery was made by a Scotchman named George Smith. After wandering over the world for some time Smith settled down in a little village near Iquique, where he had a small garden containing fruit-trees and flowers. In one part of his garden he noticed that the plants grew best where the soil contained a white substance.
He then proceeded to gather a quantity of the material and to experiment with it. To his surprise he found that a mere handful of it greatly stimulated the growth of plants. He told a member of his family in Scotland who was engaged in fruit-growing about the wonderful effects of the material as a fertilizer. As a result several bags of nitrates were distributed among Scottish farmers and fruit-growers. So satisfactory did the fertilizer prove that an immediate call was made for more of it. Thus began a business which now yields the owners of the beds one hundred million dollars yearly.
It was soon found out that the nitrate in its raw state contained properties that were injurious to plants and that these should be first eliminated. Forthwith reduction works were established to extract the deleterious substances. These substances were mainly iodine and bromine, two chemical elements that are of greater value than the nitrates themselves. Within a few years railroads were built to transport the nitrates from the beds to the various ports where the reduction factories were erected.
Many men who had large interests in the nitrate beds became immensely wealthy in a short time. The greatvalue of the deposits caused towns and cities to spring up along the coast in the most inhospitable places, to some of which water was piped a distance of more than two hundred miles and at the cost of many millions of dollars.
The principal nitrate beds are in a shallow valley, four or five thousand feet above sea level, lying between a long range of hills and the base of the Andes. Just how these mineral deposits were formed it is difficult to explain, the most plausible theory being that this desert was once the bottom of an inland sea having vast quantities of seaweed covered with sand. In the gradual decay of this substance the nitrate of soda, or "Chile saltpetre," was formed.
To obtain the nitrates it is necessary first to remove the top layer of sand and then a layer of clay. Underneath this is found a layer of soft, whitish material called "nitrate." The crude nitrate is sent to the nitrate ports to be crushed and boiled in sea-water. After boiling, the solution is drawn off into shallow vessels and exposed to the heat of the sun to evaporate.
When nearly all has been evaporated and the remaining liquid drawn off, the bottom and sides of the vessels are found to be covered with sparkling white crystals. This is the saltpetre of commerce, the highest grade of which is used in the manufacture of gunpowder, the second grade for chemical purposes, and the third grade, the great bulk, for fertilizing the exhausted soils of Europe.
The liquid drawn off is crystallized by chemical treatment and further evaporation, and from it is obtained iodine, an ounce of which is worth as much as one hundred pounds of saltpetre. From eighty to one hundred million dollars' worth of these nitrates are dug out and sold each year. Great Britain takes about one-third of the entire product and Germany one-fifth.
Iquique has the largest shipping trade. From this port about fifty million dollars' worth of nitrates and three million dollars' worth of iodine are exported yearly.
CHAPTER VIITHE CZAR'S GREATER DOMAIN
No other parts of the globe have been subject to so many kaleidoscopic changes by migrations during the past eight centuries as northern Asia and eastern Europe. In comparison both India and China have remained stable for many centuries.
Before the Christian era, Mongol tribes of northeastern Asia began their westward march, tarrying a few centuries along the way in the most fertile places and gathering force by multiplication until the thirteenth century. Then like a mighty flood they poured into eastern Europe, carrying everywhere in their pathway subjugation, devastation, and slaughter. During the early part of these migrations, the great Roman Empire trembled as she beheld the irresistible moving hosts, and her downfall was hastened by the ponderous blows dealt her by these barbarians.
In the early part of the thirteenth century, after the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan had overrun southern Russia, he turned northward and captured the cities of Moscow, Vladimir, and Ryazan, putting to death many of the inhabitants by the most fiendish methods of torture. Thousands were slaughtered merely to wreak vengeance for the strong resistance offered by the besieged before surrendering. Hundreds of thousands of the Russians both high and low were made slaves. Wives of the nobles who had been richly clad and adorned with jewels became servants of their conquerors.
Fishing for sturgeon through the ice of the Ural River. Catching the material for caviareFishing for sturgeon through the ice of the Ural River. Catching the material for caviareLINK TO IMAGE
In 1272 most of the Tartars became Muhammadans and henceforth became more intolerant of the Christians, thousands of whom they burned alive or tortured. This oppressive yoke was borne for nearly three hundred years. Then Ivan III succeeded in breaking the Tartar rule forever. Mongol tribes, however, remained a disturbing element on the border for two hundred years thereafter.
In the early part of the fourteenth century Othman, a Mongol, founded the Ottoman empire, which then consisted of only the western part of Asia Minor. His son and successor conquered Gallipoli in 1354, thereby gaining a foothold in Europe, and during the next two centuries successive Turkish rulers made large additions to the empireuntil it embraced vast areas in Europe, Asia, and Africa. For a time, indeed, it threatened to absorb all Christendom. Adrianople was conquered in 1361 and made the capital of the Turkish Empire. Then, in 1453, after a memorable siege, Constantinople was captured by the Muhammadans, and made the capital of the empire.
Orkhan was the first to exact as tribute the strongest and healthiest male children of all Christian peoples whom he conquered. These youths, reared as Muhammadans and trained under strict military discipline, became that efficient body of troops called the Janizaries. For a long time they were the bulwark of the empire, but at length they became so dictatorial and powerful that the sultan began to fear them more than he feared his foreign enemies. In 1825, when the army was reorganized on the European plan, the Janizaries broke out in open revolt. Then the reigning sultan unfurled the flag of the Prophet and called upon the faithful to suppress the rebellious corps. In the contest that ensued it is estimated that twenty-five thousand of the rebels were put to death, twenty thousand were banished, and the others disbanded. This was the end of an epoch of blood-shedding and the beginning of an era of commerce.
The Russians have always been noted for their love of furs; as a result a small, fur-bearing animal, the sable, led to the conquest of that vast realm now known as Siberia.
About the middle of the sixteenth century a rich Russian merchant named Strogonoff, residing at Kazan, established salt works on the banks of the Kama, a tributary of the Volga River, and began trading with the natives. One day, having noticed some strangely dressed travellers and learning that they came from a country beyond the Ural Mountains, called Sibir, he despatched some of his agents into that land. On returning, the employees brought withthem the finest sable skins that the merchant had ever seen. They had been secured for a trifling sum.
Strogonoff began at once to extend the area of his trafficking, and informed the government of the lucrative commerce that he had opened up. Valuable concessions were then granted him. A few years afterward a Cossack officer named Yermak, who had been declared an outlaw by Ivan the Terrible, gathered together a force of less than one thousand men. The band was composed of adventurers, freebooters, and criminals, and the expedition was armed and provisioned by Strogonoff, who expected to profit by opening up the new region. Permission having been obtained from the government, in 1579 Yermak set forth with his followers for the unknown country.
So great were the impediments which the pathless swamps and forest offered, together with the severity of the climate and hostility of the natives, that his force was reduced by death, sickness, and desertion to the number of five hundred when he lined up his men before the large army of the powerful Kutchum Khan. Like Cortez and Pizarro, Yermak had unbounded confidence in his ability to cope with his enemies, who were rudely armed with bows and arrows, regardless of their numbers; for his own men were supplied with matchlocks, and with these—in the language of the natives—they could manufacture thunder and lightning.
A terrible battle ensued, and for some time success seemed evenly balanced. At length the fierce attacks of the Cossacks forced the barbarous hordes to give way and the retreat became a stampede. Kutchum Khan's camp and all its treasures fell into the hands of the conquerors. Yermak at once sent part of his force to occupy the Tartar capital, which was found to be evacuated, so great was the terror inspired by the Russians.
The success achieved by the handful of Cossacks ledseveral neighboring tribes to offer voluntarily an annual tribute of sable skins. When Yermak had collected several thousand of these skins, he sent a special envoy to Moscow to present them along with the conquered country to the czar. So greatly pleased was Ivan with the offerings that he forgave Yermak for his past ill deeds and made him governor and commander-in-chief of all the countries which he might conquer. Then, knowing that it would be difficult for the Cossacks to hold the conquered territory very long with their diminished numbers, the czar forthwith sent reinforcements.
Soon after the arrival of the additional troops, Yermak audaciously started out to make further conquests. One dark and rainy night he encamped with his force on a small island in the Irtish River. Relying on the terror which his name had inspired, and the stormy weather, he deemed it unnecessary to post sentinels. Wearied with their long march, soon all of the Russians were buried in slumber.
But Kutchum, smarting under his humiliating defeat, had spies constantly watching his foes, intending, if possible, to take them by surprise. When the spies reported to him the lack of vigilance on the part of the enemy, he stealthily crossed to the island with his force and fell upon the sleeping camp. All the Russians but two were killed, and these, escaping, reported the disaster at Sibir. When Yermak saw the annihilation of his troops, he cut his way through the Tartars and attempted to swim the stream, but was dragged to the bottom by his heavy armor and drowned.
When news of the crushing disaster reached Sibir the Russians, losing heart at the death of their leader, evacuated the place and returned home. The czar, nevertheless, had no idea of permitting a land so promising to slipfrom his grasp. It was not long before he sent a larger army across the Ural Mountains, which not only reconquered the lost territory but also the rest of western Siberia.
Gathering salt at the mouth of the Ural RiverGathering salt at the mouth of the Ural RiverLINK TO IMAGE
Gradually the Cossacks moved eastward, conquering tribe after tribe. As they advanced they built strong wooden forts by which to hold their vantage ground. Tomsk was founded in 1604; by 1630 the tide of conquest had reached the banks of the Lena; and within eighty years from their first conquest the Russians had reached the Pacific.
Years afterward a suitable monument was erected to Yermak in the city of Tobolsk, which was built on the battle-field where he gained his first decisive victory over the Tartar ruler. His real monument is all Siberia, whose conquest he inaugurated.
In 1847 the Amur River section was annexed by Russia regardless of the protests of the Chinese Government. Quarrels ensued over the boundaries and, finding resistance hopeless, the Chinese ceded to Russia all the land onthe left bank of the Amur as far as the mouth of the Ussuri and on both its banks below that river.
The sable gradually led the Russian hunters to Kamtchatka, while the more valuable sea-otter beckoned them across the sea to the Aleutian Islands and that part of the American continent now Alaska Territory. The chief incentive in all of these conquests was the securing of valuable furs. The sable is even yet found along the streams in both open and forested sections from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific; but so relentless has been the pursuit of this valuable fur-bearing animal that it is now nearly exterminated. Besides the sable and the sea-otter, there are found in Siberia the ermine, bear, arctic fox, common fox, deer, wolf, antelope, elk, hare, and squirrel.
To avoid entering into conflict with the more powerful people at the south, the Russians chose to advance eastward along higher latitudes toward the Pacific. But within a few years after the Muscovite empire had acquired central and northern Siberia, there were loud complaints that the tribes on the south were making raids on them, robbing them of their property and carrying their people into slavery. So, from time to time, Cossack forces were sent to chastise the offenders; and in many instances they were punished and their territories were annexed to Siberia.
In these raids the Turkomans were the most active. During the forty years previous to 1878 it is estimated that eighty thousand Russian subjects and two hundred thousand Persians were made captives and sold into slavery. In 1873 the Russians captured Khiva and liberated thirty thousand Persian slaves.
Notwithstanding these lessons, some of the Turkoman tribes still went on marauding expeditions, robbing, killing, and enslaving their neighbors. So, in 1878, another strong force of the Cossacks was sent against the pillaging tribes,who were made to release all slaves and abolish slavery. Little by little all Turkistan became Russian territory. Bokhara and Khiva alone keep their old forms of government, but they are practically Russian states and pay Russia annually a stipulated tribute.
It is thought that once upon a time Siberia had a much larger population than it has now and the peoples who lived there dwelt farther north. The first colonists lived in the stone age and were contemporaneous with the mammoth, whose remains are found scattered all over the northern part of Siberia and the adjacent islands.
In the interior these remains are found imbedded in thick strata of pure blue ice, which is covered by the river gravels of streams that do not now exist. So thick are these layers of ice that they may be likened to the rocks found in lower latitudes. Several of these animals have been found imbedded in the ice in an almost perfect state of preservation, and quantities of their tusks are obtained annually along the northern rivers where the spring freshets have worn away the banks of the streams.
Whenever the ivory-tusk hunter sees the end of a tusk sticking out of the river bank, he is soon able to remove it from its resting place with pick and shovel. Great quantities of this fossil ivory are also obtained from the islands to the north of the mainland.
As in arctic America, the ground of northern Siberia is frozen solid to the depth of many feet, and even during the hottest summer it thaws down only a few inches. The climate is continental in character, being marked by fierce winds and great extremes both in temperature and moisture. In midsummer the temperature may reach one hundred and ten degrees, while in midwinter it has been known to reach ninety degrees below zero.
Roughly speaking, Siberia may be divided into threelongitudinal belts: first, the tundra, which borders the Arctic Ocean and extends several hundred miles south of it; second, the forest belt, several hundred miles wide, which extends across the continent; third, the southern part, consisting of desert steppes, swamps, grassy plains, and a few broken forests.
The tundra is a vast lowland plain which in winter is a desolate, frozen waste, and in summer a vast swamp of lichens and arctic moss. Here nature is embalmed in eternal frost, and life is a terror-inspiring struggle with cold and hunger.
In spring, when the snow is gone and the ground begins to thaw, thousands of geese, ducks, swans, and other feathered creatures appear, enlivening the monotonous scene for a few months; then, when the sharp September frosts announce the approach of winter, with their tundra-reared progeny they wing their way southward, leaving the icy plains to the wandering fox and the arctic owl.
One writer speaks of the tundra as the very grave of nature, the sepulchre of the primeval world, because it is the tomb of so many animals whose remains have been protected from putrefaction for thousands of years. How interesting would it be could these animals be brought to life and be endowed with sufficient intelligence to relate the history of their age and generation!
The reindeer in the valley of the Lena spend the winter near the forests, but as the spring advances they migrate to the thousands of islands in the delta to escape the heat and mosquitoes farther south. To reach their destination they are obliged to swim across broad channels of water. The animals have special places for crossing, and on their return south the natives station themselves at these places and slaughter them in large numbers.
All the swamps and marshes throughout Siberia are thebreeding places of innumerable mosquitoes, which in summer fly over the country in such dense clouds as to render life in certain sections almost unbearable.
Just north of Mongolia where the Yenisei River enters Russian territory is the wonderfully interesting fertile prairie region of Minusinsk. Being well watered and sheltered on all sides by mountains, it is one of the most fertile spots in all Siberia. Here the disintegration of gold-bearing rocks has formed large mining fields which are profitably worked. In the vicinity are also valuable iron mines, which were opened early in the prehistoric period, and which are still worked.
Driving over the tundra in winterDriving over the tundra in winterLINK TO IMAGE
Because of its delightful climate and special attractions for the archæologist, this charming section is called the "Italy of Siberia." There have been obtained from the mounds found in this section many thousand relics relating to prehistoric man which exemplify his progress from the stone age through the bronze to the iron age. This fine collection of upward of sixty thousand different articlesis housed in an imposing and substantial museum erected in the town of Minusinsk. This building contains the richest collection of implements representing the bronze age in the world.
The forest belt is so immense that the wooded plains of the Amazon shrink into comparative insignificance. For the most part these great forests are composed of evergreen trees, the fir, pine, larch, and pitch-pine predominating. In many localities there are hundreds of square miles of perfectly straight pine trees of great height, where neither man nor beast could find the way out. Even experienced trappers dare not enter these forests without blazing trees along their pathway, so that they may be able to extricate themselves by retracing their steps. In these huge evergreen solitudes there is an inexhaustible supply of the finest timber in the world. In every sense of the word they are solitudes; for one may travel scores of miles without meeting or hearing either bird or beast.
At the conclusion of the war between Japan and Russia it was stipulated that Russia should cede to Japan the southern part of Sakhalin Island. The cession was made in 1905. During the following two years a large number of Russians and Japanese were employed in marking the boundary, by cutting through the forest from east to west a strip one hundred miles long and twelve miles wide. The fir forests of the Japanese portion, covering more than three million acres, are alone estimated to be worth forty-five million dollars, to say nothing about the extensive coal deposits and the large areas of land available for tillage.
Of the native peoples of northern Siberia the Yakuts are the most numerous. They resemble both the Eskimos and the Lapps. They occupy several valleys, including that of the Lena River and a strip along the Arctic Ocean to the west. So inured to cold are these people, that where thetemperature ranges from ninety degrees below zero to ninety-three degrees above, the adults wear light clothing in the depth of winter and the children sport naked in the snow.
The desert zone includes a vast region east of the Caspian Sea and extends to the Tian Shan Mountains, which separate it from the desert of Gobi. Here, as in the Mohave Desert, are found the leafless, thickly spined forms of the cactus family.
A product peculiar to Siberia and highly appreciated by the inhabitants on account of its edible qualities is the cedar nut found in all of the northern forest region. So great is the demand for these nuts that in Tomsk alone thousands of tons are sold each year. They resemble pine nuts. A gum called larch-tree sulphur, chewed by both natives and settlers, is also obtained from these forests. Bee-keeping, especially in eastern Siberia, is an important industry which has been followed from remotest ages. The annual yield of honey is estimated to be upward of three million pounds.
The camel is usually associated with the hot desert regions of the Sahara and Arabia, yet in Siberia immense numbers of camels are used. It is not an uncommon sight to see them in midwinter hauling sledges along frozen roads and ice-covered rivers.
The richest gold fields are in the swamp and forest sections of central Siberia and in the Ural and Altai Mountains, although the metal is widely scattered all the way from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific. The word Altai means gold. The world's supply of platinum virtually comes from the gold-mines of Siberia as a by-product. In many parts of the mining region, as in Alaska, the frozen ground must be thawed by fires before it can be worked.
The building of the Trans-Siberian Railroad has wrought a wonderful transformation in Siberia by giving a great impetus to agriculture and other kinds of business. Thisgreat achievement, begun in 1891, was practically completed in eleven years, at a cost of one hundred and seventy-five million dollars. Subsequent work, together with equipment, double tracking, and the building of additional lines, has doubled the first cost.
The eastern terminus of the main line is Vladivostock; a branch line across Manchuria reaches Port Arthur and Dalny, or Tairen, as it is now called. The continuous railway route from St. Petersburg to Port Arthur is five thousand six hundred and twenty miles, four thousand five hundred miles of which is in Siberia. The first rails used, proving too light for the tremendous traffic, were replaced with heavier ones, and the road-bed itself has been widened and strengthened.
The fare on the road is very reasonable. For long distances it ranges from about a cent per mile to less than half that rate, accordingly as one travels first, second, third, or fourth class. Riding first class one can secure sleeping accommodations equal to the best that one finds on the roads of the United States, and in addition one may have the luxury of a bath.
Since the completion of the road the government has done everything possible to attract Russian emigration from Europe in order to settle and develop the country. The consumer in Russia becomes a producer in Siberia. The number of Russian emigrants who have settled along the line during the past five years will average one hundred and fifty thousand annually.
To start the Russian farmers in these new regions the government gives each man of family a certain amount of money or an equivalent in stock and tools; and in addition loans him small amounts at a low rate of interest, to be repaid in five years, with a proviso that if there be bad crops the time will be extended. For the year 1908, nine millionfive hundred thousand dollars was set aside to assist the peasant farmers.
Following in the wake of the completion of the Trans-Siberian Railroad, additional steamers have been placed on all the large rivers to meet the growing demands of commerce. Hundreds of steamers ply upon the rivers during the open season, but no vessels attempt the route by way of the Arctic Ocean on account of the long distance and frequent ice obstructions.
Train on the steppes of RussiaTrain on the steppes of RussiaLINK TO IMAGE
Dairying, now a most important industry of Siberia, was unknown before the advent of the great railway. To promote this industry, the government has already expended more than a million dollars. At all the principal places schools have been established in which the best methods of dairy-farming are taught. Fortunately, cattle diseases are practically unknown.
The fine quality of the grasses, together with the improved methods of manufacturing brought about by the creameries,causes Siberian butter to rank with the best products found in the European markets. The dairy products are shipped by rail to various parts of Europe, large quantities going to England and to Denmark, the home of dairying. Sometimes three hundred tons of butter per week are shipped to Copenhagen and one thousand tons to London. Upward of eighty million pounds are annually exported, and it is said that by a little exertion fifteen times the amount could be easily produced. The industry is still only in its infancy.
In the Tobol and Ishim plains of western Siberia are the fertile black-earth regions covering twenty-five million acres. As yet, they are sparsely settled, but they are capable of supporting half the population of Russia. Two-thirds of the inhabitants of Siberia are Russians, and in timbered regions probably one-half live in log houses, for these are capable of being made the most comfortable dwellings in the world.
Many exaggerated statements have appeared, both in England and America, concerning the exile system. This, happily, is now abolished, as also have been the cruelties practised by those in charge. That there have been great abuses no one denies, but the conditions of the prisons can be paralleled both in England and the United States. No more common criminals are sent to Siberia.
Transportation is now limited chiefly to escaped convicts and to political and religious criminals, most of whom are sent to the island of Sakhalin. Capital punishment, except in cases of attacks on the royal family and condemnation by courts-martial, was abolished many years ago.
Lake Baikal is one of the most remarkable lakes in the world. It is four hundred miles long and from twenty to sixty miles wide. The lake is very deep, and, although situated in the temperate zone, is the home of a species of arctic seal and tropical coral. This species of seal is foundnowhere in Asian waters outside of the Arctic Ocean, except in this lake and the Caspian Sea. Immense quantities of salmon of different species abound in the lake, and give rise to important fishing industries.
In winter the lake is covered with ice seven feet thick. Crossing is made by huge ice-breaking ferryboats capable of carrying thirty cars and one thousand men, yet only during a part of the winter is the boat able to navigate, so persistent is the extreme cold. The railway now extends around the southern part of the lake, and crossing by ferryboats is not attempted when the ice is thick.
Asiatic Russia includes Transcaucasia, which was permanently annexed to the Russian Empire in 1801. This great Asiatic domain contains more than six million square miles, or about twice the size of the United States, including Alaska.
Notwithstanding the millions of square miles of arid deserts, irredeemable swamps, frozen tundra, and impenetrable forests, the agricultural and mineral resources of Siberia are almost beyond computation.
CHAPTER VIIITHE MYSTIC HIGHLANDS OF ASIA
The statement that "one half the world does not know how the other half lives, nor how it is influenced," applies with double force to the peoples living on the high plateau of Tibet beyond the titanic Himalayas. Here is a vast region only one-twentieth of which is covered with vegetation. Chains of mountains with snow-capped peaks encircle it, and spurs from the main ranges, together with lesser ridges and isolated elevations, diversify its surface.
Amidst these desolate wastes are fertile valleys which are capable of producing excellent crops; in many other sections good crops are produced by very primitive methods of irrigation. As a whole the plateau may be classed among the infertile regions of the earth.
On account of its great elevation, Tibet is often called the roof of the world. Starting from its borders several large rivers break through its rocky ramparts, among them the Indus, Brahmaputra, Irawadi, and Hoang. Some of the plains of the great plateau range from fifteen to eighteen thousand feet above sea level. Scattered over these are single lakes and chains of lakes, many of which are salt. These vast areas, storm-swept in winter and baked by heat in summer, are frequented by bandits and nomads. They live in tents made of the almost black hair of the yak, and move from place to place with their flocks and herds to seek food for their animals. The stable population resides chiefly in the few cities and villages.
For nearly a thousand years a veil of religious mystery has shrouded this section of the world; and the sacred city of Lasa with its holy places has been doubly guarded against the visits of foreigners.
This mysterious land has been able to maintain its position of isolated seclusion because of the high mountain barriers that are massed in a series of gigantic walls on all sides. It is approachable only through narrow passes that are constantly guarded.
Our knowledge of the "forbidden land," as it is called, has been obtained chiefly from adventurers who have travelled through it in disguise, and from a few others who took more desperate chances by forcing their way in. Among these may be mentioned Bower, Thorald, the Littledales, Rockhill, Captain Deasy, Sven Hedin, and Walter Savage Landor. Landor was taken prisoner by the Tibetans and suffered at their hands horrible tortures, from the effects of which he will never recover.
Dunkar Spiti, Himalaya Mountains, IndiaDunkar Spiti, Himalaya Mountains, IndiaLINK TO IMAGE
Because the Tibetans for many years had insulted the government of India and had seized territory claimed by it, English troops under Colonel Younghusband were sent against the invaders in 1903, and after several severe battles reached the forbidden city of Lasa, where a forced treaty was negotiated and signed. But on the withdrawal of the English troops the policy of exclusion was immediately resumed. Russia to-day has much greater influence in Tibet than has England.
The present condition of Tibet resembles in many respects that of Europe during the Middle Ages. The country is under the suzerainty of China, which has a representative called an amaban and several thousand troops at Lasa to maintain its claim.
Though an extremely trying climate prevails on these highlands, the hermit-like, priest-ridden people know no better home and are contented with their lot. Of its three and one-half million inhabitants, one in seven belongs to the priestly class called lamas.
At the head of this priesthood, as well as at the head of the state, are two leaders, the chief one, the Dalai Lama, or "ocean of learning," and the other the Bogodo Lama, or "precious teacher." With their subordinates, these two are supposed to have power not only over life and death, but over the reincarnation of the soul and entrance to the regions beyond rebirth.
This isolated table-land is the seat of a former Buddhism better known by the name of Lamaism. A deep but crude religious feeling tainted with the grossest superstitions pervades the whole people, whose ignorance of other learning is appalling.
When a person dies a lama must be present to see that thesoul is properly separated from the body and to direct the spirit on its journey to paradise; the lama must also influence its rebirth in a happy existence and provide for its entrance upon Nirvana, or eternal rest.
Many a mountain contains hollowed-out cells in which hermit monks spend their lives in silent meditation. On an island in one of the lakes, where they can be reached only when the lake freezes, reside twenty monks. In the midst of this wild and majestic scenery each rock and stream has its deity and saint, together with its appropriate legend.
Although the Buddhist monks do not believe in God as a creator, their religion demands audible and written prayers; indeed, prayer-wheels are frequently used to facilitate the repetition of prayers. Prayers numbering hundreds and even thousands are carefully written and placed, rolled up, in drum-wheels, which are revolved by wind, water, or hand power. Each revolution of a wheel is supposed to say all the prayers enclosed in it.
Many prayer-wheels, each with appropriate prayers, are mounted on axles and placed convenient to frequented paths so that they may be whirled around by those who pass by. Others provided with suitable fans are placed where they may be revolved by the wind. Sometimes water power is made to turn the wheels, but most of them are made of a size convenient to be carried about and operated by hand.
The capital of Tibet and seat of the Dalai Lama is Lasa, situated in a plain nearly twelve thousand feet above sea level. The city is surrounded by a marsh and is reached by a causeway raised above the morass. It has wide and regular streets, the principal buildings being made of stone, but the majority of the structures are adobe and sun-dried brick.
This interesting city contains forty-five thousand inhabitants, two-thirds of whom are monks. Streams formed bythe melting snow course down the surrounding mountains, flooding the plain. At a distance the city presents an imposing appearance with the adjacent Potala as the crowning glory.
In the centre of the city stands a cathedral, called the Jo-Kang, which contains one of the most renowned statues of Buddha. This image, of life size, is an object of the greatest reverence and adoration. It is made of a composition of metals, gold and silver predominating. Priests are always in attendance and lamps are constantly burning before it. The roof of the temple is gilded and the interior is richly furnished.
Situated in the suburbs, on a rocky elevation above the plain which overlooks the city, is a wonderful group of buildings forming the Potala, or palace of the Dalai Lama. This huge, conglomerate structure of granite rising story above story to an immense height fascinates the beholder, who marvels at the skill and patience of the builders.
As though to heighten its beauty, the Potala is separated from the city by a park of grass and trees about a mile wide, making the stately edifice look like a huge diamond encircled with emeralds. Nothing but a blind religious zeal could have brought to completion such a series of connected edifices with their miles of halls, courts, corridors, and labyrinthine passageways.
Scattered throughout Tibet are upward of three thousand monasteries, or lamaseries. Some of them are built in remote and inaccessible places and contain as many as seven thousand monks. Each lamasery has set apart for its use the best land in that vicinity, the cultivation of which is done by the common people, who are little better than serfs, or peons.
It is a notable fact that in this strange land there are many more men than women, although the reverse would be expected.The support of the hordes of lazy monks is a great incubus and retards the development of the country.