V.—MOTION.

Wind is air in motion. The motion of the air is caused by inequality of temperature. The earth becomes warmed by the sun, and radiates the heat thus acquired back upon the air, which, expanding and becoming lighter, ascends to higher regions, while colder and denser currents rush in to occupy the vacated space. Two points are to be noted in connection with this rush of air which we call wind, viz., itsdirectionandvelocityorforce. Both are estimated scientifically by instruments called Anemometers,[13]while mariners and the dwellers on our coasts have a nomenclature of their own by which to indicate variation in theforceof the wind,founded on the amount of sail a vessel can carry with safety at the time. In the matter ofdirectionwinds are classed as constant, periodical, and variable.

13.Anemos, the wind;metron, measure.

Constant Winds.—The Trade Winds.—The violent contrast between the temperature of the equator and the poles is well known, and from the vast area included within the tropics ascending currents of rarefied air are incessantly rising and being as incessantly replaced by a rush of cold air from the poles to the equator. Were the earth stationary, this interchange would be of the simplest kind; on arriving within the influence of the ascending equatorial current the air from the poles would be carried to the higher regions and turning over would proceed to the poles, and, becoming cold and dense in traversing the higher stratum, would descend and resume its coursead infinitum. The revolution of the earth on its axis changes all this: the first effect is that the air at the equator is borne along with the earth at the rate of seventeen miles a minute from west to east, a rate which diminishes at 60° of latitude to one-half that velocity, until at the poles it is nothing; consequently aslownorth wind flowing to the equator is continually passing over places possessing a higher velocity than itself, and not immediately acquiring that velocity, there is according to the law of the composition of forces a compromise effected resulting in a north-east wind. In a similar manner the same process in the southern hemisphere results in a south-east wind. These winds have acquired the name ofTrade Windson account of the facilities afforded to navigation by their constancy. TheNorth Tradesoccur in the Atlantic between 9° and 30° and in the Pacific between 9° and 26°. TheSouth Tradesoccur in the Atlantic between lat. 4° N. and 22° S. and in the Pacific between latitude 4° N. and 23-1/2° S. These limits extend northward with the sun from January to June, and southward from July to December.

Parallel to the equator and extending between 2° and 3° on each side is a broad belt, where the north and south trades neutralize each other, producing what is calledthe “Region or Belt of Calms.” Though wind is absent, thunderstorms and heavy rains are of daily occurrence.

When Humboldt ascended Teneriffe the trade wind was blowing at its base in the usual direction, but on arriving at the summit he found a strong wind blowing in the opposite direction. Observation has shown that this upper current prevails north and south of the equator, and that, after passing the limit of the trade winds, it descends to form the south-westwinds of the north temperate zone and the north-westwinds of the south temperate zone; thewestingbeing due to the same cause as theeastingin the regular trades, viz., the rotation of the earth on its axis. These winds are called the Return Trades, but are not equal in constancy to the regular trade winds.

Periodical Winds.—Land and Sea Breezesoccur on the coasts, chiefly in tropical countries, but sometimes in Great Britain during the summer months when the land during the day becomes very hot, causing an ascending column of air, which is replaced by a comparatively colder stream flowing inwards from the sea. At sunset the conditions are reversed, the earth becomes rapidly cooled by radiation, the sea continuing comparatively warm, the air over it ascends, and its place is supplied by a cold breeze, which “blows off the shore,” as illustrated by the diagrams and the following experiment—In the centre of a large tub of water float a water plate containing hot water, imagine the former to be the ocean and the latter the heated land, rarefying the air over it. Light a candle and blow it out and hold it while still smoking over the cold water, when the smoke will be seen to move towards the plate. The reverse of this takes place if the tub be filled with hot water and the water plate with cold. When this phenomenon takes place on a large scale, as in the case of the north trade winds being drawn from their course by the heated shores of Southern Asia, the gigantic sea breeze thus produced is called the south-west monsoon. This occurs from April to October, when the sun is northof the equator. When the sun is south of the equator—that is, from October to April—the analogue of the land breeze is produced, and is called the north-east monsoon.

Variable Winds.—The character of this class of winds is determined by the physical configuration of the country in which they occur. Some tracts are marked by luxuriant vegetation, others are bare. Here mountains lift their awful fronts and “midway leave the storm,” there an arid plain extends itself to the seashore, or inland, towards a chain of lakes. Within the tropics these purely local conditions are insufficient to overcome the force of the prevalent atmospheric currents: such, however, is not the case beyond the tropical zone. There the variable winds prevail, for which space permits only the mention of their names:—TheSimoom(from the Arabicsamma, hot), peculiar to the hot sandy deserts of Africa and Western Asia. TheSiroccoblows over the two Sicilies as a hot wind from the south. It extends sometimes to the shores of the Black and Caspian seas, spreading death among animals and plants. TheSolanoprevails at certain seasons in the south of Spain: its direction is south-east. TheHarmattanis another wind of the same class, peculiar to Senegambia and Guinea. ThePuna Windsblow for four months over a barren tableland called the Puna, in Peru. They are a portion of the south-east trade winds, which, having crossed the Pampas, are thereby deprived of moisture, and become the most parching wind in the world. TheEast Winds, peculiar to the spring in Britain, blowing as they do through Russia, over Europe, are a portion of the great polar current, distinctive of that season of the year. They are dry and parching, every one being familiar with the unpleasant bodily sensations attendant on this much-abused and yet most beneficent wind.

TheEtesian Windsare drawn from the north across the Mediterranean by the great heat of the African desert. TheMistralis a strong north-west wind peculiar to the south-east of France. ThePamperois a north-west wind, blowing in summer from the Pampas of Buenos Ayres.

As long ago as the year 1600 Lord Bacon remarked that the preponderating tendency of the wind was decidedly to veerwiththe sun’s motion, thus passing from N. through N.E., E., S.E., to south, thence through S.W., W.N.W., to N.; also, that it often makes a complete circuit in that direction, or more than one in succession (occupying sometimes many days in so doing), but that it rarely backs, and very rarely or never makes a complete circuit in the contrary direction. The merit of having first demonstrated that this tendency is a direct consequence of the earth’s rotation is due to Professor Dove, of Berlin, who has also shown that the three systems of atmospheric currents just treated of, viz., the constant, periodical, and variable winds, are all amenable to the same influence.

As to themodeof observing the wind, Admiral Fitzroy recommends that a true east and west line should be markedabout the time of the equinox, and the north, south, and other points of the compass being added, to take the bearings of the wind in relation to a dial so prepared, the indications of thelowerstratum of clouds in conjunction with vanes and smoke being preferred to any other.

The direction of the wind should always be given according totrue, and not tocompass bearings. Two points to the westward nearly represents the amount of “Variation of the Compass” for the British Isles, which yields the following table for the conversion of directions observed by the compass in Great Britain and Ireland to approximate true bearings.

“One may call a very simple diagram, a circle divided by a diameter from north-east to south-west, thethermometer compass. While the wind is shifting from south-west, by west, north-west, andnorth to north-east, the thermometer is falling, but while shifting from north-east, by east, south-east and south, towardssouth and south-west, the thermometer is rising. Now the barometric column does just the reverse. From north-east the barometer falls as the wind shifts through the east to south-east, south, and south-west, and from the south-west, as the wind shifts round northward to north-east, the barometer rises—it rises to west, north-west, north, and north-east.

“The effect of the wind thus shifting round when traced upon paper by a curve, seems certainly wave-like to the eye; but I believe it to be simply consequent on the wind shifting round the compass, and indicating alteration in the barometric column.

“If the wind remained north-east, say three weeks, there would be no wave at all—there would be almost a straight line along a diagram (varying only a little forstrength). The atmospheric line, in such a case, remains at the same height, and the barometer remains at 30 inches and (say) some three or four-tenths, for weeks together. So likewise when the wind is south-westerly a long time, or near that point, the atmospheric line remainslow, towards 29 inches. Thus, such ‘atmospheric waves’ may be an optical delusion.

“The diagram alluded to above shows how the barometer and thermometer may be used in connection with each other in foretelling wind, and consequently weather, that is coming on, becauseas the one rises, the othergenerallyfalls, and if you take the two together and confront with their indications the amount of moisture in the air at any time, you will scarcely be mistaken in knowing what kind of weather you are likely to have for thenext two or three days, which for the gardener, the farmer, soldier, sailor, and traveller must be frequently of considerable importance.”[14]

14.The late Admiral Fitzroy.

We are indebted to M. Buys Ballot, a Dutch meteorologist, for an invaluable generalization, the importance of which it is almost impossible to over-estimate. This distinguishedsavantsays:—“It is a fact above all doubt that the wind that comes is nearly at right angles to the line between the places of highest and lowest barometer readings. The wind has the place of lowest barometer at its left hand, and is stronger in proportion as the difference of barometer readings is greater.” These facts have been variously stated by other writers; for example: “Stand with your back to the wind, and the barometer will be lower on your left hand than on your right;” “Facing the wind the centre of depression bears in the right-hand direction,” statementswhich can be verified at any time by a brief study of the “Weather Charts” now published in the daily journals. The value of the law consists in its connecting the surface winds of our planet with the actual pressure of the air itself, and it admits of the following tabulation:—

which can be verified by the reader from the daily Weather Charts in the newspapers.

The above are deductions from Buys Ballot’s Law, still further impressed on the memory by taking four outline maps of the British Isles, inserting the names of Thurso, Penzance, Yarmouth, and Valentia, with barometer readings of the kind above named at each place, and then drawing a large arrow in red ink across the centre of each map in the direction appropriate to the readings.

Mr. Strachan, in his able pamphlet on “Weather Forecasts,” puts the matter thus: “It follows from Ballot’s Law that in the northern temperate zone the winds will circulate around an area of low atmospherical pressure in thereverse directionto the movement of the hands of a watch, and that the air will flow away from a region of high pressure, and cause an apparent circulation of the winds around it,in the directionof watch hands.” And as the result of a careful digest of data contained in the eleventh number of meteorological papers, published by the Board of Trade, he has established the following valuable propositions. As introductory to the propositions, it should be stated that the positions of observations were the following:—

Nairn and Brest are situated nearly on the same meridian, about 540 geographical miles apart. Valentia and Yarmouth are nearly on the same parallel of latitude, about 450 miles apart. Portrush and Shields, distant 180 miles, are on a parallel which is nearly as remote from the parallel of Nairn as that of Valentia and Yarmouth is from the one passing through Brest; and Shields is about as much to the westward of Yarmouth as Portrush is to the eastward of Valentia. When observations have not been obtainable for Brest, those made at Penzance have been used instead.

Proposition 1.—Whenever the atmospherical pressure is greater at Brest than at Nairn, while it is of the same or nearly the same value at Valentia and Yarmouth, being gradually less from south to north, the winds over the British Isles arewesterly.

Proposition 2.—Whenever the pressure at Nairn is greater than at Brest, while its values at Valentia and Yarmouth are equal, or nearly so, the winds over the British Isles areeasterly.

Proposition 3.—Whenever the pressure at Valentia is greater than at Yarmouth, while its values at Brest and Nairn are nearly equal, the winds over the British Isles arenortherly.

Proposition 4.—Whenever the pressure at Yarmouth exceeds that at Valentia, while there is equality of pressure at Nairn and Brest, the winds of the British Isles aresoutherly.

Proposition 5.—Whenever the pressure of the atmosphere is equal, or nearly so, at Brest, Valentia, Nairn, and Yarmouth, and generally uniform, the winds overthe British Isles are variable in direction and light in force.

The data from which the foregoing propositions were deduced, and indeed all other cases calculated by Mr. Strachan, show in every well marked instance that when the atmospherical pressure was

(1) greater in the south than in the north, the wind had westing;

(2) greater in the north than in the south, the wind had easting;

(3) greater in the east than in the west, the wind had southing;

(4) greater in the west than in the east, the wind had northing;

(5) uniformly high, or uniformly low, variable light winds (with fine weather in the former case, and vapoury or wet weather in the latter).

Conditions (1) and (3) give winds from the S.W. quarter.

Conditions (1) and (4) give winds from the N.W. quarter.

Conditions (2) and (4) give winds from the N.E. quarter.

Conditions (2) and (3) give winds from the S.E. quarter.

These principles may be employed to set forth the mode of foretelling the impending change of wind as regards its direction and force; for the atmospherical pressure may change—

(a) uniformly over the whole area of observation;

(b) by increasing in the south, or (which causes a similar statical force) by decreasing in the north;

(d) by increasing in the west, or (which has the same effect) by decreasing in the east;

(e) by increasing in the east, or (which has the same effect) by decreasing in the west;

“The probable strength of wind will be in proportion to the rate of increase of statical force, or differences of barometrical readings. The position of least pressure must be carefully considered; as, in accordance with the law, the wind will blow around that locality. The same remark applies to areas of high pressure, which, however, very rarely occur in a well-defined manner over the British Isles.”

Referring to the table on page76, the scale 0 to 6 was formerly used by meteorological observers at land stations, and it was intended to express, when the square of the grade was obtained, the pressure of the wind as given in the second column.

“The velocity is an approximation as near as can be obtained, from the values assigned by Neumayer, Stow, Laughton, Scott, Harris, James, &c.”[15]

15.Strachan’s “Portable Meteorological Register,” 4th edition.

Few meteorological axioms are better established than that which embodies the fact that “every wind brings its weather,” and the primary cause of wind being the motion of the air induced by rarefaction, it is obvious that there is a constant tendency for the equatorial and polar currents in any locality to establish an equilibrium, and this consideration is found to facilitate weather predictions for extended periods. Thus, in consequence of the unusual prevalence ofeastwinds in the spring of 1862, a wet summer was predicted. The prediction was fully borne out by an incessant continuance ofsouth-west winds, with clouded skies and the usual accompaniment of deluges of rain. These winds continuing, with slight intermissions only, till the spring of the following year, less than the usual number of south-west winds was looked for during the summer; the result fully justified the anticipation, thesummer of 1863 being fine and warm, especially during the earlier portion. Similarly, without committing the inaccuracies of Murphy in 1838, the summer of 1877 may be reasonably expected to be a dry and cool one from the long continuance of warm and wet months in the winter of 1876-7.

The scientific research and mechanical ingenuity directed of late years to producing trustworthy estimates of the direction, pressure, and velocity of the wind, have resulted in the production of a series of instruments, possessing great precision and accuracy.

54.Wind Vane. Scaleabout 1/20.

Thedirectionof the wind is indicated by vanes, a very efficient form of which is shown at Fig. 54, thevelocityby revolving cups, and thepressureby the pressure plate and by calculation from the known velocity.

The Pendulum Anemometer (Fig. 56) shows in a simple manner the direction and pressure of the wind. The peculiarly shaped vane ensures the surface of the swinging pressure plate B being always kept towards the wind. The pendulum plate hangs, during a calm, quite vertically, indicating zero, and as the pressure increases it will be raised through all degrees of elevation from 1 to 12. The vane is perforated with holes large enough to be visible at some distance from the ground, the 5 and 10 being specially larger, so that the angle to which the pressure plate is raised can be quickly noted.

55.Compass Bearings.Scale about 1/20.

There is a simple contrivance (for the convenience of travellers) called a Portable Wind Vane, or Anemometer, It isfurnished with a compass and bar needle, &c., and will tell the true direction of the wind to within a half point.

56.Prestel’s Pendulum Anemometer.Scale about 1/12.

57.Lind’s Anemometer. Scale about 1/5.

Lind’s Anemometer or Wind Gauge ranks among the earliest forms of instruments designed to estimate the force of the wind. It consists of a glass syphon, the limbs of which are parallel to each other, mounted on a vertical rod, on which it freely oscillates by the action of the vane which surmounts it. The upper end of one limb of the syphon is bent outward at right angles to the main direction, and the action of the vane keeps this open end of the tube always towards the quarter from whence the wind blows. Between the limbs of the syphon is placed a scale graduated from 0 to 3 in inches and 10ths, the zero being in the centreof the scale. When the instrument is used, it is only necessary to fill the tube with water to the zero of the scale, and then expose it to the wind. The natural consequence of wind acting on the surface of the water is to depress it in one limb and raise it in the other, and the sum of the depression and elevation is the height of a column of water which the wind is capable of sustaining at the time of observation. Sudden gusts of wind are apt to produce a jumping effect on the water in the tube, and to diminish this the bend of the syphon is contracted. A brass plate is attached to the foot of the instrument, bearing the letters indicating the cardinal points of the compass, to show the direction of the wind.

Dr. Robinson, of Armagh, introduced an instrument, in 1850, which consists of four hemispherical copper cups attached to the arms of a metal cross. The vertical axis upon which these are secured has at its lower extremity an endless screw placed in gear with a train of wheels and pinions. Each wheel is graduated respectively to 1/10th, 1 mile, 10 miles, 100 miles, 1,000 miles, and these revolve behind a fixed index, the readings of which are taken according to the indications on the dials.

Dr. Robinson entertained the theory that the cups (measuring from their centres) revolved with one-third of the wind’s velocity; and this theory having been fully supported by experiment, due allowance has been made in graduating the wheels so that the true velocity is obtained by direct observation.

In an improved form of this anemometer the hemispherical cups are retained, but the index portion of the instrument consists of two graduated concentric circles, the inner one representing five miles divided into 10ths, and the outer one bearing 100 divisions, each of which is equivalent to five miles. At the top of the dial is a fixed index, which, as the toothed wheel revolves, marks on the inner circle the miles (up to five) and 10ths of miles the wind has travelled, while a movableindex, which revolves with the wheel, indicates on the outer circle the passage of every five miles.

58.Improved Anemometer. Scale about 1/5.

This instrument can be made very portable by removing the arms bearing the cups, when the whole may be packed with iron shaft in a case 15 × 13 × 4 inches. It may be placed in any desired position by screwing the iron shaft supplied with it into the hole provided for the purpose, and fixing the apparatus on a pole or on an elevated stand, if possible, in an open space exposed to thedirectaction of the wind.

If, when placing the instrument, the hands stand at0, the next reading will, of course, show the number of miles the wind has traversed; but, should they stand otherwise, the reading may be noted and deducted from the second reading, thus: Suppose the fixed index points to 2·5 and the movable index to 125, the reading after 12 hours may be 200 on the outer circle and 3·0 on the inner circle: these added together yield 203. By deducting the previous reading 127·5, we have the true reading—viz., 75·5 miles as the distance travelled by the wind.

Having obtained the velocity of the wind in this manner in miles per hour, the table on page83, from Col. Sir Henry James’s “Instructions for Taking Meteorological Observations,” will enable the observer to calculate the pressure in pounds per square foot.

The following letters are used to denote the state of the weather:—

A letter repeated denotes much, asrr, heavy rain;ff, dense fog; and a figure attached denotes duration in hours, as 14r, 14 hours’ rain.

By the combination of these letters all the ordinary phenomena of the weather may be recorded with certainty and brevity.

Examples.—bc, blue sky with less proportion of cloud;cb, more cloudy than clear; 2rrllt, heavy rain for two hours, with much lightning, and some thunder.

Velocity and Pressure of the Wind.

The Pressure varies as the Square of the Velocity, orP∝V2. The Square of the Velocity in Miles per Hour multiplied by ·500 gives the Pressure in lbs. per square Foot, orV2× ·005 =P. The Square Root of 200 times the Pressure equals the Velocity, or √(200 ×P) =V.

The subjoined Table is calculated from this data, byCol. Sir HenryJames, of the Ordnance Survey Office.

The subjoined Table is calculated from this data, byCol. Sir Henry

James, of the Ordnance Survey Office.

This is the only table hitherto much in use for converting velocity into pressure, and was prepared by Smeaton and others. It does not, however, express the true relation, which has yet to be determined.

The Anemograph, or Self-Recording Wind Gauge, has for its object the registration of the velocity and direction of the wind from day to day. Figs. 59 and 60 show the form designed and arranged by Mr. Beckley, of the Kew Observatory, which has been adopted by the Meteorological Office.

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