(1)Steam Thresher.(2)Stook-building.(3)Harvest Picnic.(4)Baling for Export.(5)Stooks ready for Carting.
The settler having acquired his land, he will require to fence in his holding, and also subdivide it into convenient paddocks or fields. All Australian farms are fenced, and in districts in which the rabbit is a menace the boundary fences are wire-netted. Unless timber is very plentiful wire fences are almost universal. Posts, which are obtained from timber on the farm that is fallen, and split into the necessary lengths, are erected 9 or 11 ft. apart, with six or seven wires running through them. Sometimes the posts are put at a greater distance apart, and "droppers" placed between them at distances of 7 or 8 ft. Some of these droppers are of splittimber, but patent droppers, made of wire and iron, can be obtained. Where timber is scarce such fences are cheaper. The droppers hold the wires to which they are attached in their place, but are not sunk into the ground. Fencing costs about $144.00 to $168.00 per mile. Netting the fences to keep out the rabbit costs an additional $192.00 to $240.00 per mile. If the new farm consists of improved, that is, cleared or partly cleared land, the settler will probably get his crop in before he does his fencing. It would be better for him to do that than leave his sowing till unduly late.
Where green timber has to be cleared off the land it is ringbarked first, and the trees allowed to die before they are grubbed out. Ringbarking consists of cutting a small strip of bark from around the trunk of the tree to prevent the flow of sap keeping it alive. After ringbarking, the trees usually throw out young shoots or "suckers," which have to be broken off. Usually this has to be done twice, and is called suckering. The deeper the trees are ringbarked, the bigger the piece of bark removed, the sooner it will die, but there is then a greater tendency to throw out suckers. The trees take two or three years to die, then they are grubbed and burnt. It is very seldom that the green trees are cut out at once, as this is very much more expensive, and for some time after removal the ground is too sour to be good for wheat or other crops. When the country is ringbarked the ground sweetens, and by the time the tree is dead is ready for cropping. While the trees are dying the country is usually used for grazing sheep and other stock, as it will be carrying good pasture. Of recent years a system has been tried, with considerable success, of poisoning the green timber with a mixture of arsenic and soda and water. A ring is chopped round the tree, and the bark thus makes a rough cup, into which the mixture is poured. This treatment has proved very effective.
The cost of ringbarking and all similar operations, of course, depends upon the amount of timber on the country, but it usually costs from 24 cents to 30 cents per acre, while suckering costs 8 cents to 12 cents per acre. After the trees are dead they are grubbed or burnt out, all roots to 12 or 18 in. depth being removed, and this work costs from $2.80 to $3.60 per acre. In some cases the country is what is known as "Yankee-grubbed," in which case the trees are cut off level with the ground, and roots allowed to remain in below the surface. When the country was used for grazing only, this was found a cheap and efficient method, but nevertheless only a small proportion of Australian wheat country has been so treated. To cultivate "Yankee-grubbed" country whatare known as stump-jump implements, ploughs and cultivators are used. These are available on the market, and as "Yankee-grubbing" is certainly cheaper than the usual method of grubbing, it has some attraction to the man with limited capital. The more careful farmers, however, do not advocate this method.
Threshing by Horse Power.
It must be remembered that the above prices for clearing are where labour has to be employed. It must also be remembered that the amount of timber on different classes of wheat country in the different States varies very much, so while it is usually estimated that clearing land for wheat costs about $4.30 per acre, it does not mean that it will always cost that, or, in any case, that the settler has to pay that amount out in cash. After the timber is grubbed and pulled down it is usually piled together and burnt. It burns well, and the burning enriches the soil. The settler starting in to clear his farm has ever the future picture in mind of when the work is done, and he has a beautifully-cleared, improved property on which to spend the latter years of his life. And there is no finer picture than an improved wheat farm, with its alternation of park-like paddocks, paddocks carrying a flock of sheep, paddocks of growing crops, and paddocks of fallowing ploughed land ready for the crop next season, or perhaps carrying a rotation crop of oats, rape, or cowpea. The homestead, surrounded by its orchard, stables, hayshed, and machinery sheds, and poultry run, will stand upon arise, from which the whole property can be surveyed. And to none is the picture finer than to the man who by his own toil and energy has cleared and improved most of those paddocks. Such wheat farms are to be found in thousands throughout Australia.
One of the first things the settler has to do is to provide a water supply. It is the exception to find wheat farms with a natural permanent water supply, such as a creek or river. In most cases the settler depends upon tanks or dams for watering his stock. A suitable low-lying site is picked, and the earth is scooped out and banked up at the end and sides, so there is a hole into which the rainwater runs, following the natural lay of the country, and assisted and directed by drains and gutters. These tanks, as they are called, usually range from 1000 to 2000 cubic yards, and cost up to 24 cents or 30 cents per yard to excavate. In most districts the country holds water splendidly, and when the tank is filled by the autumn and winter rains it will carry through the summer. For domestic use galvanised tanks are depended upon, being placed to catch the rainwater off the rooms of the homestead buildings. In some districts water is obtained by sinking shallow wells. In parts of the wheat country sub-artesian wells are also common, good water being obtained by boring 200 to 300 ft., when an unfailing supply of good water for stock is secured. The real artesian country, where deep bores are sunk for water, is outside the present wheat belt.
In the season ploughing usually starts at 7.30 a.m. and goes on until 5.30 p.m., with a break of a couple of hours during the day for dinner; that is, where labour is employed. The settler himself handling his own land usually works from dawn till dark, using changes of horses during the day. Both mouldboard and disc ploughs are in use, some soils suiting one and some the other, while use for both will often be found on the one farm. The four-furrow plough, drawn by five or six horses, is most favoured, and with it four to six acres will be done in a day. Harrowing is done with a set of three to six sections of tines, covering from 12 to 20 ft. in width, and doing 15 to 20 acres a day. The bulk of the sowing is done with a combined drill, which plants the seed and distributes artificial fertiliser at the same time. The amount of seed sown per acre varies from 25 to 45 lbs., and even up to 100 lbs. in some parts of the Commonwealth, while usually about the same amount of superphosphate is distributed, 45 to 60 lbs. being the most common quantity. Both hoes and disc drills are in use, ranging from twelve to fifteen tubes, the tubes being 7 in. apart. These particulars apply mostly to the man cultivating 200 to 300 acres himself.
It is often found beneficial to harrow the growing crop until it is 3 or 4 in. high. While the crop is growing the settler will find plenty to do in clearing and improving his property, attending to his sheep, and so on. If he is on shares he will find work for his team and himself on other properties, at contract work, or on the local roads.
Harvest time comes well on in the summer, and for several weeks everyone is busy on the farm. It is usual when putting in a wheat crop to sow a portion for hay. Either a separate crop is sown or a special variety suitable for hay is sown around the main grain crop. This is cut with the reaper and binder just after the wheat plant has flowered. The sheaves, which are tied by the machine, are stooked in the paddock for ten or fourteen days until dry enough to be carted in and stacked. The climate—as a rule fine weather prevails—is favourable to haymaking, and a bright-coloured nutritious hay is produced. The average yield is a ton to one ton and a-half to the acre, but three, four, and even five ton crops are taken off, but that is usually in a crop sown and cultivated specially for hay with the intention of supplying the chaff market, which is an industry in itself. The wheatfarmer, properly speaking, only cuts what he will require for his own horses. A reaper and binder is drawn by three horses, and will cut from 10 to 12 acres per day. One man is required to drive the machine, and one or two men to pick up and stook the sheaves. Some farmers cut their own hay for chaff, working the machine either by hand or with horse-works for turning the cutting wheel, but the majority have the hay cut by contractors, who travel through the country with a special plant for the purpose, charging $2.16 per ton for cutting. After a portion round the edges of the crops has been cut for hay a strip of land is ploughed around the crop in the stubble for the purpose of making a break in case of fire, and thus enabling a fire that might approach the crop being controlled on the bare ploughed ground.
Carting Wheat to Railway Station.
The wheat crop is allowed to become dead ripe in the paddock, as for stripping the ears must be dry and quite ripe. Once it is ready to strip every effort is made to take the crop off as quickly as possible, as it does not improve standing, for some of the grain is likely to be shaken out by winds. The more modern wheats, however, hold the grain wonderfully against wind or hail. Varieties of wheat are sown so they will mature at different times, which extends the harvesting period, as one crop will be ready to harvest before the other is quite ripe, and there is thus a useful rotation. At harvesting time work usually starts in the paddock about 8 a.m.,as the wheat does not strip well until the hot sun gets on it, as it toughens during the night. The work goes on until 7 or 7.30 p.m., with a break of two hours at mid-day, and spells of twenty minutes in the morning and afternoon. Where labour is employed one man drives the harvester, but his horses are looked after, fed, groomed, and harnessed for him. This saves time, and enables the crop to be taken off the more quickly. Of course, the farmer in a small way will do his own work, requiring only a little assistance at harvest time, someone to sew up and stack the bags. As there is always a rush at harvest time, the bags of grain are often left lying in the paddocks in small heaps until the crop is all off, when they are carted to the railway or mill. Some farmers do their own carting, but the majority pay the regular carriers to do this work, the cost varying according to distance, but is generally done for 24 cents per ton per mile. About 12-1/2 bags of wheat go to the ton.
Australian Wheat for Export from Farm to Wharf.
At present in Australia wheat is all handled in bags which contain about 3 bushels of grain. The price of empty bags varies from $1.50 to $2.00 per doz. Very few second-hand bags are used. The different State Governments in Australia are now considering the wisdom of introducing the American system of handling wheat in bulk. The Governments of New South Wales and of Western Australia have definitely announced their intention of establishing that system, while it is being favourably considered in Victoria. Once the system was introduced in any of the States it would probably be only a short time before it was adopted throughout theCommonwealth. At present, however, bags are in universal use, the grain being thus carried both for local and export trade.
The settler finds no difficulty in selling his wheat, as grain merchants and millers compete for it. Often sales are made before the crop is ripe. The large wheat merchants and shippers have their agents in every town, and these men visit the farms, inspect the grain, and make an offer according to the ruling market price. The local millers are also competing for what grain they want for local consumption. The grower is paid on delivery at the mill or the nearest railway station. If he prefers to do so he can store it with the buying firms, giving them the right to purchase when he is prepared to sell, or he can store on the farm. The export values of wheat per bushel for the last six years, have been:—
1909$1.0019101.0019110.8419120.9519130.8419140.82
Wheat is bought and sold on what is known as the f.a.q. (fair average quality) system. Samples of wheat are taken from the various districts by the different Chambers of Commerce, and each State fixes its own f.a.q. standard. These samples are mixed together, and by careful testing on a patent scale it is ascertained what an Imperial bushel of weight actually weighs. The idea is to ascertain as equitably as possible what a fair average sample of the season's wheat should weigh. The standard varies a little in different years; it may be 61, 62, 64, or as low as 58 lbs. to the bushel. Whatever it is fixed at for the season that is the basis upon which all sales are made. If the market price for wheat, for instance, is $1.20 per bushel, it is for wheat up to the f.a.q. standard. Say the latter has been fixed at 62 lbs., the wheat must show that weight. Agents have what is called a chrondrometer for the purpose of testing the wheat. If it is below the f.a.q. standard, a lower price is given. This system has been devised to suit the export trade. Samples of the standard wheat are sent to markets abroad, and all cargoes are sold on that basis. When they arrive at the market abroad they must test up to the f.a.q. standard. This system has been in force in Australia for nearly half a century.
It must be understood that this standard f.a.q. weight has nothing to do with the quantity for which the grower is paid. He is always paid on the Imperial bushel basis, 60 lbs. Whatever thestandard may be, every 60 lbs. of wheat is a bushel. The f.a.q. weight is a standard for quality, not quantity.
There is always a market for Australian wheat, and the price is always equal to what wheat is bringing in the world's main markets. Australian wheat has a character of its own, and a character that is improving. British millers want it on account of the large amount of flour it produces, and the colour and bloom it gives to their product. The grain is usually bright and clear in texture and rich in gluten, having fine milling qualities. Of late years Australian wheats have been considerably improved in strength, and this factor is continuing, and they undoubtedly promise to more than equal any wheat produced, possessing not only colour and bloom, but also strength, and giving the miller what he wants to produce an ideal article.
Farmers in Australia are not Harassed by High Rail Freights.
The cost of production of wheat is a most important matter to the grower. As already stated, the comparatively low yields in Australia are amply compensated for by the low cost of producing wheat.
In regard to the work on the farm, the following figures are approximately the prices for different classes of work when it is done by contract:—Ploughing new ground, $1.68 per acre; old or fallowed ground, $1.45 per acre; harrowing, 18 cents to 24 cents per acre; cultivating, $0.50 per acre; drilling, 36 cents per acre; harvesting with stripper-harvester, 72 cents per acre; cutting with binder, 84 cents per acre; stooking, 24 cents per acre; carting and stacking hay, $1.35 per acre.
Superphosphate is the main fertiliser used. Australian wheat soils are naturally strong in nitrogen and potash, but in many cases are deficient in available phosphoric acid. Superphosphate costs about $1.20 per cwt., and may be reckoned at 48 cents to 60 cents per acre. Seed wheat runs from 96 cents to $1.20 per bushel; sowing 45 lbs. to the acre represents 72 cents to 84 cents per acre.
It is reckoned that if the same work is done by weekly-paid labour the cost is reduced by fully 30 per cent. all round.
Harvesting Scene, Darling Downs, Queensland
In common practice it is considered that it costs $4.80 to $6.00 per acre to put in and take off an acre of wheat. The following figures are reliable estimates of the actual cost of production by official experts, and also actual figures supplied by working farmers.
In the following estimate of the cost of producing wheat it is assumed that the land is fallowed, and the estimate is based on a yield of 20 bushels per acre:—
Ploughing once at $1.45 per acre$1.45Harrowing three times at 18 cents per acre0.54Cultivating once at $0.60 per acre0.60Drilling at 36 cents per acre0.36Seed, 45 lbs., at 80 cents per bushel0.72Pickling seed0.06Superphosphate, 1/2 cwt. at $1.200.60Harvesting with harvester at 72 cents per acre0.72Seven bags at $1.60 per dozen0.84$4.89
The Stripper at work.
If the land is not fallowed and the seed sown immediately after ploughing, the cost is correspondingly less. The above figures are the cost if the work is done on contract. If it is done by weekly hired labour the work comes out about 30 per cent. cheaper, as will be seen by the following figures:—
Ploughing: Wages, one man at $6.00 per week; man's rations, $2.40 per week; feed for four horses for week, $9.60; total,$18.00. One man with four horses in a three-furrow plough will do 22 acres in six days at a cost of less than $0.84 per acre. Drilling: Man's wages, $6.00; rations, $2.40; horsefeed, three horses, $7.20; total, $7.80. He will drill 90 acres in six days at that cost, or less than $0.18 per acre. Other operations cost similarly less, but in all cases wear and depreciation of plant and interest on capital invested in plant should be allowed for.
These figures, however, concern cases where labour is employed. The following figures show the outlay where a man is doing the work himself. He could plough, cultivate, and sow 250 acres, which would take him twenty-two weeks. The first year he has to purchase his seed wheat and feed for his horses:—
190 bushels seed wheat at $0.80 per bushel$153.6010 tons chaff at $19.20 per ton192.00$345.60
Approximately $1.38 per acre.
At harvest time he would first reap portion of his crop to secure a supply of horse feed for the following year, say, 10 acres:—
Reaping and haymaking, 2 men's wages forthree days at $1.92, food $0.48 per day$14.40Twine (for binding the sheaves)6.00Harvesting the wheat crop: One man's wages$1.92, food $0.48 per day for forty day96.00One hundred dozen bags at $1.68 per dozen168.00Horsefeed, 5 tons chaff at $19.20 per ton96.00Cartage, 1000 bags wheat at $0.18 per bag180.00$560.40
This is reckoning the crop as averaging 15 bushels per acre, when the returns would be:—
15 tons of chaff (a low estimate)at $19.20 per ton$288.001200 bags of wheat, 3600 bushelsat $0.80 per bushel2880.00$3168.00Less expenditure ($345.60, $560.40)906.00Balance$2262.00
To be thoroughly correct we should allow for:—
Interest on plant, costing, say,$1920.00 at 5 per cent.$96.00Depreciation of plant, 10 per cent.192.00Rent on 250 acres at $1.20 per acre300.00Total$588.00
And in addition allow for the value of the farmer's own labour:—
Twenty-two weeks puttingin crop at $12.00 per week$264.00Ten weeks harvestingat $14.40 per week144.00$408.00
We still have a satisfactory result, viz.:—
Returns$3168.00Outlay$570.00Interest, &c.588.00Farmer's labour408.001902.00Net clear return$1266.00
From this it can be seen that very handsome returns can be obtained where the farmer is working his land properly, and growing a good portion, if not all, of his crop on fallowed land. Then his average would be nearer 25 bushels than 15, and his net return nearly as much again. In the above example, after making full allowance for all legitimate charges, the cost of producing a 15-bushel crop from 250 acres comes out at about $7.44 per acre.
One of the most prominent and, in a sense, unique features of wheatgrowing in Australia is the share-farming system. In New South Wales, for instance, something like one-sixth of the wheat crop is put in on shares. Under this system the landowner and the worker with limited means co-operate to their mutual benefit. One provides the land and the other the labour, and, under certain conditions, they share the produce. Since it was introduced many years ago, share farming has become popular because it has proved a boon to both parties and to the different States, while providing an exceptionally safe means of giving men the opportunity to ultimately acquire farms of their own.
Wheat at Country Railway Siding.
The conditions upon which land is worked on shares differs slightly in different districts, but usually they are somewhat on the following lines. The landowner provides the land ready for the plough, fenced and cleared; the seed wheat, and bluestone for pickling same; bags and twine for his share of the crop. The share farmer usually provides machinery and horses to work the land, put in and take off the crop, all labour and bags and twine for his share of the crop. In the majority of cases the landowner and the share farmer each take half the proceeds, or "bag for bag," each reserving the right to dispose of his share when and where he deems fit. In some cases the agreement is more liberal to the share farmer, and a fixed amount—perhaps 16 to 18 bushels—is agreed upon, which is shared equally, any balance being taken by the farmer. This is sometimes adopted as an incentive to good farming, and in cases as an inducement to attract the share farmer into new districts some distance from the railway. There have been cases where farmers have secured very good crops, 30 to 36 bushels to the acre, which meant that they received 22 and 28 bushels per acre for their share, while the landowner only received 8 bushels. These are exceptional conditions. As stated, the usual practice is to share equally. The following are sample specimens of the different agreements worked under:—
The landowner finds the land, all seed, and half manure; the farmer finds plant, labour, and half manure. Each takes half the crop.The landowner provides land, all seed and all manure; the farmer plant and labour, and takes one-third of the crop, the landowner taking two-thirds.The landowner provides land only, and takes one-third of the crop; the farmer provides plant, labour, seed, and manure, taking two-thirds of the crop.The landowner provides all stock, land, and half manure; the farmer provides labour, seed, and half manure, and the crop is divided equally.The landowner provides land, seed, and manure; the farmer does all the work, and the crop is equally divided.
The landowner finds the land, all seed, and half manure; the farmer finds plant, labour, and half manure. Each takes half the crop.
The landowner provides land, all seed and all manure; the farmer plant and labour, and takes one-third of the crop, the landowner taking two-thirds.
The landowner provides land only, and takes one-third of the crop; the farmer provides plant, labour, seed, and manure, taking two-thirds of the crop.
The landowner provides all stock, land, and half manure; the farmer provides labour, seed, and half manure, and the crop is divided equally.
The landowner provides land, seed, and manure; the farmer does all the work, and the crop is equally divided.
A Nice Mixed Farm.
It will thus be seen that some minor differences occur in the agreements. The first of the above list is most common. There are cases, however, where a progressive owner is anxious to get his land under wheat, and has financed the farmer, finding everything but labour. The landowner has provided a working plant, for which the farmer pays him from the proceeds of the crops, the payments extending over a term of seasons. Under this system men have started without any capital, and in a few years possessed a plant worth several hundred pounds, together with a snug banking account to their credit. Of course, in such cases the landowner knows his man, and knows he is honest, experienced, and capable. Usually the men have worked on the place as farm hands.
Under any conditions it is essential that the share farmer must have certain qualifications. It could not be expected that the landowner would consent to allow him to work valuable land otherwise. Practical experience of wheatgrowing is required, together with a good personal character. Local experience is also usually required, and in any case it would be the wisest course for any man to secure in his own interests such experience before endeavouring to start farming on shares. In Australia the man who is in earnest, and determined to go on the land, will find no difficulty in obtaining such experience. There is a good demand for willing farm workers at a rate of wages that will allow a thrifty man to put something by, while he is gaining a practical experience and a knowledge of local conditions. Once he has those he will not find it difficult to obtain the chance to start working on shares.
The share farmer has to find his own dwelling, and support himself and family. In some cases the owner erects the dwellings under special terms, but usually, as the farmer hopes to only be engaged for a few seasons share farming, the building is of a cheap nature, as the climate is temperate.
A man with $1440.00 or $1920.00 can purchase horses and obtain a plant, financing himself for a couple of years without depending too much on credit. Men have started with less and succeeded, as examples given later will show. It is not necessary to purchase a complete plant, and, as already stated, the more expensive implements can be purchased on terms. A man can handle 200 to 300 acres, and at the ruling prices for wheat of recent years, taking the average obtained by good farmers, the returns will run from $9.60 to $14.00 per acre and more for his share. In addition, after ploughing and sowing is completed, a team of horses will earn good money at contract work in the district, carrying on the roads and so on, until harvest time. In this way a farmer in three or four years, perhaps less, will be in the position to take up land on his own account on a private or Government subdivision, and start in to build a permanent and comfortable home for himself and his family.
While share farming he has proved his capability and obtained the confidence that comes with experience, together with a valuable knowledge of local conditions, which is a great help in selecting land for purchase.
It will be seen that share farming affords exceptional opportunities for the energetic man with a small capital. He can startwithout sinking all his capital in rent or purchase money, and perhaps burdening himself with a heavy debt. In his own interests he has that to farm well, and indeed in most cases the terms of the agreement require conditions essential to good farming. Farmers are usually required to plough to a specified depth, and at times to prepare an area of fallow land for the succeeding crop. He is allowed to graze his horses on the property, or given the use of a paddock at a low rental.
This Crop yielded over 30 bushels to the acre.
One of the advantages of share farming, making towards amicable working, is that the interests of the landowner and the farmer are the same. Both are anxious to secure the greatest possible return from the land, and there is a direct community of interest. The landowner may be more concerned about maintaining the fertility of the soil, and securing good farming, but this is also to the interest of the farmer, and certainly affords him a valuable lesson for the future when he is working his own property. While the system beyond question is equitable and fair, and gives the farmer an excellent chance to achieve success that would not be the case where he was working on wages, or an ordinary tenant, admittedly it is also advantageous to the landowner. He secures a good return from his land, and avoids the anxiety and troubleoften associated with the employment of labour on a large scale, while he has not to embark a large sum of money in working plant.
In connection with a system such as this the evidence of an unbiassed, independent outside body is, perhaps, more convincing than anything else. It is available.
In 1910 Australia was visited by the Scottish Agricultural Commission, a body of practical men from Scotland, who investigated rural conditions in the Commonwealth. The Commission toured the Commonwealth, visiting different wheat districts, and came into direct touch with local conditions. They paid great attention to the share farming, as its possibilities could not fail to impress them, and in their report on "Australia: Its Land, Conditions, and Prospects," they had the following to say:—
"After a year or two the newcomer finds himself ready for a start on his own account. If he possessed a few hundred pounds when he landed, he will now seek to become his own landlord in one or other of the ways open to him. If, however, he has yet too little money for that, he will be well advised to take no risks, but to be content meantime either with renting a farm or with farming on the share system. A man who is intelligent and industrious, who has had sufficient experience of farming in Australia, but who has not enough money to buy land, cannot do better than turn his attention to farming on shares.
"After a year or two the newcomer finds himself ready for a start on his own account. If he possessed a few hundred pounds when he landed, he will now seek to become his own landlord in one or other of the ways open to him. If, however, he has yet too little money for that, he will be well advised to take no risks, but to be content meantime either with renting a farm or with farming on the share system. A man who is intelligent and industrious, who has had sufficient experience of farming in Australia, but who has not enough money to buy land, cannot do better than turn his attention to farming on shares.
"He can take up wheatfarming ... and if he has a good reputation, he will find no difficulty in getting on shares the kind of farm he wants."
"He can take up wheatfarming ... and if he has a good reputation, he will find no difficulty in getting on shares the kind of farm he wants."
The different Australian States fully recognise the great value to the community of the farmer, and special steps are taken to assist him in different ways.
Financial assistance is rendered through agricultural banks in West Australia and Queensland, the Credit Foncier in Victoria, and State Banks in New South Wales and South Australia. Through these Government institutions advances are made to settlers. Full particulars in this regard are furnished in another booklet, obtainable by intending settlers.
Farmers on the Way to a Country Show.
In Australia all the railways are State-owned, and the endeavour is to carry farm produce and farming implements, fertilisers,&c., at the lowest possible rate compatible with the railways covering working expenses and depreciation of stock. Special rates are made for long distances. The rates vary in the different States, but it can be confidently said that they prove no hindrance to successful wheatgrowing. As all the wheat grown in Australia has to be carried to the seaboard on the railways, the particulars of success achieved, as already given, proves that. The Commonwealth Statistician furnishes the following particulars of State railway rates for agricultural produce in the different States, which serve as a guide to the settler:—
Charge per Ton in truckloads for a haul of
State.50 miles.100 miles.200 miles.300 miles.400 miles.500 miles$$$$$$New South Wales1.201.802.282.522.722.88Victoria1.322.042.522.963.363.76Queensland1.102.102.642.883.123.36South Australia1.482.103.104.105.106.10Western Australia1.502.142.904.085.285.76Tasmania1.622.323.12.........
The following table shows the rates on low-class freight, which includes ordinary articles of merchandise, such as are particularly identified or connected with the primary industries:—
Charge per Ton for haul of State.
State.50 miles.100 miles.200 miles.300 miles.400 miles.500 miles$$$$$$New South Wales0.600.861.361.862.362.86Victoria1.021.602.402.843.243.64Queensland1.102.103.604.405.605.60South Australia1.001.843.264.265.266.26Western Australia1.202.003.404.405.606.60Tasmania1.201.622.04.........Average1.001.642.863.624.425.48
The railways being publicly owned, there is always a demand for a reduction of rates when they show any undue profit over working expenses. The object of railway administration is to assist the producer.
The oversea trade of Australia runs into enormous figures, amounting in 1913 to $759,422,400.00. Extensive shipping facilities are available, and the producer has cheap and constant access to the world's markets. The Australian wheatgrower is practically able to compete on equal terms in this regard with the farmer in the North and Midland counties of England.
The postal, telegraphic, and telephonic services are also State concerns. There is a universal penny post throughout Australia, telegrams are conveyed at cheap rates, and special facilities are provided for groups of neighbouring farmers to secure a united telephone service. The farmer is able to keep in close touch with the world's markets through these means.
The Departments of Agriculture in the different States have, of course, been created to advance the interests of the farming community. They are large and important departments, well equipped, and have proved of great practical value. Wheatgrowing being the most important crop in Australia, the industry receives special attention, and scientific investigation and experiment is being constantly made, and the results communicated to the wheatgrowers.
Agricultural colleges, where accommodation is provided for students, who are given theoretical and practical instruction in different branches of farming; experiment farms, where students are also trained; demonstration farms; and farmers' experimentplots are conducted by the Departments of Agriculture. Wheatbreeding and pathological and bacteriological work is carried on, and expert instructors work in the field assisting the farmer in every possible way. Bulletins dealing with different phases of work on the wheat farm, giving the results of experiments made, lists of varieties of wheat to plant and when to plant them, are issued in large numbers, and either given to the farmer free or sold at a nominal price. Agricultural gazettes and journals are also issued monthly, while topical information is made public through the columns of the press, which in Australia devotes an unusual amount of space regularly to rural topics.
In New South Wales wheat experiments are conducted at the Cowra Experiment Farm, which is the headquarters, and at the Hawkesbury Agricultural College, and Wagga, Bathurst, Glen Innes, Nyngan, and Yanco Farms. At Nyngan tests are made with a view to determining the suitability of the different varieties for cultivation in dry areas. The work at each farm consists of:—Pedigree plots of the main varieties grown on the farms; crossbreds in course of fixation for local conditions of soil and climate; a "stud variety trial," including all standard varieties, newly-introduced wheats, and samples sent for identification; "stud bulks" to provide seed for planting the farm areas which supply seed wheat for sale.
Since 1897 the Government agricultural experts have been endeavouring to determine the varieties of wheats most suitable for different districts, and to secure new types which return the best milling results locally, and their efforts have been very successful. In this connection the work of the late William Farrer, wheat experimentalist of the Department of Agriculture, New South Wales, has become world famous. His efforts were directed to the production of new varieties of greater milling value and more rust-resistant. Farrer's wheats, which rank among the most prolific grain varieties, are largely cultivated in Australia. Farrer's work is still carried on, and it has been proved that Australia can produce strong white wheat equal in flour production to the old varieties, and equal in strength to the famed standard Manitoba wheat. Australian wheat is eagerly sought after by British millers.
Farrer's work has been of direct and material value to the wheatgrowers, and his memory is held high in Australia. Prior to the introduction into the wheatgrowing areas of his crossbred wheats, growers depended mostly upon Purple Straw varieties. Hardly any varieties were known, and little attention was paid to the advisability of sowing certain varieties either early or late inthe season. The advent of these new varieties has brought about a great change. Such an extensive range is provided that farmers can begin their sowing much earlier, and finish with other varieties much later than was the case before. The sowing season has been lengthened by more than two months. Not only is the sowing period considerably prolonged, but the harvesting period is prolonged also, for the late varieties sown early mature late, those sown in mid-season are harvested in mid-season, and the early varieties which have been sown late mature and are harvested early. Thus instead of the whole crop becoming ripe at the one time it ripens in stages, and is harvested accordingly. Such a system has immense advantages over the old days, when practically the whole crop ripened at once.
The foremost variety bred by William Farrer is "Federation," which has become a general favourite in New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. This variety is a very heavy yielder, has good drought-resistant qualities, and withstands wind and weather so well that it may be said to be storm-proof. It would require a storm of exceptional violence to either cause the crop to lodge or the ear to shed its grain. Consequently it is most popular with growers, and a very large proportion of the wheat area is sown with this variety. It is estimated that in New South Wales and Victoria alone the increased value in yield obtained from this variety is worth over $2,880,000.00 annually to the growers. It is estimated that the yield of Federation is at least 3 bushels more per acre than the next best yielding variety in New South Wales.
Other of Farrer's wheats have been singularly successful, as an instance "Bunyip," which can be sown safely a month later than was the case with any variety previously. It must be recognised that the result of such experimental work is of great value to the grower.
New wheat varieties are bred at the experimental farms, and thoroughly tested and proved before they are put out to the farmer. In New South Wales they are then grown on farmer's experimental plots. The State is divided into divisions, and in each an inspector supervises the sowing and cultivation of these plots, which are situated on private farms by special arrangement, the farmer carrying out the work and the department finding seed, manure, and supervision, usually near the roadside, where the plots can be seen by district farmers and progress noted. The inspector advises growers generally, while the plots are a silent teacher all the time. They have proved a valuable medium of practical education amongst the farming community, special attention being given tocultural methods. In 1911-12 plots were cultivated in New South Wales in eighty-three districts. In 1911 there were seventy-two farmers' plots in Victoria on which manurial and variety wheat trials were conducted.
In the latter State, however, a change has been made, and the majority of these plots have been discontinued, and a commencement made towards a policy of concentration in experimental investigation. It was decided to establish a Central Research Farm at Werribee, on which the initiative with regard to all experimental and research work is undertaken, while other State farms and the Agricultural College will be used as district experiment stations. The work at the Central Research Farm is intended to confer on agriculture the benefits of the most scientific advances by the prosecution of investigations and trials under practical and accurately-recorded conditions concerning problems involved in increasing the agricultural output. Attention will be given to improvement of wheat, soil renovation, fertilising and tillage methods, rotation of crops, &c. The farm is within 18 miles of the capital city, Melbourne, and is easy of access by farmers from all parts of the State. Much of the soil closely resembles in physical character and chemical analysis that of the principal wheatgrowing districts. At Longerenong Agricultural College and the Rutherglen Viticultural College attention is given to the improvement of wheat by systematic selection, crossbreeding and hybridisation in one case, and the fixation and testing of new crossbred wheats in the other.
South Australia also has its Government Agricultural College, where extensive wheat experiments are conducted. The college has been of the greatest benefit to the farming community. In that State there are several demonstration and experiment farms established by the State, including the Parafield Wheat Research Station, 170 acres in extent, which is set apart for the raising of high-grade seed wheat for distribution amongst growers, and the raising of new varieties of wheat by crossbreeding and selection.
In Western Australia several State farms were established for the purpose of demonstrating the possibilities of farming on up-to-date principles in the different districts. Having achieved that object as far as pioneering work is concerned, they are now maintained as experiment stations for the production of purebred cereals, &c. At Narrogin State Farm students are accepted for instruction in practical agriculture.
Queensland has its Agricultural College and State Farms. Although the area under wheat has not yet attained large dimensionsin that State, principally because stockraising proves so profitable, good average yields are obtained as compared with the other States, and considerable scientific attention is being devoted to wheat culture. At the Roma State Farm and Hermitage State Farm extensive wheat experiments are carried out in the way of manurial trials, variety tests, and methods of tillage. The greater portion of the State Farm, Hermitage, is devoted to the production of seed wheat true to type, thus making available a supply of tested seed for the growers.
Agricultural High Schools are also established in some States, and agricultural teaching and agricultural education extends from the classes in the State Public Schools, through the High Schools, Agricultural Colleges, and finally the University.
Agricultural Societies exist in practically every farming district in Australia. They are usually subsidised by the various State Governments, and conduct annual agricultural shows, which are a source of education and social entertainment. They are the leading functions in the different country districts. Usually experts from the Departments of Agriculture attend these shows—at times a special exhibit is made by the State Experimental Farms—and lecture on agriculture. In the capital cities Royal Agricultural Societies hold annual shows, which are magnificent exemplifications of the resources of the States and the progress in agriculture. Wheat competitions are naturally a strong feature of these exhibitions.
South Australia led the way in the formation of an Agricultural Bureau, which has branches throughout the country districts. The members meet regularly, and discuss farming subjects, are periodically addressed by officers of the Department of Agriculture, and also hold an annual conference. The bureau has proved a valuable means of education, as it brings the farmers together, and engenders a spirit of co-operation and mutual assistance. In New South Wales an Agricultural Bureau was formed within recent years, and is now well established, having nearly 100 branches. Farmers' unions and associations are also powerful bodies in Australia, exercising both an educational and political influence.
Australia is essentially a "White Man's Country." Over 90 per cent. of the total population of 4,872,059 people are of British descent. The people are free and democratic, and their laws progressive and advanced; in industrial and social legislation Australialeads the world. It is essentially a peaceful country, and so far has been blessed by never having war within its boundaries. Respect for the law, and absence of violent crime is a marked feature of life in the Commonwealth. In the country districts crime is practically unknown, and it is common for houses to be left unguarded, and locked doors are rare. The people are kindly and hospitable, and there is very little class distinction. In its place is an equality of opportunity that opens all avenues to those with ambition. Working men and their sons frequently rise to the highest positions the States have to offer, and such an occurrence is so common as to fail to arouse any comment. In politics there is a universal suffrage, every man and woman having a voice in the government of the country, therefore the laws are framed for the good of the majority. No land offers better or freer social conditions to the homemaker. Advantages offer not only to the settler himself, but he has every reason to hope for a happy destiny for his children.
As has been stated, the climate is exceptionally healthy and mild. The dry atmosphere, long hours of sunshine and open-air life tend to health and happiness. Indeed it is no exaggeration to say that the fertility of the soil and the congenial climate has greatly lead to easy-going methods of farming, which are not altogether in the interests of the country. Few countries could carry on their rural industries with similar easy methods; none would leave the people as prosperous as the people of Australia.
The information already given shows that the wheatfarmer, except in the most isolated districts, has the facilities for educating his children at little or no cost. Living is cheap on the farm. In most parts of the wheat belt fruit grows luxuriantly, and within three or four years a few trees will provide the settler with sufficient fresh fruit for home consumption, and to make jam and preserves for the family use. Vegetables can be grown during the greater part of the year, and throughout the twelve months if there is an ample water supply. Ideal settlers' homes are to be met with in all districts—a weatherboard or brick cottage, comfortable and roomy, with wide verandahs, covered with creeping grape or passion fruit vines, a few beds of brilliant flowers, a vegetable patch, and an acre or so of fruit trees. Many wheatgrowers combine fruitraising or poultry-keeping with wheatgrowing; some, in suitable districts, find great profit in cultivating a vineyard. These developments depend upon the man and his capability and tendencies, and upon the co-operation and talents of his wife.
For his meat supply the farmer usually depends upon his own flock of killing sheep, varied with beef or bacon procured fromthe township. If he is within 10 miles of the township he will obtain his bread supply from the local baker, although, of course, many housewives do their own baking. In the country districts, however, bread and stores are delivered long distances, 20 miles and more.
The smallest country town has its church, school, post and telegraph office, bank, savings bank, stores, blacksmith's shop, hotel, and so on. There is usually a School of Arts, with a circulating library.
The country districts enjoy a system of local government, and the farmer elects the councillors who manage local affairs.
He has his annual show, usually an annual race meeting. There are football and cricket clubs for his boys. Open-air sports are popular in the country districts of Australia, and are a splendid means of bringing the young fellows together.
The Agricultural Bureau or Farmers' Associations' meetings provide intercourse with other men on the land. Farmers' picnics or carnivals are an annual function in many places.
Within 2, 3, or 4 miles away, according to the size of his farm, there are neighbouring farmers and their families. The settler is not an isolated unit in a strange land, but is living in a civilised country amongst civilised progressive people, enjoying the advantages and facilities of modern conditions, and living under a system of political and religious liberty.
To all white men Australia, with its vast tracts of untilled wheat land, holds out a welcome hand. The self-reliant man, with a small capital, can come to Australia, confident that with energy and attention to his work he can build up a prosperous career, and rear his children in a contented home surrounded by health and happiness, helping in the making of a young, clean nation, part and parcel of an enlightened race.