[p66]CHAPTER XDIRECTION

(Copyright, 1911, William H. Rau, Philadelphia.)5RIVERSWhatriverflows near our home? Have you ever seen it? Where were you when you saw it? How did it look? What did you notice along its banks? What was on the river? Was there any way of crossing over to the opposite bank?[p59]Did you see where the boats land? Men have built many wharves on the banks of the rivers. If you stand on the wharf, you may see great ferry-boats crowded with people. Back and forth these boats go, carrying the people from one side of the river to the other.Sometimes great steamers come up the river. They have carried people, food and clothing on a long journey. Some boats are loaded with coal or lumber. There are many pretty sailboats and rowboats too. In some you will see fishermen. They bring the fish back for the city people to eat.Before the city was built there was beautiful country all along the banks. If you travel up the river, leaving the city far behind, you will see some fine scenery. Perhaps you will pass beautiful woods. Some of the trees bend over the river as if they were looking at their reflections in the clear water. At places there are broad fields where the cows come down to drink the cool water. Farther up there are hills or mountains rising far above the banks. You will notice that the river is growing narrower and narrower until it is but a small stream. If you go down the river again, you will see that it gradually widens as it flows on to the mouth.6PUBLIC LIBRARY, NEWARK, N. J.Most cities get their water supply from a nearby river. Do you know where the water in your bath-room[p60]comes from? When you take a drink in our school-yard what water are you swallowing? How does this water get to our home and school? Pipes run under the streets from the river to all the buildings of the town. There are big pumping stations on the river bank to pump the water out of the river through pipes to the houses. Millions of gallons of water are pumped each day into the homes, schools, mills and factories. For what is this water used?7Plants need more than good soil to make them grow. They will wither and die unless they have plenty of rain to keep the earth soft and moist. There are many places in the world where no trees, nor grass, nor plants of any kind can grow. This is because there is no water to wet the earth.We all know that clouds bring the rain; but how do the clouds get the water? Whenever there is water on the earth, as in the rivers, the air is continually drawing up the moisture in tiny invisible[p61]drops. This moisture rises in the air and forms clouds. When the clouds get very heavy, down comes the water which we call rain. In cold weather it is changed into snow.ELEPHANT IN THE “ZOO.”Where there is no moisture there can be no rain, for the air cannot draw up moisture to form clouds. Where there are many rivers there has been much rain, and the soil is kept fertile. Plants will grow in it. Do you see how our food, our clothing and our shelter are dependent upon rainfall? Do you see how we are kept alive by rivers?8Think of the many, many uses of rivers. There are thousands of useful rivers in the world.[p62]What are the three great necessities of human life? How do rivers help us to getfoodandclothingand to build ourhomesand make them comfortable?SOME USES OF RIVERS1. Water supply; washing and drinking.2. Water power; flour, textile and planing mills.3. Commerce; transportation.4. Life; fish, plants.5. Fertility of soil, rainfall.6. Beauty of scenery.9Look at the map of our neighborhood. See the lines that represent the river. Notice how it bends. Does it show where bridges cross it?10THE OCEANHave you ever stood on the beach and watched the big waves roll in? The greatoceanstretches away as far as you can see. It seems to meet the sky. The weaves roll and break, and roll and break from morning till night forever. Where there are rocks along the shore the ocean dashes against them. The sparkling snowy spray then leaps high into the air with a boom and a swish!Note to the Teacher.—See the details for studying about the oceans in Part II, ChapterI.[p63]11ISLANDS AND PENINSULASTHE OCEAN.As you sail up the river you may see large portions of land lying right out in the water. There are pieces of land lying out in the ocean too. The water lies around them on all sides. We call such portions of landislands. If you were standing on the shore how could you go to an island which you saw out in the water? How could you get there if you had no boat? Some islands are joined to the shores by bridges.Many islands are no larger than this room. Others[p64]are so large that it would take days to travel around them. Whether they are large or small they have water entirely around them.PART OF A ROCKY ISLAND.Some of us have been to a large island that has been built up into a city. When the New York boys and girls want to leave their city they must either go in a boat, or over a bridge, or through a tunnel far under a river. Why? When you visit Atlantic City your train goes over a bridge into the city. Why?12Look at some pictures of islands and notice how many kinds there are. Some are all wooded. Others[p65]are covered with fields. Notice one that is rocky and steep, and another that is level and built into a city.Some islands are so large as to have many cities built upon them, and there are many farms and dense woods besides upon the same islands. Some have many rivers flowing through them.If you were on a large island, how could you prove that it was an island? If you wanted to leave it, how could you do so? Notice on the map of our neighborhood whether a river with islands in it is shown.13Sometimes a piece of land has water flowing only part way around it. If you take a boat and try to go all around it, you will come to a place where the boat cannot go because there is land there. This land that is nearly an island, but does not have the water completely around it, is called apeninsula. Where have you seen a peninsula?[p66]CHAPTER XDIRECTIONA LESSON IN THE SCHOOL YARD AT NOON TIMEFacethe sun. We are facing the south. Does the sun always lie south of us? Where was it early this morning when it arose? That was east. Where will it be at sunset? That is west. Move your hand to show the sun’s daily journey from east to south to west. The sun is south of us only at noon time.DirectionsFace your shadow. Now the sun is behind you. What direction is back of you? You are facing north. Look at the shadows of the school, of the fence, of the pole, and of all the other children. They are all falling to the north. Can you make your shadow fall east or west or south? Why not? When only will shadows fall north? Can you think of any time when the shadows would fall east or west? Could they ever fall south? Why not?[p67]2Draw this diagram on the yard pavement, and mark the parts that are north, south, east and west. Stand at the middle of the cross. Face north. What is behind you? What direction is at your right side and which is at your left side? Learn these words:“When I face the north the south is behind me; the east is at my right hand and the west is at my left hand.”If you pass a weather vane on your way home, see if you can read the letters on it and find out what they mean.3With soft chalk draw a line on your desk with one end toward the north and one end toward the south. Mark N for north and S for south. Draw a line across the middle of it, and mark E for east and W for west.What is north of you, south of you, east of you and west of you?In what direction from you is your teacher’s desk?On what side of you are the blackboards? On which side are the windows?Walk toward the north, toward the east, toward the south, toward the west.Which boy or girl is north of you? Which pupil is west of you?What is south of your room? What is east of it?On what side of your room is the corridor? On[p68]which side is the street? On which side is the school yard?What is north of your teacher’s desk? What is south of your teacher’s chair? What is west of the table? What is east of the windows?POINTS OF THE COMPASS.4Draw a plan of your desk. Mark north, south, east and west upon it. Hang it up with north at the top. Draw a plan of your schoolroom. Mark the north, south, east and west. Hang up the plan with north at the top.Look at the plan of the town. We call it a map. North is at the top. Find the rivers. At which side of the city are they?Look at a plan of the entire school floor with all of the rooms and the corridor. How shall we hang it?5Men have made plans of the city, the country, and the whole world. These plans which show the land[p69]and water are called maps. On all maps north is usually at the top.Look at the map of the whole world. How can you tell which part means land and which means water? What direction is at the top of the map, at the bottom, at the right side, and at the left side?6See where we find the north-east, south-east, south-west and north-west.[p71]PART TWO[p73]CHAPTER ITHE EARTH AS A WHOLE1The WorldLongago wise men found out that the great earth on which we live is not flat, but round like a ball. It is so very large, and we see so small a part of it at one time, that it looks flat to us. Take a piece of paper and tear out a small hole. Hold the hole over your[p74]globe so that a small part of the surface shows through. Does the small piece of the globe look very curved?These men noticed ships sailing away across the water. When the ships were far away the lower part of the boat could not be seen. More and more disappeared till only the tops of the masts could be seen; and at last they were gone too. If you make a little paper boat and let it sail flat across your desk and then try it over the globe, you can see how this proves that the earth is not flat.Did you ever see an eclipse of the moon? The big curved shadow was the earth’s shadow. Why was the shadow round?A globe shows the shape of the earth.2Look at all of the globes and maps in the room. Find how the land and the water are shown. Can you see any islands, any peninsulas? A tiny dot may mean the whole city with hundreds of homes, factories and other buildings. Do you remember how we looked down on our town from a great height and saw the many houses? Just think of a tiny dot meaning all of our town.[p74a]Western Hemisphere[p74b]Eastern Hemisphere3How are the rivers drawn? Think of the great wide flowing river with its wharves and its boats. It[p75]flows on for miles and miles. Some day all of its water will reach the ocean. This little black line means all of that great broad river.Why do we have such tiny things to represent such great things?See this land called North America. It would take five days and nights in a fast express train to travel straight across it.4We can cut the globe in half and make a flat picture of the two parts as they look when placed side by side.Another name for the globe is sphere. “Hemi” means “half,” so each half of the globe is called a “hemisphere.”One half is called the Eastern Hemisphere and the other half the Western Hemisphere.In the Western Hemisphere we have the Western Continent, which is America. This Western Continent is made of two grand divisions, North America and South America. Why are they so named? We live in North America. Find our city and the river nearest to it. North America was joined to South America by a narrow strip of land called theIsthmus of Panama. Look at the map and think why millions of dollars have been spent through many years to cut through this isthmus. Now vessels can pass through this Panama Canal.[p76]Look at the map of the Western Hemisphere and notice what it contains besides the Western Continent of America. There is more water than land. This water forms the great oceans.Perhaps you have been to Atlantic City or some other seashore place and have seen the Atlantic Ocean. Do you remember the big waves which rolled in on the sandy beach and the pretty white-caps far out? Did you see the big nets drawn in full of hundreds of fish? Perhaps you bathed in the ocean and got your mouth full of water. It did not taste like the water we drink, for it was salty. All of the water of the ocean is salt water, but the water of rivers is fresh.The oceans are very large. It would take us five or six days and nights on a great steamer to cross to the other side of the Atlantic Ocean. In what direction should we go?5On the western side of America there is another great ocean, the Pacific Ocean. It has salt water like the Atlantic Ocean, and it also is constantly in motion with great waves.North of North America, in the intensely cold region, is the Arctic Ocean. Great masses of ice called icebergs and ice floes are floating through this ocean.Far south of South America is the Antarctic Ocean. It does not touch South America. It too is in a cold part of the world.[p77]6Do you know of any people who came here from England, Ireland, France, Germany, Italy or Russia? Their homes were in the Eastern Hemisphere. The Eastern Hemisphere has a great mass of land called the Eastern Continent. The Eastern Continent is composed of three grand divisions, Europe, Asia and Africa.Find the great island named Australia. That is sometimes called the Australian Continent because it is so large.7The same oceans which are in the Western Hemisphere extend into the Eastern Hemisphere. Can you name them? The Eastern Hemisphere also contains the Indian Ocean, which is not in the Western Hemisphere.81. How can people go from North America to Europe?2. How do the Chinese, whose home is in Asia, come to America?3. Nearly all of the rubber which we use for automobile tires, overshoes, erasers, and hundreds of other articles comes from South America. Over what ocean does it come?4. On what ocean did Peary sail on his journey to the North Pole?[p78]5. When Amundsen searched for the South Pole, he started from an island near Australia. On what oceans did he sail?6. When the first negroes were brought here from Africa over what ocean did they come?7. What ocean trip is shortest from Africa to Asia?8. Of what use is the ocean?9. Which ocean can we reach most quickly from our home? How long would it take us to get to this ocean?10. How long would it take us to reach the Pacific Ocean?“Behold the sea, * * * splendid and strong, yet beautiful as the rose or the rainbow; full of food, nourisher of man, purger of the world, creating a sweet climate.”—Emerson.[p79]CHAPTER IITHE SEASONS1Whatkind of weather are we having now? What kind will we have in July, in December, in April, in October?What do we call the warm season? What is the cold season? What are the mild seasons? How many seasons have we?2What kind of clothing do we need in winter?What work in your home is different in winter from what is done in summer? What season gives the school janitor most work? Why?If you live in the country you have seen how different it looks in winter time and in summer time. Tell how. In what ways do the town streets and country roads differ in winter and in summer?Name some winter and some summer sports and games.There are certain kinds of industries which can be engaged in only in summer and some only in winter. Decide which of the following are summer and which[p80]are winter industries, and which require work in more than one season:Ice cuttingBuildingFarmingPreservingLumberingFishing3What season do we have when the warm summer is over, and before the cold winter has set in? How do the city streets look then? How do you think the farm looks then?Autumn or fall is a busy time on the farm. The last of the vegetables must be taken in and stored away for the winter. The ripe apples and nuts must be gathered too. The corn is brought in from the fields and stored in the barns for the winter food of the farm animals.4After the long cold winter is over the days grow gradually milder and warmer until spring has come. Are you glad when spring comes? Why?In your schoolroom you can tell when spring is here. How pleasant the air feels as it blows in through the window! It seems to kiss us with its warm breath. You can hear the birds chirping as if they were happy. Perhaps a bee will buzz into the room. Many of the children will bring to school the dainty little spring[p81]flowers, anemones, blood root, hepatica, violets and buttercups.Out in the country all nature is busy. The tree buds are swelling and bursting. The grass and flowers are springing up. The birds are building their nests. The farmer is ploughing and planting his fields.[p82]CHAPTER IIITHE ZONES1Allparts of the earth do not have seasons such as we have. If we should travel north we should find the climate growing colder and colder. After a long time we should come to a region of intense cold. The ground would be covered with ice and snow all the year through, both winter and summer. This most northern part of the earth is called the North Pole. The region around it is the North Frigid Zone. There is a South Pole and a South Frigid Zone as cold as the northern one. You can see where they are on the diagram.[p82a]World mapIf we start from here and take a trip south we find it constantly growing warmer. At last we come to a place where it is extremely warm in both summer and winter. That region is called the Torrid Zone because “torrid” means “hot.” This hot zone extends right around the middle part of the earth. The very hottest part through the middle is the Equator. Notice on the drawing that we live in a zone between the very cold region, or Frigid Zone, and the very warm region, or Torrid Zone. Our zone is called the North Temperate Zone. We have here spring, summer,[p83]autumn and winter. Our weather is seldom so cold as in the Frigid Zones, nor so warm as in the Torrid Zone. Our spring and autumn are mild or temperate.THE ZONES.Find the South Temperate Zone. Its climate is just like ours. What seasons do they have there? What zone lies north of it and which south of it?Copy the diagram of the zones in your note-book.2THE TEMPERATE ZONE—OUR ZONEMost of the people of the world live in one of the Temperate Zones, and most of the great cities are in these zones. People can work better here where we do not have either intensely hot or intensely cold weather all of the time. There are two Temperate[p84]Zones, the North Temperate Zone and the South Temperate Zone. In which do we live?Some plants grow best in the Temperate Zones, while others live best in the Torrid Zone. Scarcely any grow in the Frigid Zones. Name all the plants you can think of that live in our zone. These plants grow during the summer and rest or die when winter comes.SOME PLANTS OF THE TEMPERATE ZONESPoplarFruit treesMapleWheatChestnutCornOakCottonWalnutFarm vegetablesPineFamiliar garden plantsNone of these plants can grow well in either the intense cold of the Frigid Zones or the great heat of the Torrid Zone.3Many animals live better in our zone than in any other zone. They need temperate climate.SOME ANIMALS OF THE TEMPERATE ZONESHorseSquirrelCowBearSheepWolfPigRabbit[p85]CatFoxDogDeerZebraBuffaloGiraffeGoatWhich are domestic and which are wild animals? Describe each and tell how it is useful to man.ZEBRA.4THE HOT ZONEIf we take a long trip to the south we find it growing warmer and warmer until at last we have reached a land where it is warm all the year through. This is the Torrid Zone.The plants do not rest nor die in winter there, for there is no cold weather. These plants keep right on growing through the year. Many of the trees grow very, very high and have tremendous leaves.[p86]In some cities there are large greenhouses where the Torrid Zone plants are raised. The temperature must be kept as warm there as in the Torrid Zone. These are some of the Torrid or Hot Zone plants:PalmRubberGiant fernsCoffeeBambooBananaIN THE TORRID ZONE.In the forests of the Hot Zone the trees grow very close together. The sunlight cannot shine through. It is impossible to walk through these forests without first chopping out a pathway with a hatchet.5In these forests live many of the fierce animals which you have seen in cages in the Zoological Gardens or at the circus.SOME ANIMALS OF THE TORRID ZONEMonkeyElephantCamelSnake[p87]LionParrotTigerRhinocerosLeopardWild CatDescribe these and tell of what use they are.A TROPICAL JUNGLE.Why are some of the buildings in the Zoological Gardens so warm?6The Torrid Zone was the first home of the negroes before they were brought to America. There are many[p88]negroes and Indians living in the Hot Zone now. Many are but half-civilized. Some are savage. As they do not need large warm homes like ours, some live in small huts made of the branches of trees, earth and straw. A few of these homes together make a village. These people get their food by hunting in the forest and fishing in the rivers and ocean. They also eat the fruits that grow wild in the forests. There are some cities in the Torrid Zone, but none of them are very large. These towns have been built mostly by the civilized white people. The streets are often shaded with beautiful palm trees. The buildings are generally small, as the people live and work out of doors as much as possible.7WHAT THE TEMPERATE AND TORRID ZONES DO FOR EACH OTHERThe people living in the Torrid Zone send to us Temperate Zone people many useful things that do not grow here. These are some of them:CocoanutsChocolateBananasPepperCoffeePalm leavesRubberMahoganyIn return the Temperate Zone people send to the Torrid Zone inhabitants things that they do not have. In the Hot Zone there are no large factories in which to manufacture goods, so we send there:[p89]Farm toolsGunsWoven goodsKnivesBooksClothing8THE COLD ZONESAN ESKIMO FAMILY.At the most northern part of the earth and at the most southern part are regions of intense cold. The earth is entirely covered with ice and snow all of the year. The water is filled with masses of floating ice and snow. Our coldest winter days are not nearly so cold as the climate of the North and South Frigid[p90]Zones. It is even hard to tell which is land and which is water.ESKIMO BOY.Of course no trees, nor grass, nor plants, nor animals, nor people of any kind can live in that intense cold. At the parts near the Temperate Zones, where it is slightly warmer, there are some very small dwarfed trees not more than a foot or two high, and perhaps a little moss. It is here that the Eskimos live; but most of the North Frigid Zone and the South Frigid Zone is a stretch of frozen whiteness on all sides, with no living thing of any kind. During the summer the sun never sets, so that there is twilight all night. In winter the sun never rises above the horizon, so there are months of darkness.These frozen lands are the regions through which so many brave explorers have traveled trying to find the most northern part called the North Pole, and the most southern part, the South Pole. Many of these[p91]fearless men have never returned from the Frigid Zones. They have starved or been frozen to death.At last, after trying for twenty-seven years, Robert E. Peary, an American, reached the North Pole on April 6, 1909. All Americans are very proud of this brave, determined, fearless man, who would not stop until he had done what he set out to do.Roald Amundsen, a brave Norwegian, reached the South Pole on December 14, 1911, after suffering many hardships.9Peary has written a book in which he tells about his travels. Up in the north he met the Eskimos, who belong to the Indian family. They live in snow houses in the winter. In summer, which is also very cold, they live in skin tents. These Eskimos dress in warm furs. They have no schools nor churches, but they are a kind and peaceful people. They are very good to the white explorers in the north.The Eskimo travels mostly on foot, but carries loads on sledges drawn by dogs. The Eskimo’s dogs are his best friends. Without them he could not manage to carry home the animals he kills for food and clothing. He also uses boats which he makes of skins.Many of the Frigid Zone animals are covered with heavy fur. Why?[p92]SOME FRIGID ZONE ANIMALSDogPolar BearSealReindeerWhalePenguin10WHAT THE FRIGID AND TEMPERATE ZONES DO FOR EACH OTHERMen go to the Frigid Zones and catch seals and other animals and bring back the skins for the Temperate Zone people.The whale, which lives in the ocean of the Frigid Zone, is also very useful. From it we get the whalebone, oil and also a fertilizer to help our farm crops to grow. Great quantities of whale meat are eaten by some people of the Temperate Zones.The Eskimos of the Frigid Zone are glad to have from the Temperate Zones manufactured articles like pans, knives and guns.111. What different kinds of people have you ever seen?2. Why are the Temperate Zone people more civilized than the Frigid Zone people?3. Name some animals of each zone.4. In which zones is it best to live? Why?5. As you sit at your desk point toward the North Pole, toward the South Frigid Zone, the North Frigid Zone, the South Temperate Zone, the Equator, the South Pole, the Torrid Zone.[p93]CHAPTER IVNORTH AMERICA1Findwhere we live on the map of North America. Locate our home on all of our maps and globes.North America is a very large portion of land. You could sail along its shores for thousands of miles. At its widest part you could not cross it in a fast express train in less than five days and nights. There are thousands of cities in this great grand division, for there are millions of people here. Most of them are white or Caucasian. There are also many Indians, negroes, Eskimos and Mongolians.Much of the land is dense forest, and much is fertile farm land. A small part has so few rivers and such a scarcity of rainfall that the land is dry and arid. Little grows upon it but coarse grass and cactus. This region is called adesert.2North America stretches far up north into the North Frigid Zone and far south into the Torrid Zone, but most of it lies in the North Temperate Zone. What plants and animals live in North America? It is separated from Asia by a narrow strip of water called Behring Strait. How did North America used to be[p94]connected with South America? Why is the separation called a canal and not an isthmus?3BARNEGAT LIGHTHOUSE.Three great oceans wash the shores of North America. Name them. The coast line is very irregular. Notice on the map that at places part of the ocean extends far into the land, forminggulfsandbays. Hudson Bay, Gulf of Mexico and Gulf of St. Lawrence are all parts of which ocean? The waves are not so high in the bays and gulfs as in the open ocean. The land keeps off some of the wind. Vessels that are waiting to be laden with cargo lie in these sheltered gulfs and bays. Why?[p95]At many places along the shore the land juts out into the ocean incapes. Many of these points of land have special names. Look on the map for them. There are light houses built on most of these capes to warn the ships in the dark and in the storms to keep away from the dangerous rocks and shore. A cape is often a pleasant place for a summer home. There is so much water around it that the sea breezes sweep across it and make it delightfully cool.4Do you remember how we spoke of the river with its many boats and steamers? There are hundreds of rivers in North America flowing for miles until at last they reach the ocean.5There are many high hills, some so very high as to be calledmountains. There is a chain of these mountains called the Eastern Highlands along the eastern part of North America. They extend for many miles north and south. The scenery in this region is very beautiful. The mountains are covered mostly with forests of pine, spruce, oak, maple, chestnut and other trees. These are cut down for lumber. In the wilder parts of these forests live squirrels, rabbits, bears and snakes. At places the trees have been cut down to make room for fields of grain.[p96]SURFACE MAP OF NORTH AMERICA.[p97]The mountains are full of useful minerals. Great quantities of coal and iron are mined in the Eastern Highlands.6The highest mountains in North America are the Western Highlands in the western part. One great chain or range extends the entire length of North America from the Arctic Ocean down into South America. Great forests grow on these mountains. In many places are huge masses of rock on which nothing grows, so this range has been called the Rocky Mountains. It is always bitter cold at the top of some of these mountains because they reach so high. Even in summer they are capped with snow. Nowhere in the world can more magnificent scenery be found.West of the Rocky Mountains is the Pacific Mountain System.Gold and silver are mined in the Western Highlands. In the wild parts of the forests, where no people live, deer, wolves and bears may be found.7The low land between the mountains we callplainsorvalleys. There is a Great Central Plain which reaches from the Eastern Highlands to the Western Highlands. There are many rivers in this valley. The Mississippi and the Missouri Rivers are the largest.[p98]8You remember how rivers make rainfall and fertile soil. The Great Central Plain has some of the best farm land in the world. In the northern cold part hardly anything grows, but in the central part great quantities of corn, grain, fruits and vegetables are raised. In the south the plantations or farms raise sugar cane, cotton, tobacco, rice and coffee.SHEEP ON THE PLAINS.On the western plains great herds of thousands of sheep and cattle are raised.In the Great Central Plain are hundreds of cities where the farm products are sold. Here, too, the farmers buy the farm tools and machinery which they[p99]need. In the city mills the wheat is ground into flour and the logs from the forests are sawed into planks or made into furniture. The cattle and sheep are killed and the meat prepared for our use.9East of the central part of the Great Central Plain are five of the largest lakes in the world. When you are in a boat in the middle of any one of them you cannot see the land on any side. They are called the Great Lakes. Their names are Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario. They are all joined together, and from the last a large river runs into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It has the same name as the gulf.There are many other smaller lakes in North America where the land is low and the water from the rivers and streams fills up the hollows. Nearly all have fresh water like the rivers. A very few, like Great Salt Lake, contain salt water.[p100]CHAPTER VCOUNTRIES OF NORTH AMERICA1NorthAmerica contains several different countries. Each is under a separate government. These countries are United States, British America, Danish America, Mexico and Central America. Each country has its own ruler and its own laws. Each has a special flag and its own kind of money and postage stamps.2THE UNITED STATESWe live in the best one of these countries, for we have the best ways of obtaining our food, our clothing and our shelter. Our climate is good, for we are in the North Temperate Zone. Our soil is very fertile. The Great Central Plain of North America passes through the central part of the United States. We raise fruits, vegetables, corn, wheat, rice and sugar for food. We have immense ranches for raising cows and sheep too. Our clothing is supplied by the thousands of sheep we raise and from the cotton we grow here. The Western and Eastern Highlands pass through our country.

(Copyright, 1911, William H. Rau, Philadelphia.)

Whatriverflows near our home? Have you ever seen it? Where were you when you saw it? How did it look? What did you notice along its banks? What was on the river? Was there any way of crossing over to the opposite bank?

[p59]Did you see where the boats land? Men have built many wharves on the banks of the rivers. If you stand on the wharf, you may see great ferry-boats crowded with people. Back and forth these boats go, carrying the people from one side of the river to the other.

Sometimes great steamers come up the river. They have carried people, food and clothing on a long journey. Some boats are loaded with coal or lumber. There are many pretty sailboats and rowboats too. In some you will see fishermen. They bring the fish back for the city people to eat.

Before the city was built there was beautiful country all along the banks. If you travel up the river, leaving the city far behind, you will see some fine scenery. Perhaps you will pass beautiful woods. Some of the trees bend over the river as if they were looking at their reflections in the clear water. At places there are broad fields where the cows come down to drink the cool water. Farther up there are hills or mountains rising far above the banks. You will notice that the river is growing narrower and narrower until it is but a small stream. If you go down the river again, you will see that it gradually widens as it flows on to the mouth.

PUBLIC LIBRARY, NEWARK, N. J.

Most cities get their water supply from a nearby river. Do you know where the water in your bath-room[p60]comes from? When you take a drink in our school-yard what water are you swallowing? How does this water get to our home and school? Pipes run under the streets from the river to all the buildings of the town. There are big pumping stations on the river bank to pump the water out of the river through pipes to the houses. Millions of gallons of water are pumped each day into the homes, schools, mills and factories. For what is this water used?

Plants need more than good soil to make them grow. They will wither and die unless they have plenty of rain to keep the earth soft and moist. There are many places in the world where no trees, nor grass, nor plants of any kind can grow. This is because there is no water to wet the earth.

We all know that clouds bring the rain; but how do the clouds get the water? Whenever there is water on the earth, as in the rivers, the air is continually drawing up the moisture in tiny invisible[p61]drops. This moisture rises in the air and forms clouds. When the clouds get very heavy, down comes the water which we call rain. In cold weather it is changed into snow.

ELEPHANT IN THE “ZOO.”

Where there is no moisture there can be no rain, for the air cannot draw up moisture to form clouds. Where there are many rivers there has been much rain, and the soil is kept fertile. Plants will grow in it. Do you see how our food, our clothing and our shelter are dependent upon rainfall? Do you see how we are kept alive by rivers?

Think of the many, many uses of rivers. There are thousands of useful rivers in the world.

[p62]What are the three great necessities of human life? How do rivers help us to getfoodandclothingand to build ourhomesand make them comfortable?

1. Water supply; washing and drinking.

2. Water power; flour, textile and planing mills.

3. Commerce; transportation.

4. Life; fish, plants.

5. Fertility of soil, rainfall.

6. Beauty of scenery.

Look at the map of our neighborhood. See the lines that represent the river. Notice how it bends. Does it show where bridges cross it?

Have you ever stood on the beach and watched the big waves roll in? The greatoceanstretches away as far as you can see. It seems to meet the sky. The weaves roll and break, and roll and break from morning till night forever. Where there are rocks along the shore the ocean dashes against them. The sparkling snowy spray then leaps high into the air with a boom and a swish!

Note to the Teacher.—See the details for studying about the oceans in Part II, ChapterI.

THE OCEAN.

As you sail up the river you may see large portions of land lying right out in the water. There are pieces of land lying out in the ocean too. The water lies around them on all sides. We call such portions of landislands. If you were standing on the shore how could you go to an island which you saw out in the water? How could you get there if you had no boat? Some islands are joined to the shores by bridges.

Many islands are no larger than this room. Others[p64]are so large that it would take days to travel around them. Whether they are large or small they have water entirely around them.

PART OF A ROCKY ISLAND.

Some of us have been to a large island that has been built up into a city. When the New York boys and girls want to leave their city they must either go in a boat, or over a bridge, or through a tunnel far under a river. Why? When you visit Atlantic City your train goes over a bridge into the city. Why?

Look at some pictures of islands and notice how many kinds there are. Some are all wooded. Others[p65]are covered with fields. Notice one that is rocky and steep, and another that is level and built into a city.

Some islands are so large as to have many cities built upon them, and there are many farms and dense woods besides upon the same islands. Some have many rivers flowing through them.

If you were on a large island, how could you prove that it was an island? If you wanted to leave it, how could you do so? Notice on the map of our neighborhood whether a river with islands in it is shown.

Sometimes a piece of land has water flowing only part way around it. If you take a boat and try to go all around it, you will come to a place where the boat cannot go because there is land there. This land that is nearly an island, but does not have the water completely around it, is called apeninsula. Where have you seen a peninsula?

Facethe sun. We are facing the south. Does the sun always lie south of us? Where was it early this morning when it arose? That was east. Where will it be at sunset? That is west. Move your hand to show the sun’s daily journey from east to south to west. The sun is south of us only at noon time.

Directions

Face your shadow. Now the sun is behind you. What direction is back of you? You are facing north. Look at the shadows of the school, of the fence, of the pole, and of all the other children. They are all falling to the north. Can you make your shadow fall east or west or south? Why not? When only will shadows fall north? Can you think of any time when the shadows would fall east or west? Could they ever fall south? Why not?

Draw this diagram on the yard pavement, and mark the parts that are north, south, east and west. Stand at the middle of the cross. Face north. What is behind you? What direction is at your right side and which is at your left side? Learn these words:

“When I face the north the south is behind me; the east is at my right hand and the west is at my left hand.”

If you pass a weather vane on your way home, see if you can read the letters on it and find out what they mean.

With soft chalk draw a line on your desk with one end toward the north and one end toward the south. Mark N for north and S for south. Draw a line across the middle of it, and mark E for east and W for west.

What is north of you, south of you, east of you and west of you?

In what direction from you is your teacher’s desk?

On what side of you are the blackboards? On which side are the windows?

Walk toward the north, toward the east, toward the south, toward the west.

Which boy or girl is north of you? Which pupil is west of you?

What is south of your room? What is east of it?

On what side of your room is the corridor? On[p68]which side is the street? On which side is the school yard?

What is north of your teacher’s desk? What is south of your teacher’s chair? What is west of the table? What is east of the windows?

POINTS OF THE COMPASS.

Draw a plan of your desk. Mark north, south, east and west upon it. Hang it up with north at the top. Draw a plan of your schoolroom. Mark the north, south, east and west. Hang up the plan with north at the top.

Look at the plan of the town. We call it a map. North is at the top. Find the rivers. At which side of the city are they?

Look at a plan of the entire school floor with all of the rooms and the corridor. How shall we hang it?

Men have made plans of the city, the country, and the whole world. These plans which show the land[p69]and water are called maps. On all maps north is usually at the top.

Look at the map of the whole world. How can you tell which part means land and which means water? What direction is at the top of the map, at the bottom, at the right side, and at the left side?

See where we find the north-east, south-east, south-west and north-west.

The World

Longago wise men found out that the great earth on which we live is not flat, but round like a ball. It is so very large, and we see so small a part of it at one time, that it looks flat to us. Take a piece of paper and tear out a small hole. Hold the hole over your[p74]globe so that a small part of the surface shows through. Does the small piece of the globe look very curved?

These men noticed ships sailing away across the water. When the ships were far away the lower part of the boat could not be seen. More and more disappeared till only the tops of the masts could be seen; and at last they were gone too. If you make a little paper boat and let it sail flat across your desk and then try it over the globe, you can see how this proves that the earth is not flat.

Did you ever see an eclipse of the moon? The big curved shadow was the earth’s shadow. Why was the shadow round?

A globe shows the shape of the earth.

Look at all of the globes and maps in the room. Find how the land and the water are shown. Can you see any islands, any peninsulas? A tiny dot may mean the whole city with hundreds of homes, factories and other buildings. Do you remember how we looked down on our town from a great height and saw the many houses? Just think of a tiny dot meaning all of our town.

[p74a]Western Hemisphere[p74b]Eastern Hemisphere

How are the rivers drawn? Think of the great wide flowing river with its wharves and its boats. It[p75]flows on for miles and miles. Some day all of its water will reach the ocean. This little black line means all of that great broad river.

Why do we have such tiny things to represent such great things?

See this land called North America. It would take five days and nights in a fast express train to travel straight across it.

We can cut the globe in half and make a flat picture of the two parts as they look when placed side by side.

Another name for the globe is sphere. “Hemi” means “half,” so each half of the globe is called a “hemisphere.”

One half is called the Eastern Hemisphere and the other half the Western Hemisphere.

In the Western Hemisphere we have the Western Continent, which is America. This Western Continent is made of two grand divisions, North America and South America. Why are they so named? We live in North America. Find our city and the river nearest to it. North America was joined to South America by a narrow strip of land called theIsthmus of Panama. Look at the map and think why millions of dollars have been spent through many years to cut through this isthmus. Now vessels can pass through this Panama Canal.

[p76]Look at the map of the Western Hemisphere and notice what it contains besides the Western Continent of America. There is more water than land. This water forms the great oceans.

Perhaps you have been to Atlantic City or some other seashore place and have seen the Atlantic Ocean. Do you remember the big waves which rolled in on the sandy beach and the pretty white-caps far out? Did you see the big nets drawn in full of hundreds of fish? Perhaps you bathed in the ocean and got your mouth full of water. It did not taste like the water we drink, for it was salty. All of the water of the ocean is salt water, but the water of rivers is fresh.

The oceans are very large. It would take us five or six days and nights on a great steamer to cross to the other side of the Atlantic Ocean. In what direction should we go?

On the western side of America there is another great ocean, the Pacific Ocean. It has salt water like the Atlantic Ocean, and it also is constantly in motion with great waves.

North of North America, in the intensely cold region, is the Arctic Ocean. Great masses of ice called icebergs and ice floes are floating through this ocean.

Far south of South America is the Antarctic Ocean. It does not touch South America. It too is in a cold part of the world.

Do you know of any people who came here from England, Ireland, France, Germany, Italy or Russia? Their homes were in the Eastern Hemisphere. The Eastern Hemisphere has a great mass of land called the Eastern Continent. The Eastern Continent is composed of three grand divisions, Europe, Asia and Africa.

Find the great island named Australia. That is sometimes called the Australian Continent because it is so large.

The same oceans which are in the Western Hemisphere extend into the Eastern Hemisphere. Can you name them? The Eastern Hemisphere also contains the Indian Ocean, which is not in the Western Hemisphere.

1. How can people go from North America to Europe?

2. How do the Chinese, whose home is in Asia, come to America?

3. Nearly all of the rubber which we use for automobile tires, overshoes, erasers, and hundreds of other articles comes from South America. Over what ocean does it come?

4. On what ocean did Peary sail on his journey to the North Pole?

[p78]5. When Amundsen searched for the South Pole, he started from an island near Australia. On what oceans did he sail?

6. When the first negroes were brought here from Africa over what ocean did they come?

7. What ocean trip is shortest from Africa to Asia?

8. Of what use is the ocean?

9. Which ocean can we reach most quickly from our home? How long would it take us to get to this ocean?

10. How long would it take us to reach the Pacific Ocean?

“Behold the sea, * * * splendid and strong, yet beautiful as the rose or the rainbow; full of food, nourisher of man, purger of the world, creating a sweet climate.”—Emerson.

Whatkind of weather are we having now? What kind will we have in July, in December, in April, in October?

What do we call the warm season? What is the cold season? What are the mild seasons? How many seasons have we?

What kind of clothing do we need in winter?

What work in your home is different in winter from what is done in summer? What season gives the school janitor most work? Why?

If you live in the country you have seen how different it looks in winter time and in summer time. Tell how. In what ways do the town streets and country roads differ in winter and in summer?

Name some winter and some summer sports and games.

There are certain kinds of industries which can be engaged in only in summer and some only in winter. Decide which of the following are summer and which[p80]are winter industries, and which require work in more than one season:

What season do we have when the warm summer is over, and before the cold winter has set in? How do the city streets look then? How do you think the farm looks then?

Autumn or fall is a busy time on the farm. The last of the vegetables must be taken in and stored away for the winter. The ripe apples and nuts must be gathered too. The corn is brought in from the fields and stored in the barns for the winter food of the farm animals.

After the long cold winter is over the days grow gradually milder and warmer until spring has come. Are you glad when spring comes? Why?

In your schoolroom you can tell when spring is here. How pleasant the air feels as it blows in through the window! It seems to kiss us with its warm breath. You can hear the birds chirping as if they were happy. Perhaps a bee will buzz into the room. Many of the children will bring to school the dainty little spring[p81]flowers, anemones, blood root, hepatica, violets and buttercups.

Out in the country all nature is busy. The tree buds are swelling and bursting. The grass and flowers are springing up. The birds are building their nests. The farmer is ploughing and planting his fields.

Allparts of the earth do not have seasons such as we have. If we should travel north we should find the climate growing colder and colder. After a long time we should come to a region of intense cold. The ground would be covered with ice and snow all the year through, both winter and summer. This most northern part of the earth is called the North Pole. The region around it is the North Frigid Zone. There is a South Pole and a South Frigid Zone as cold as the northern one. You can see where they are on the diagram.

[p82a]World map

If we start from here and take a trip south we find it constantly growing warmer. At last we come to a place where it is extremely warm in both summer and winter. That region is called the Torrid Zone because “torrid” means “hot.” This hot zone extends right around the middle part of the earth. The very hottest part through the middle is the Equator. Notice on the drawing that we live in a zone between the very cold region, or Frigid Zone, and the very warm region, or Torrid Zone. Our zone is called the North Temperate Zone. We have here spring, summer,[p83]autumn and winter. Our weather is seldom so cold as in the Frigid Zones, nor so warm as in the Torrid Zone. Our spring and autumn are mild or temperate.

THE ZONES.

Find the South Temperate Zone. Its climate is just like ours. What seasons do they have there? What zone lies north of it and which south of it?

Copy the diagram of the zones in your note-book.

Most of the people of the world live in one of the Temperate Zones, and most of the great cities are in these zones. People can work better here where we do not have either intensely hot or intensely cold weather all of the time. There are two Temperate[p84]Zones, the North Temperate Zone and the South Temperate Zone. In which do we live?

Some plants grow best in the Temperate Zones, while others live best in the Torrid Zone. Scarcely any grow in the Frigid Zones. Name all the plants you can think of that live in our zone. These plants grow during the summer and rest or die when winter comes.

None of these plants can grow well in either the intense cold of the Frigid Zones or the great heat of the Torrid Zone.

Many animals live better in our zone than in any other zone. They need temperate climate.

Which are domestic and which are wild animals? Describe each and tell how it is useful to man.

ZEBRA.

If we take a long trip to the south we find it growing warmer and warmer until at last we have reached a land where it is warm all the year through. This is the Torrid Zone.

The plants do not rest nor die in winter there, for there is no cold weather. These plants keep right on growing through the year. Many of the trees grow very, very high and have tremendous leaves.

[p86]In some cities there are large greenhouses where the Torrid Zone plants are raised. The temperature must be kept as warm there as in the Torrid Zone. These are some of the Torrid or Hot Zone plants:

IN THE TORRID ZONE.

In the forests of the Hot Zone the trees grow very close together. The sunlight cannot shine through. It is impossible to walk through these forests without first chopping out a pathway with a hatchet.

In these forests live many of the fierce animals which you have seen in cages in the Zoological Gardens or at the circus.

Describe these and tell of what use they are.

A TROPICAL JUNGLE.

Why are some of the buildings in the Zoological Gardens so warm?

The Torrid Zone was the first home of the negroes before they were brought to America. There are many[p88]negroes and Indians living in the Hot Zone now. Many are but half-civilized. Some are savage. As they do not need large warm homes like ours, some live in small huts made of the branches of trees, earth and straw. A few of these homes together make a village. These people get their food by hunting in the forest and fishing in the rivers and ocean. They also eat the fruits that grow wild in the forests. There are some cities in the Torrid Zone, but none of them are very large. These towns have been built mostly by the civilized white people. The streets are often shaded with beautiful palm trees. The buildings are generally small, as the people live and work out of doors as much as possible.

The people living in the Torrid Zone send to us Temperate Zone people many useful things that do not grow here. These are some of them:

In return the Temperate Zone people send to the Torrid Zone inhabitants things that they do not have. In the Hot Zone there are no large factories in which to manufacture goods, so we send there:

AN ESKIMO FAMILY.

At the most northern part of the earth and at the most southern part are regions of intense cold. The earth is entirely covered with ice and snow all of the year. The water is filled with masses of floating ice and snow. Our coldest winter days are not nearly so cold as the climate of the North and South Frigid[p90]Zones. It is even hard to tell which is land and which is water.

ESKIMO BOY.

Of course no trees, nor grass, nor plants, nor animals, nor people of any kind can live in that intense cold. At the parts near the Temperate Zones, where it is slightly warmer, there are some very small dwarfed trees not more than a foot or two high, and perhaps a little moss. It is here that the Eskimos live; but most of the North Frigid Zone and the South Frigid Zone is a stretch of frozen whiteness on all sides, with no living thing of any kind. During the summer the sun never sets, so that there is twilight all night. In winter the sun never rises above the horizon, so there are months of darkness.

These frozen lands are the regions through which so many brave explorers have traveled trying to find the most northern part called the North Pole, and the most southern part, the South Pole. Many of these[p91]fearless men have never returned from the Frigid Zones. They have starved or been frozen to death.

At last, after trying for twenty-seven years, Robert E. Peary, an American, reached the North Pole on April 6, 1909. All Americans are very proud of this brave, determined, fearless man, who would not stop until he had done what he set out to do.

Roald Amundsen, a brave Norwegian, reached the South Pole on December 14, 1911, after suffering many hardships.

Peary has written a book in which he tells about his travels. Up in the north he met the Eskimos, who belong to the Indian family. They live in snow houses in the winter. In summer, which is also very cold, they live in skin tents. These Eskimos dress in warm furs. They have no schools nor churches, but they are a kind and peaceful people. They are very good to the white explorers in the north.

The Eskimo travels mostly on foot, but carries loads on sledges drawn by dogs. The Eskimo’s dogs are his best friends. Without them he could not manage to carry home the animals he kills for food and clothing. He also uses boats which he makes of skins.

Many of the Frigid Zone animals are covered with heavy fur. Why?

Men go to the Frigid Zones and catch seals and other animals and bring back the skins for the Temperate Zone people.

The whale, which lives in the ocean of the Frigid Zone, is also very useful. From it we get the whalebone, oil and also a fertilizer to help our farm crops to grow. Great quantities of whale meat are eaten by some people of the Temperate Zones.

The Eskimos of the Frigid Zone are glad to have from the Temperate Zones manufactured articles like pans, knives and guns.

1. What different kinds of people have you ever seen?

2. Why are the Temperate Zone people more civilized than the Frigid Zone people?

3. Name some animals of each zone.

4. In which zones is it best to live? Why?

5. As you sit at your desk point toward the North Pole, toward the South Frigid Zone, the North Frigid Zone, the South Temperate Zone, the Equator, the South Pole, the Torrid Zone.

Findwhere we live on the map of North America. Locate our home on all of our maps and globes.

North America is a very large portion of land. You could sail along its shores for thousands of miles. At its widest part you could not cross it in a fast express train in less than five days and nights. There are thousands of cities in this great grand division, for there are millions of people here. Most of them are white or Caucasian. There are also many Indians, negroes, Eskimos and Mongolians.

Much of the land is dense forest, and much is fertile farm land. A small part has so few rivers and such a scarcity of rainfall that the land is dry and arid. Little grows upon it but coarse grass and cactus. This region is called adesert.

North America stretches far up north into the North Frigid Zone and far south into the Torrid Zone, but most of it lies in the North Temperate Zone. What plants and animals live in North America? It is separated from Asia by a narrow strip of water called Behring Strait. How did North America used to be[p94]connected with South America? Why is the separation called a canal and not an isthmus?

BARNEGAT LIGHTHOUSE.

Three great oceans wash the shores of North America. Name them. The coast line is very irregular. Notice on the map that at places part of the ocean extends far into the land, forminggulfsandbays. Hudson Bay, Gulf of Mexico and Gulf of St. Lawrence are all parts of which ocean? The waves are not so high in the bays and gulfs as in the open ocean. The land keeps off some of the wind. Vessels that are waiting to be laden with cargo lie in these sheltered gulfs and bays. Why?

[p95]At many places along the shore the land juts out into the ocean incapes. Many of these points of land have special names. Look on the map for them. There are light houses built on most of these capes to warn the ships in the dark and in the storms to keep away from the dangerous rocks and shore. A cape is often a pleasant place for a summer home. There is so much water around it that the sea breezes sweep across it and make it delightfully cool.

Do you remember how we spoke of the river with its many boats and steamers? There are hundreds of rivers in North America flowing for miles until at last they reach the ocean.

There are many high hills, some so very high as to be calledmountains. There is a chain of these mountains called the Eastern Highlands along the eastern part of North America. They extend for many miles north and south. The scenery in this region is very beautiful. The mountains are covered mostly with forests of pine, spruce, oak, maple, chestnut and other trees. These are cut down for lumber. In the wilder parts of these forests live squirrels, rabbits, bears and snakes. At places the trees have been cut down to make room for fields of grain.

[p96]SURFACE MAP OF NORTH AMERICA.

[p97]The mountains are full of useful minerals. Great quantities of coal and iron are mined in the Eastern Highlands.

The highest mountains in North America are the Western Highlands in the western part. One great chain or range extends the entire length of North America from the Arctic Ocean down into South America. Great forests grow on these mountains. In many places are huge masses of rock on which nothing grows, so this range has been called the Rocky Mountains. It is always bitter cold at the top of some of these mountains because they reach so high. Even in summer they are capped with snow. Nowhere in the world can more magnificent scenery be found.

West of the Rocky Mountains is the Pacific Mountain System.

Gold and silver are mined in the Western Highlands. In the wild parts of the forests, where no people live, deer, wolves and bears may be found.

The low land between the mountains we callplainsorvalleys. There is a Great Central Plain which reaches from the Eastern Highlands to the Western Highlands. There are many rivers in this valley. The Mississippi and the Missouri Rivers are the largest.

You remember how rivers make rainfall and fertile soil. The Great Central Plain has some of the best farm land in the world. In the northern cold part hardly anything grows, but in the central part great quantities of corn, grain, fruits and vegetables are raised. In the south the plantations or farms raise sugar cane, cotton, tobacco, rice and coffee.

SHEEP ON THE PLAINS.

On the western plains great herds of thousands of sheep and cattle are raised.

In the Great Central Plain are hundreds of cities where the farm products are sold. Here, too, the farmers buy the farm tools and machinery which they[p99]need. In the city mills the wheat is ground into flour and the logs from the forests are sawed into planks or made into furniture. The cattle and sheep are killed and the meat prepared for our use.

East of the central part of the Great Central Plain are five of the largest lakes in the world. When you are in a boat in the middle of any one of them you cannot see the land on any side. They are called the Great Lakes. Their names are Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario. They are all joined together, and from the last a large river runs into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It has the same name as the gulf.

There are many other smaller lakes in North America where the land is low and the water from the rivers and streams fills up the hollows. Nearly all have fresh water like the rivers. A very few, like Great Salt Lake, contain salt water.

NorthAmerica contains several different countries. Each is under a separate government. These countries are United States, British America, Danish America, Mexico and Central America. Each country has its own ruler and its own laws. Each has a special flag and its own kind of money and postage stamps.

We live in the best one of these countries, for we have the best ways of obtaining our food, our clothing and our shelter. Our climate is good, for we are in the North Temperate Zone. Our soil is very fertile. The Great Central Plain of North America passes through the central part of the United States. We raise fruits, vegetables, corn, wheat, rice and sugar for food. We have immense ranches for raising cows and sheep too. Our clothing is supplied by the thousands of sheep we raise and from the cotton we grow here. The Western and Eastern Highlands pass through our country.

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