We could accomplish this if every one would do their part.
We could accomplish this if every one would do their part.
is wrong. It should be
We could accomplish this if every one would do his part.
We could accomplish this if every one would do his part.
Another common mistake is the confusion of the nominative and objective cases in objective clauses where two pronouns or a noun and a pronoun occur.
All this was done for you and I.
All this was done for you and I.
is a very common but entirely inexcusable mistake. One would hardly think of saying
"All this was done for I."I saw John and he leaving the shop.
"All this was done for I."I saw John and he leaving the shop.
is almost equally common and quite equally bad. Do not allow yourself to be confused by a double object.
In general great care should be taken to avoid ambiguity in the use of pronouns. It is very easy to multiply and combine pronouns in such a way that while grammatical rules may not be broken the reader may be left hopelessly confused. Such ambiguous sentences should be cleared up, either by a rearrangement of the words or by substitution of nouns for some of the pronouns.
Adverbs
An adverb is a helper to a verb, "I fear greatly," "that press works badly." Adverbs modify or help verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs just as adjectives modify nouns and pronouns. The use of adverbs presents some difficulties, mainly arising from the adverbial use of many other parts of speech and from the close relation between adverbs and adjectives.
It should never be forgotten that while adverbs never modify nouns or pronouns, adjectives never modify anything but nouns or pronouns. Remembrance of this simple fact will settle most questions as to the use of adverbs or adjectives. Careful observation and care in forming correct habits of expression will do the rest.
Do not multiply negatives. They cancel each other like the factors in an arithmetical problem. "He never did wrong" is correct in statement and clear in meaning. "He never did nothing wrong" does not add force, it reverses the meaning. The negatives have cancelled each other and you are saying "He did wrong." "He never did nothing wrong to nobody" leaves us with an odd negative and brings us back to the first statement, very badly expressed.
Prepositions
A preposition is a hook for a noun or pronoun to hang on. It usually precedes the noun or pronoun which hangs, or depends upon it, as indicated by its name which is derived from the Latinpre-before andpono-I place.
John is behind the press.I shall work until Sunday.
John is behind the press.I shall work until Sunday.
A preposition shows the relation of a noun or pronoun used as its object to some other word or words in the sentence or, as it has been otherwise stated, makes the noun or pronoun to which it is joined equivalent to an adjective or an adverb. The expression "John is behind the press" is equivalent to an adjective describing John. That is, he is "John behind-the-press." Prepositions are governing words and the words governed by or depending on them are always in the objective case.
Conjunctions
A conjunction is the coupling link between the parts of a train of thought. It is of no purpose whatever except to connect.
I am cold and hungry and tired and I am going home.
I am cold and hungry and tired and I am going home.
Care should be taken to avoid confusingandandbutandandandor.
He sees the right and does the wrong.
He sees the right and does the wrong.
should be
He sees the right but does the wrong.
He sees the right but does the wrong.
The ideas are contrasted, not associated.
I did not see Thomas and John.
I did not see Thomas and John.
should be
I did not see Thomas or John.
I did not see Thomas or John.
The first phrase means that I did not see them together, it says nothing about seeing them separately.
Either—orandneither—norare called correlative conjunctions. They should always be paired in this way.Neithershould never be paired withornoreitherwithnor. Eachmember of the pair should be placed in the same relative position, that is before the same part of speech.
I could neither see him nor his father.
I could neither see him nor his father.
is wrong. It should be
I could see neither him nor his father.
I could see neither him nor his father.
This rule applies to all other correlatives, that is since they are correlatives in form they should be correlatives in position also. It is correct to say
It belongs both to you and to me.
It belongs both to you and to me.
or
It belongs to both you and me.
It belongs to both you and me.
but not
It belongs both to you and me.
It belongs both to you and me.
Interjections
An interjection is a word or sound expressing emotion only such as a shout, a groan, a hiss, a sob, or the like, such asOh,alas,hush.
General Notes
The position of words in a sentence is often very important. Misplacement will frequently cause ambiguities and absurdities which punctuation will not remove. What does the phrase "I only saw him" mean? A newspaper advertisement describing a certain dog which was offered for sale says "He is thoroughly house-broken, will eat anything, is very fond of children." As a rule modifiers should be kept close to the words, clauses, or phrases which they modify, but due regard should be given to sense and to ease of expression.
A word or phrase which can be easily supplied from the context may often be omitted. Care must be used in making these omissions or the result will be either ambiguous or slovenly.
Washington is nearer New York than Chicago.
Washington is nearer New York than Chicago.
What exactly does this mean? One might get into serious trouble over the interpretation of the phrase "He likes me better than you."
All dayandall nightare recognized as good expressions sanctioned by long usage.All morningandall afternoonare not yet sanctioned by good usage and give a decided impression of slovenliness.
Another objectionable omission is that oftobeforeplaceand similar words in such expressions as "Let's go some place" and the like. It should beto some placeor, generally better,somewhere.
A decidedly offensive abbreviation is the phraseRev. Smith. It should beRev. John SmithorRev. Mr. Smith.Rev.is not a title, or a noun in apposition, but an adjective. It would be entirely correct to sayPastor SmithorBishop Smith. The same error sometimes occurs in using the prefixHon.
A knowledge of the correct use and combination of words is fully as important as a knowledge of their grammatical forms and their relations. This knowledge should be acquired by the use of books on rhetoric and by careful study of words themselves. The materials for such study may be found in the books named in the "Supplementary Reading" or in other books of a similar character.
The task of the writer or speaker is to say what he has to say correctly, clearly, and simply. He must say just what he means. He must say it definitely and distinctly. He must say it, so far as the subject matter will permit, in words that people of ordinary intelligence and ordinary education cannot misunderstand. "The right word in the right place" should be the motto of every man who speaks or writes, and this rule should apply to his everyday talk as well as to more formal utterances.
Three abuses are to be avoided.
Do not use slang as a means of expression. There are occasions when a slang phrase may light up what you are saying or may carry it home to intellects of a certain type. Use it sparingly if at all, as you would use cayenne pepper or tabasco sauce. Do not use it in writing at all. Slang is the counterfeit coin of speech. It is a substitute, and a very poor substitute, for language. It is the refuge of those who neither understand real language nor know how to express themselves in it.
Do not use long, unusual words. Use short and simple words whenever they will serve your turn. It is a mistake to suppose that a fluent use of long words is a mark either of depth of thought or of extent of information. The following bit of nonsense is taken from the news columns of a newspaper of good standing: "The topography about Puebla avails itself easily to a force which can utilize the heights above the city with cannon." What was meant was probably something like this, "The situation of Puebla is such as to give a great advantage to a force which can plant cannon on the high ground overlooking the city."
Do not use inflated or exaggerated words.
Aheavy showeris not acloud burst; agaleis not ablizzard; afireis not aconflagration; anaccidentor adefeatis not adisaster; afatal accidentis not aholocaust; asharp criticismis not anexcoriationorflaying, and so on.
Rules for Correct Writing
More than a century ago the great Scotch rhetorician Campbell framed five canons or rules for correct writing. They have never been improved. They should be learned by heart, thoroughly mastered, and constantly practiced by every writer and speaker. They are as follows:
Canon 1.—When, of two words or phrases in equally good use, one is susceptible of two significations and the other of but one, preference should be given to the latter: e. g.,admittanceis better thanadmission, as the latter word also meansconfession;relativeis to be preferred torelation, as the latter also means the telling of a story.
Canon 2.—In doubtful cases regard should be given to the analogy of the language;might bettershould be preferred tohad better, andwould ratheris better thanhad rather.
Canon 3.—The simpler and briefer form should be preferred, other things being equal, e. g., omit the bracketed words in expressions such as,open(up),meet(together),follow(after),examine(into),trace(out),bridge(over),crave(for), etc.
Canon 4.—Between two forms of expression in equally good use, prefer the one which is more euphonious: e. g.,most beautifulis better thanbeautifullest, andmore freeis to be preferred tofreer.
Canon 5.—In cases not covered by the four preceding canons, prefer that which conforms to the older usage: e. g.,beginis better thancommence.
The Sentence
The proper construction of sentences is very important to good writing. The following simple rules will be of great assistance in sentence formation. They should be carefully learned and the pupil should be drilled in them.
1. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject of thought. Avoid heterogeneous sentences.
2. The connection between different sentences must be kept up by adverbs used as conjunctions, or by means of some other connecting words at the beginning of the sentence.
3. The connection between two long sentences or paragraphs sometimes requires a short intervening sentence showing the transition of thought.
The Paragraph
The proper construction of paragraphs is also of great importance. The following rules will serve as guides for paragraphing. They should be learned and the pupil should be drilled in their application.
1. A sentence which continues the topic of the sentence which precedes it rather than introduces a new topic should never begin a paragraph.
2. Each paragraph should possess a single central topic to which all the statements in the paragraph should relate. The introduction of a single statement not so related to the central topic violates the unity.
3. A sentence or short passage may be detached from the paragraph to which it properly belongs if the writer wishes particularly to emphasize it.
4. For ease in reading, a passage which exceeds three hundred words in length may be broken into two paragraphs, even though no new topic has been developed.
5. Any digression from the central topic, or any change in the viewpoint in considering the central topic, demands a new paragraph.
6. Coherence in a paragraph requires a natural and logical order of development.
7. Smoothness of diction in a paragraph calls for the intelligent use of proper connective words between closely related sentences. A common fault, however, is the incorrect use of such words asandorbutbetween sentences which are not closely related.
8. In developing the paragraph, emphasis is secured by a careful consideration of the relative values of the ideas expressed, giving to each idea space proportionate to its importance to the whole. This secures the proper climax.
9. The paragraph, like the composition itself, should possess clearness, unity, coherence, and emphasis. It is a group of related sentences developing a central topic. Its length depends upon the length of the composition and upon the number of topics to be discussed.
Rules for the Use and Arrangement of Words
The following rules for the use and arrangement of words will be found helpful in securing clearness and force.
1. Use words in their proper sense.
2. Avoid useless circumlocution and "fine writing."
3. Avoid exaggerations.
4. Be careful in the use ofnot...and,any,but,only,not...or,that.
5. Be careful in the use of ambiguous words, e. g.,certain.
6. Be careful in the use ofhe,it,they,these, etc.
7. Report a speech in the first person where necessary to avoid ambiguity.
8. Use the third person where the exact words of the speaker are not intended to be given.
9. When you use a participle implyingwhen,while,though, orthat, show clearly by the context what is implied.
10. When using the relative pronoun, usewhoorwhich, if the meaning isand heorand it,for heorfor it.
11. Do not useand whichforwhich.
12. Repeat the antecedent before the relative where the non-repetition causes any ambiguity.
13. Use particular for general terms. Avoid abstract nouns.
14. Avoid verbal nouns where verbs can be used.
15. Use particular persons instead of a class.
16. Do not confuse metaphor.
17. Do not mix metaphor with literal statement.
18. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic subject.
19. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions; i. e., for the most part, at the beginning or the end of the sentence.
20. Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the end.
21. The Subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be transferred from the beginning of the sentence.
22. The object is sometimes placed before the verb for emphasis.
23. Where several words are emphatic make it clear which is the most emphatic. Emphasis can sometimes be given by adding an epithet, or an intensifying word.
24. Words should be as near as possible to the words with which they are grammatically connected.
25. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are intended to qualify.
26.Only; the strict rule is thatonlyshould be placed before the word it affects.
27. Whennot onlyprecedesbut alsosee that each is followed by the same part of speech.
28.At least,always, and other adverbial adjuncts sometimes produce ambiguity.
29. Nouns should be placed near the nouns that they define.
30. Pronouns should follow the nouns to which they refer without the intervention of any other noun.
31. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept as close together as possible. Avoid parentheses.
32. In conditional sentences the antecedent or "if-clauses" must be kept distinct from the consequent clauses.
33. Dependent clauses preceded bythatshould be kept distinct from those that are independent.
34. Where there are several infinitives those that are dependent on the same word must be kept distinct from those that are not.
35. In a sentence withif,when,though, etc. put the "if-clause" first.
36. Repeat the subject where its omission would cause obscurity or ambiguity.
37. Repeat a preposition after an intervening conjunction especially if a verb and an object also intervene.
38. Repeat conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, and pronominal adjectives.
39. Repeat verbs after the conjunctionsthan,as, etc.
40. Repeat the subject, or some other emphatic word, or a summary of what has been said, if the sentence is so long that it is difficult to keep the thread of meaning unbroken.
41. Clearness is increased when the beginning of the sentence prepares the way for the middle and the middle for the end, the whole forming a kind of ascent. This ascent is called "climax."
42. When the thought is expected to ascend but descends, feebleness, and sometimes confusion, is the result. The descent is called "bathos."
43. A new construction should not be introduced unexpectedly.
Common Errors in the Use of Words
The following pages contain a short list of the more common errors in the use of words. Such a list might be extended almost indefinitely. It is only attempted to callattention to such mistakes as are, for various reasons, most liable to occur.
Ashould be repeated for every individual. "A red and black book" means one book, "a red and a black book" means two.
Abbreviate, andabridge;abbreviationis the shortening of a piece of writing no matter how accomplished. Anabridgementis a condensation.
Ability, power to do something, should be distinguished fromcapacity, power to receive something.
Aboveshould not be used as an adjective, e. g., "The statement made inaboveparagraph." Substitutepreceding,foregoing, or some similar adjective.
Accept, notaccept of.
Accredit, to give one credentials should be distinguished fromcredit, to believe what one says.
Administeris often misused. Oneadministersa dose of medicine, the laws, an oath, or the government; one does notadministera blow.
Administer tois often incorrectly used forminister to, e. g., "The red cross nurseadministers tothe wounded."
Admireshould not be used to express delight, as in the phrase "I shouldadmireto do so."
Admitshould be distinguished fromconfess.
Adventshould be distinguished fromarrival,adventmeaning an epoch-makingarrival.
Affablemeans "easy to speak to" and should not be confused withagreeable.
Affectshould be distinguished fromeffect. Toaffectis to influence; toeffectis to cause or bring about.
Aggravateshould not be used forannoyorvexorprovoke. It means "to make worse."
Ain'tis a corruption ofam not. It is inelegant though grammatical to say Iain'tbut absolutely incorrect in other persons and numbers.
Alikeshould not be accompanied bybothas in the phrase "They areboth alikein this respect."
All,All rightshould never be writtenalright.Allanduniversallyshould never be used together.Allshould notbe accompanied byof, e. g., "He receivedall ofthe votes." Be careful about the use ofallin negative statements. Do not say "All present are not printers" when you mean "Not all present are printers." The first statement means there are no printers present, the second means there are some printers present.
Allegeis a common error forsay,state, and the like. It means "to declare," "to affirm," or "to assert with the idea of positiveness" and is not applicable to ordinary statements not needing emphasis.
Allowmeanspermit, neverthinkoradmit.
Allude tois not the same asmention. A person or thing alluded to is not mentioned but indirectly implied.
Alonewhich meansunaccompaniedshould be distinguished fromonlywhich meansno other.
Alternativeshould never be used in speaking of more than two things.
Altogetheris not the same asall together.
Amongshould not be used withone another, e. g., "They divided the spoilamong one another." It should be "among themselves."
Andshould not be placed before a relative pronoun in such a position as to interfere with the construction. It should not be substituted fortoin such cases as "Tryandtake more exercise."
And whichshould not be used forwhich.
Anothershould be followed bythannotfrom, e. g., "Men of another temperfrom(than) the Greeks."
Answeris that which is given to a question;replyto an assertion.
Anticipateshould not be used in the sense ofexpect. It means "to forestall."
Anxiousshould not be confused withdesirous. It means "feeling anxiety."
Anyis liable to ambiguity unless it is used with care. "Any of them" may be either singular or plural. "It is not intended foranymachine" may mean "There is no machine for which it is intended," or "It is not intended for every machine, but only for a special type."
Anybody else's, idiomatic and correct.
Anyhow, bad, do not use it.
Apparentlyis used of what seems to be real but may not be so. It should not be confused withevidentlywhich is used of what both seems to be and is real.
Appearis physical in its meaning and should be distinguished fromseemwhich expresses a mental experience. "The forestappearsto be impenetrable," "This does notseemto me to be right."
Aptmeans "skilful" and should never be used in place oflikelyorliable. It also means "having a natural tendency."
Asshould not be used as a causal conjunction, e. g., "Do not expect measI am too uncertain of my time." The wordasstands here as a contraction of inasmuch. Substitute a semicolon, or make two sentences.
As tois redundant in such expressions as "As tohow far we can trust him I cannot say."
Atis often incorrectly used forin, e. g., "He livesatChicago." It is also improperly used in such expressions as "Where is heat?"
As thatshould not be used forthatalone. Do not say "Soas thatsuch and such a thing may happen."
Audienceis not the same asspectators. Anaudiencelistens;spectatorsmerely see. A concert has anaudience; a moving picture show hasspectators.
Aughtmeans "anything" and should not be confused withnaughtor the symbol0which means "nothing."
Avengemeans to redress wrongs done to others;revengewrong done to ourselves.Avengeusually implies just retribution.Revengemay be used of malicious retaliation.
Avocationshould not be confused withvocation. A man'svocationis his principal occupation. Hisavocationis his secondary occupation.
Awareis not the same asconscious. We areawareof things outside of ourselves; we areconsciousof sensations or things within ourselves.
Awfulandawfullyare two very much abused words. They mean "awe inspiring" and should never be used in any other sense.
Badlyshould not be used forvery much. It should not be confused with the adjectivebad. "He looks badly" means he makes a bad use of his eyes, say "He looks bad."
Bank onis slang. Sayrely onortrust in.
Begis often incorrectly used in the sense ofbeg leave, not "Ibegto say" but "Ibeg leaveto say."
Beside, meaning "by the side of" should not be confused withbesidesmeaning "in addition to."
Betweenapplies only to two persons or things.
Blame onas a verb should never be used.
Both, whenboth—andare used be sure they connect the right words, "He can both spell and punctuate" not "He both can spell and punctuate." Do not use such expressions as "They both resemble each other." Be careful to avoid confusion in the use of negative statements. Do not say "Both cannot go" when you mean that one can go.
Boundin the sense ofdeterminedis an Americanism and is better avoided. We say "he isboundto do it" meaning "he isdeterminedto do it," but the phrase really means "He is under bonds, or obligation to do it."
Bringshould be carefully distinguished fromfetch,carryandtake.Bringmeans to transfer toward the speaker.Fetchmeans to go and bring back.Carryandtakemean to transfer from the speaker, e. g., "Bringa book home from the library." "Fetchme a glass of water." "Carrythis proof to the proofreader." "Takethis book home."
Butis sometimes used as a preposition and when so used takes the objective case. "The boy stood on the burning deck whence allbuthim had fled."Butshould not be used in connection withthatunless intended to express the opposite of what the meaning would be without it, e. g., "I have no doubtbut thathe will die" is incorrect because his death is expected. "I have no fearbut thathe will come" is correct, as the meaning intended is "I am sure he will come."
But whatis often incorrectly used forbut that. "I cannot believebut whathe is guilty" probably means "I can but believe that he is guilty." "Icannot butbelieve" means "I must believe."
Calculatedoes not meanthinkorsuppose.
Calculateddoes not meanlikely. It means "intended or planned for the purpose."
Canwhich indicates ability is to be distinguished frommaywhich indicates permission.
Cannot butshould be carefully distinguished fromcan but, e. g., "Ican buttry" means "All I can do is try." "Icannot but try" means "I cannot help trying."
Can't seemshould not be used forseem unable, e. g., "Ican't seemto see it."
Childlikeshould be carefully distinguished fromchildish.Childishrefers particularly to the weakness of the child.
Comeshould not be confused withGo.Comedenotes motion toward the speaker;gomotion from the speaker, "If you will come to see me, I will go to see you."
Commonshould be distinguished frommutual.Commonmeans "shared in common."Mutualmeans "reciprocal" and can refer to but two persons or things. Acommonfriend is a friend two or more friends have in common.Mutualfriendship is the friendship of two persons for each other.
Compare to,liken to,compare with, means "measure by" or "point out similarities and differences."
Condignmeans "suitable" or "deserved," not necessarilysevere.
Condonemeans "to forgive" or "nullify by word or act," not "make amends for."
Considerin the sense ofregard asshould not usually be followed byas, e. g., "I consider him a wise man," not "asa wise man."
Contemptibleis used of an object of contempt and it should be distinguished fromcontemptuouswhich is used of what is directed at such an object, e. g., "He is acontemptiblefellow." "I gave him acontemptuouslook."
Continualshould not be confused withcontinuous.Continualmeans "frequently repeated."Continuousmeans "uninterrupted."
Convene, which means "to come together," should not be confused withconvokewhich means "to bring or call together."A legislatureconvenes. It cannot beconvenedby another, but it can beconvoked.
Crimeis often used for offenses against the speaker's sense of right. Properlycrimeis a technical word meaning "offenses against law." A most innocent action may be acrimeif it is contrary to a statute. The most sinful, cruel, or dishonest action is nocrimeunless prohibited by a statute.
Dangerousshould not be used fordangerously ill.
Datais plural.
Deadly, "that which inflicts death" should not be confused withdeathly, "that which resembles death."
Decidedmust not be confused withdecisive. Adecidedvictory is a clear and unmistakable victory. Adecisivevictory is one which decides the outcome of a war or of a campaign.
Decimatemeans to take away one-tenth. It is not properly used in a general way of the infliction of severe losses.
Definitewhich means "well defined" should not be confused withdefinitivewhich means "final."
Demeanis related todemeanorand means "behave." It should be carefully distinguished fromdegradeorlower.
Die.We dieofa certain disease, notwithorfromit.
Differin the sense of disagree is followed bywith. "Idiffer withyou."Differas indicating unlikeness is followed byfrom.
Differentshould be followed byfromnever bywith,than, orto.
Directlyshould not be used foras soon as.
Discover, "to find something which previously existed" should be distinguished frominventsomething for the first time.
Disinterestedmeans "having no financial or material interest in a thing." It should be carefully distinguished fromuninterestedwhich means "taking no interest in" a thing.
Dispense, "to distribute" should not be confused withdispense with, "to do without."
Dispositionis not the same asdisposal.
Distinguishwhich means "to perceive differences" should not be confused withdifferentiatewhich means "to make or constitute a difference."
Divideshould be carefully distinguished fromdistribute.
Don'tis a contraction of do not.Doesn'tis the contraction for does not.I don't,they don't,he doesn't.
Dueshould not be used forowing toorbecause of.
Eachis distributive and is always singular.Each otherwhich is applicable to two only should not be confused withone anotherwhich is applicable to more than two.
Egotist, a man with a high or conceited opinion of himself, should not be confused withegoistwhich is the name for a believer in a certain philosophical doctrine.
Eitheris distributive and therefore singular and should never be used of more than two.
Elegantdenotes delicacy and refinement and should not be used as a term of general approval.
Elseshould be followed bythan, not bybut. "No one elsethan(notbut) he could have done so much."
Emigrant, one who goes out of a country should not be confused withimmigrant, one who comes into a country.
Enormityis used of wickedness, cruelty, or horror, not of great size, for whichenormousnessshould be used. We speak of theenormityof an offence but of theenormousnessof a crowd.
Enthuseshould not be used as a verb.
Equally aswell; sayequally well, oras well.
Every placeused adverbially should beeverywhere.
Exceptshould never be used in the sense ofunlessorbut.
Exceptionalwhich means "unusual," "forming an exception" should not be confused withexceptionablewhich means "open to objection."
Expectwhich involves a sense of the future should not be confused withsupposeand similar words, as in the phrase "Iexpectyou know all about it."
Factoris not to be confounded withcause.
Falsityapplies to things,falsenessto persons.
At faultmeans "at a loss of what to do next."In faultmeans "in the wrong."
Favorshould not be used in the sense ofresemble.
Femaleshould not be used forwoman. The wordsfemale,woman, andladyshould be used with careful attention to their respective shades of meaning.
Few, which emphasizes the fact that the number is small should be distinguished froma fewwhich emphasizes the fact that there is a number though it be small. "Fewshall part where many meet." "A fewpersons were saved in the ark."
Fewerapplies to number;lessto quantity.
Firstlyshould not be used forfirstalthough secondly and thirdly may be used to complete the series.
Fixshould not be used in the sense ofrepair,arrange, orsettle.
Formerandlattershould never be used where more than two things are involved.
Frequentlyshould be distinguished from commonly,generally,perpetually,usually.Commonlyis the antithesis ofrarely,frequentlyofseldom,generallyofoccasionally,usuallyofcasually.
Funnyshould not be used to meanstrangeorremarkable.
Gentleman FriendandLady Friendare expressions which should be avoided, say "man or woman friend" or "man or woman of my acquaintance" or even "gentleman or lady of my acquaintance."
Goodshould not be used in the sense ofwell. "I feelgood."
Gotis said to be the most misused word in the language. The verb means to secure by effort and should be used only with this meaning, e. g., "I havegotthe contract."Have gotto indicate mere possession is objectionable. Mere possession is indicated byhavealone. Another common mistake is the use ofgotto express obligation or constraint. "I havegotto do it."
Guessshould not be used in the sense ofthinkorimagine.
Handyshould never be used to express nearness.
Hangedshould be used to express the execution of a human being.Hungis the past participle in all other uses.
Hardly."Ican hardlysee it," not "Ican't hardlysee it."
Healthywhich means "possessed of health" should bedistinguished fromhealthfulandwholesomewhich mean "health giving."
Highshould not be confused withtall.
Homeis not a synonym forhouse. A beautifulhouseis a very different thing from a beautifulhome.
Honorableas a title should always be preceded bythe.
Howshould not be used forwhat, or forthat. It means "in what manner."
How thatshould not be used when either one will do alone. Such a sentence as "We have already noted how that Tillotson defied rubrical order...." is very bad.
Ifshould not be used in the sense ofwhereorthat.
Ilkmeans "the same" notkindorsort.
Illis an adverb as well as an adjective. Do not say illy.
Inshould not be used forintowhen motion is implied. You rideina car but you getintoit.
Inaugurateshould not be used forbegin.
Individualshould not be used forperson.
Inside ofshould not be used as an expression of time.
Invaluable, meaning "of very great value" should not be confused withvalueless, meaning "of no value."
Inviteshould not be used forinvitation.
Kindis not plural. Do not say "These" or "those"kindof things.Kind ofshould never be followed by the indefinite article. "Whatkind ofman is he?" not "Whatkind of aman is he?"Kind oforsort ofshould not be used in the sense ofratherorsomewhat.
Kindlyis often misused in such expressions as "You arekindlyrequested to recommend a compositor." Undoubtedly the idea of kindness is attached to the recommendation not to the request and the sentence should be so framed as to express it.
Lastis often misused forlatest. "Thelastnumber of the paper" is not the one that appeared this morning but the one that finally closes publication.
Latterapplies only to the last of two. If a longer series than two is referred to, saythe last.
Lay, which is a transitive verb, should not be confused withlie.Layis a verb which expresses causitive action;lieexpresses passivity. "Helaysplans." "Heliesdown." The past tense oflayislaid, that oflieislay.
Learnshould not be used in place ofteach.
Lengthyis a very poor substitute forlong, which needs no substitute.
Liableshould not be used forlikely.Liablemeans an unpleasant probability.Likelymeans any probability.Liableis also used to express obligation. He isliablefor this debt.
Likemust never be used in the sense ofas. "DolikeI do" should be "DoasI do."
Literallyimplies that a statement to which it is attached is accurately and precisely true. It is frequently misused.
Loanis a noun, not a verb.
Locateshould not be used in the sense ofsettle.
Lotorlotsshould not be used to indicate agreat deal.
Loveexpresses affection or, in its biblical sense, earnest benevolence.Likeexpresses taste. Do not say "I shouldloveto go."
Lovelymeans "worthy of affection" and, likeelegant, should never be used as a term of general approbation.
Luxuriantwhich means "superabundant in growth or production" should not be confounded withluxuriouswhich means "given over to luxury." Vegetation isluxuriant, men areluxurious.
Madmeansinsaneand is not a synonym forangry.
Meansmay be either singular or plural.
Meetshould not be used in the sense ofmeetingexcept in the case of a few special expressions such as "a race meet."
Mightyshould not be used in the sense ofvery.
Mindshould not be used in the sense ofobey.
Minusshould not be used in the sense ofwithoutorlacking.
Mostshould not be used instead ofalmost, as in such expressions as "It rainedmostevery day."
Mustshould not be used forhad toorwas obliged. In its proper use it refers to the present or future only.
Necessitiesshould be carefully distinguished fromnecessaries.
Negligence, which denotes a quality of character should be distinguished fromneglectwhich means "a failure to act."
Neitherdenotes one of two and should not be used fornoneorno one. As a correlative conjunction it should be followed bynornever byor.
New beginner.Beginneris enough; all beginners are new.
Newsis singular in construction.
Neveris sometimes used as an emphatic negative but such usage is not good.
Niceshould not be used in the sense ofpleasantoragreeable.
No howshould not be used foranyway.
No placeshould be written asnowhere.
Noneshould be treated as a singular.
Not, likeneither, must be followed by the correlativenor, e. g., "Not for wealth nor for fame did he strive."
Not...butto express a negative is a double negative and therefore should not be used, e. g., "I havenothadbutone meal to-day."
Nothing likeandnowhere nearshould not be used fornot nearly.
Oshould be used for the vocative and without punctuation.
Ohshould be used for the ejaculation and should be followed by a comma or an exclamation point.
Obligateshould not be used foroblige.
Observeshould not be used forsay.
Observationshould not be used forobservance.
Ofis superfluous in such phrases assmell of,taste of,feel of.
Offshould never be used withof; one or the other is superfluous.
Other. Afterno otherusethan, notbut.
Oughtmust never be used in connection withhadordid. "Youhadn't oughtordidn't oughtto do it" should be "You ought not to have done it."
Out loudshould never be used foraloud.
Panaceais something that cures all diseases, not an effective remedy for one disease.
Partake ofshould not be used in the sense ofeat. It means "to share with others."
Partyshould never be used forpersonexcept in legal documents.
Pershould be used in connection with other words of Latin form but not with English words.Per diem,per annum, and the like are correct.Per dayorper yearare incorrect. It should bea day, ora year.
Perpendicular, which merely means at right angles to something else mentioned, should not be used forvertical.
Plenty, a noun should not be confused with the adjectiveplentiful.
Politicsis singular.
Postdoes not meaninform.
Predicateshould not be used in the sense ofpredictor in the sense ofbaseorfound.
Prematuremeans "before the proper time." It should not be used in a general way as equivalent tofalse.
Prettyshould not be used in the modifying sense, nor as a synonym forveryin such phrases as "pretty good," "pretty near," and the like.
Preventative, no such word, saypreventive.
Promiseshould not be used in the sense ofassure.
Propose, meaning "to offer" should not be confused withpurposemeaning "to intend."
Propositionshould not be confounded withproposal. Apropositionis a statement of a statement or a plan. Aproposalis the presentation or statement of an offer.
Providingshould not be used forprovided.
Qualityshould never be used as an adjective or with an adjective sense. "Quality clothes" is meaningless: "Clothes of quality" equally so. All clothes have quality and the expression has meaning only when the quality is defined as good, bad, high, low, and so forth.
Quit, "to go away from" is not the same asstop.
Quitemeans "entirely," "wholly," and should never be used in the modifying sense as if meaningratherorsomewhat. "Quite a few" is nonsense.
Raiseis a much abused word. It is never a noun. As a verb it should be distinguished fromrearandincrease, as in such phrases as "He wasraisedin Texas." "The landlordraisedmy rent."
Rarely evershould not be used forrarelyorhardly ever.
Realshould not be used in the sense ofvery.
Referenceshould be used withwithrather thanin. Saywithreference to, notinreference to. The same rule applies to the wordsregardandrespect. Do not say "in regards to," say "with regard to."
Rememberis not the same asrecollect, which means "to remember by an effort."
Renditionshould not be used forrendering.
Researcherhas no standing as a word.
Residein the sense of live, and residence in the sense of house or dwelling are affectations and should never be used.
Retireshould not be used in the sense of "go to bed."
Rightshould not be used in the sense ofduty. "Youhad a rightto warn me," should be "It was your duty to warn me, or you ought to have warned me."Rightshould not be used in the sense ofvery. Such expressions asright now,right off,right away,right hereare not now in good use.
Sameshould not be used as a pronoun. This is a common usage in business correspondence but it is not good English and can be easily avoided without sacrificing either brevity or sense.Same asin the sense ofjust as,in the same mannershould be avoided.
Scoreshould not be used forachieveoraccomplish.
Setshould not be confused withsit. To set means "to cause to sit."
Sewage, meaning the contents of a sewer, should not be confused withseweragewhich means the system.
Showshould not be used in the sense ofplayorperformance.Show upshould not be used forexpose.
Sinceshould not be used forago.
Size upshould not be used forestimateorweigh.
Someshould not be used forsomewhatas "I feelsomebetter."
Sort ofshould not be used forrather.
Splendidmeansshiningorbrilliantand should not be used as a term of general commendation.
Stand formeans "be responsible for." Its recent use as meaningstand,endure, orpermit, should be avoided.
Startshould not be used forbegin, e. g., "Hestarted(began) to speak."
Stateshould not be used forsay.
Stopshould not be used forstay.
Suchshould not be used forso. Say "I have never seensobeautiful a book before" not "I have never seen such a beautiful book before."
Sureshould not be used as an adverb. Saysurely.
Takeis superfluous in connection with other verbs, e. g., "Suppose wetakeandusethat type."Takeshould not be confused withbring.Take stock inshould not be used forrelyortrust in.
Thatshould not be used in the sense ofso. "I did not know it wasthatbig."
Thinkshould not have the wordforadded, e. g., "It is more important than youthink for."
Thisshould not be used as an adverb. "This much is clear" should be "Thus much is clear."
Throughshould not be used forfinished.
Tois superfluous and wrong in such expressions as "Where did you goto?"
Tooalone should not modify a past participle. "He wastoo(much) excited to reply."
Transpiredoes not meanhappen. It means to come to light or become known.
Treatshould be followed byofrather thanon. This volume treatsofgrammar, notongrammar.
Tryshould be followed bytorather thanand. "I will trytogo," not "I will tryandgo."
Uglyshould never be used in the sense ofbad temperedorvicious. It means "repulsive to the eye."
Uniquedoes not meanrare,odd, orunusual. It means alone of its kind.
Upward ofshould not be used in the sense ofmore than.
Venalshould not be confused withvenial.
Verbalshould not be confused withoral. Averbalmessage means only a message in words; anoralmessage is a message by word of mouth.
Veryshould be used sparingly. It is a word of great emphasis and like all such words defeats its purpose when used too frequently.
Visitoris a human caller.Visitanta supernatural caller.
Wantshould not be used in the sense ofwish, e. g., "Iwantit" really means "I feel the want of it" or "I lack it."Want,wish, andneedshould be carefully distinguished.
Wayshould not be used in the sense ofawayin such expressions as "Waydown East."
Waysshould not be used forway, e. g., "It is quite aways(way) off."
Whatis often misused forthat, e. g., "He has no doubt butwhat(that) he will succeed."
Whencemeans "from what place or cause" and should not be preceded byfrom. This applies equally to hence which means "from this place."
Whichshould not be used with a clause as its antecedent, e. g., "He replied hotly,whichwas a mistake" should be "He replied hotly; this was a mistake."Whichbeing a neuter pronoun should not be used to represent a masculine or feminine noun. Use who. Between the two neuter pronounswhichandthatlet euphony decide.
Whoshould not be misused forwhomorwhose, e. g., "Who(whom) did you wish to see?" "Washington, thanwho(whose) no greater name is recorded." Impersonal objects should be referred to bywhichrather thanwho.
Withoutshould not be used forunless, e. g., "I will not gowithout(unless) you go with me."
Witnessshould not be used forsee.
Worst kindorworst kind of wayshould not be used forvery much.
Womanlymeans "belonging to woman as woman."
Womanishmeanseffeminate.
Tables of Irregular Verbs
Table 1 contains the principal parts of all irregular verbs whose past tense and perfect participle are unlike.
Most errors in the use of irregular verbs occur with those in Table 1. The past tense must not be used withhave(has,had). Do not use such expressions ashave droveandhas went. Equally disagreeable is the use of the perfect participle for the past tense; as,she seen,they done.
Table II
This table contains the principal parts of all irregular verbs whose past tense and perfect participles are alike.
Table III
This table includes verbs that are both regular and irregular.
A
Verbs in which the regular form is preferred.