Chapter VIGRAMMAR
In this short discussion of grammar the attempt is not made to discuss exhaustively all the features of English grammar. The purpose is only to survey and to identify all the elements of an ordinary sentence. The definitions are few, and are descriptions rather than formal definitions. The parts of speech are treated as they become important in the structure of the sentence. Such a treatment of essentials as this is necessary partly as a review, but especially because a teacher and a student cannot discuss many of the commonest sentence faults unless they have a mutually intelligible terminology. A student must be able to recognize such grammatical elements as a subject or an object, a participle or an infinitive, a phrase or a clause, in order to produce correct and effective sentences. There is a minimum amount of grammatical knowledge without which a writer cannot rewrite his compositions so as to avoid the commonest errors and imperfections.
Grammar is the study of the structure of sentences, and of the forms and functions of words and word-groups within sentences. In simple terms, grammar is the examination of the machinery of language.
Sentences make assertions (declarative sentences), or ask questions (interrogative sentences), or give commands(imperative sentences), or express emotion (exclamatory sentences). Written sentences begin with a capital letter and end with a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point.
The most common kind of written sentence is that which makes an assertion. This kind, called declarative, may well be taken, therefore, as the most available basis for the discussion of the machinery of the sentence. The word sentence in this chapter will accordingly mean a declarative sentence.
A sentence has at least two parts—a subject and a predicate.
Thesubjectis that part which designates what the assertion is about.
Thepredicateis that part which makes the assertion.
Many students earn their way through college.
It is obvious thatMany studentsdesignates what the assertion is about, and is therefore the subject.Earn their way through collegemakes the assertion aboutMany students, and is, therefore, the predicate.
Although the sentence may contain other elements, although the subject or the predicate or both may be long and complicated, and although the elements making up the subject and the predicate may be variously arranged, nevertheless every normal declarative sentence contains these two parts, and can be divided into these two parts.
The fundamental word or element in the subject is a noun, a pronoun, a gerund, an infinitive, or a clause.
Anounis simply a name word. It may signify a person or an animate being (Frank, boy, dog), an object (tree, box), a color (red), an action (walking, step, discussion), a quality (goodness), an abstract idea (truth, space), a general idea (speed, thing), to name only a few kinds of nouns. But it is always the name of an individual or of a class of persons or things.
Apronounis a substitute or symbol word which signifies a noun which is either expressed near the pronoun or implied by the circumstances (he, it, who, anyone, I, you).
Agerundis a noun made by adding the suffix -ing to a verb (walking, hoping, sitting, being).
Aninfinitiveis a form of a verb, usually preceded by the wordto, often used to name the action signified by the verb (to think, to have gone).
Aclauseis a sentence element consisting of a subject (in the nominative case) and a predicate (with the verb in a finite form—that is, not an infinitive or a participle).
The fundamental word in the predicate is the verb.
Averbis a word—or a word-group—the function of which is to assert something about the subject.
The tide rises.The sun shone.I bought a book.The box is small.
The tide rises.
The sun shone.
I bought a book.
The box is small.
The verb may consist of one word—as in the examples given—or it may consist of a group of words, called a verb-group, containing sometimes as many as five words. This verb group consists of one, two, three, or four auxiliary verbs, followed by a form of the verb expressing the meaning or sense. The form of the sense-verb is an infinitive, a present participle, or a past participle.
The moon will rise.The moon is rising.The moon has risen.He may light the lamp.He is going to light the lamp.The lamp at last was lighted.The lamp has been lighted.The lamp may have been lighted.He may have been going to light the lamp.
The moon will rise.
The moon is rising.
The moon has risen.
He may light the lamp.
He is going to light the lamp.
The lamp at last was lighted.
The lamp has been lighted.
The lamp may have been lighted.
He may have been going to light the lamp.
Intransitive verbsare those which, likerise, make assertions the action of which does not involve any person or thing other than the subject.
Transitive verbsare those which, likelight, make assertions which involve some person or thing other than the subject in the action of the verb. In the sentenceHe lighted the lamp,lampis such anobject.
The same verb may sometimes assert one, and sometimes the other kind of action.
The door opened.He opened the door.
The door opened.
He opened the door.
Some transitive verbs make an assertion which involves two nouns, both signifying the same thing or person.
The club elected Frank president.
The club elected Frank president.
Some transitive verbs make an assertion which involves two different objects or persons.
I gave Frank an apple.She bought Frank an apple.I told him a story.
I gave Frank an apple.
She bought Frank an apple.
I told him a story.
Hereappleorstoryis the object directly affected by the action of the verb, and is, therefore, called thedirect object.Frankorhimdesignates the person for whose benefit the action of the verb affects the direct object, and is called theindirect object.
Still another kind of verb, called acopula, though it does not take a direct object, makes only part of the assertion. The rest is made by means of another word (or element) which characterizes the subject but which is an essential part of the assertion. In fact, thecomplement, as the element completing the verb is called, is the most significant part of the predicate; the verb is merely a bit of machinery by means of which the complement is turned into an assertion.
The sky is red.The dark shape was a house.The car looks cheap.He is in the house.Home is where the heart is.
The sky is red.
The dark shape was a house.
The car looks cheap.
He is in the house.
Home is where the heart is.
In these sentences,red,a house,cheap,in the house, andwhere the heart is, are parts of the predicate, though they characterize the subject. Such elements are calledcomplementsbecause they complete the assertion of the verb; if adjectives, they are calledadjectivecomplements, or better,predicated adjectives; if nouns, they are callednoun complements, orpredicated nouns; if clauses or phrases, they are calledcomplements, orpredicated phrasesorclauses. The verbs by means of which these complements are predicated are calledcopulas.
Almost every word in the sentence is capable of having its meaning described, restricted, emphasized, or toned down in some way—that is, any meaning in the sentence may be characterized or modified.
Heavy automobiles run smoothly.
Heavy automobiles run smoothly.
Heavyboth describes and restrictsautomobiles.
Words which characterize nouns in this way are calledadjectives.
Smoothlydescribes and restricts run.
Words which characterize verbs are calledadverbs.
Very heavy automobiles run much more smoothly.
Very heavy automobiles run much more smoothly.
Veryemphasizesheavy. A word which thus characterizes an adjective is called anadverb.
Morecharacterizessmoothly.Muchcharacterizesmore. A word which characterizes an adverb is called anadverb.
Nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are also frequently described or limited in the same way by an element or group of words called aprepositional phrase. This usually consists of a noun, pronoun, or gerund whose exact relationship to the modified word is shown by means of apreposition. The preposition isplaced before the modifying noun or pronoun and its adjective modifiers.
Heavy automobiles with large tires run smoothly over rough roads.
Heavy automobiles with large tires run smoothly over rough roads.
With large tiresis a prepositional phrase, consisting of the prepositionwithand its objecttires; the phrase modifies or characterizesautomobiles.
Over rough roadsis a prepositional phrase which characterizesrun.
A prepositional phrase characterizing a noun is called anadjective prepositional phrase. One characterizing a verb is called anadverbial prepositional phrase.
Aclauseis any part of a sentence consisting of a subject in the nominative case and a predicate containing a verb in a finite form (not a participle or an infinitive). Some clauses are used as nouns; others are used to characterize or modify nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. Clauses used as nouns are callednoun clauses. Those used as adjectives are calledadjectiveorrelative clauses. Those used to modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs are calledadverb clauses.
Noun clausesmay be used in practically any construction in which a noun is used.
Adjective clausesare those which modify a noun or a pronoun.
Heavy automobiles which carry large loads run smoothly.
Heavy automobiles which carry large loads run smoothly.
Adverb clausesusually modify a verb. They characterize the verb in several different ways.
Adverb clauses of degree, and sometimes those of manner and of result modify an adverb or an adjective.
The cherries tasted sweeter than they looked.He sawed the plank as carefully as he could.We traveled so slowly that I despaired of reaching our destination.
The cherries tasted sweeter than they looked.
He sawed the plank as carefully as he could.
We traveled so slowly that I despaired of reaching our destination.
Theparticipleis any form of the verb used as an adjective. There are several forms:rising,risen,havingrisen; raising, raised, having raised, being raised, having been raised.
The rising sun awakened me.The fallen tree lay across the ravine.The wind, howling a gale, swept the sea.Twisting out of my hands, he escaped in the darkness.The tree, twisted and broken, rotted away.
The rising sun awakened me.
The fallen tree lay across the ravine.
The wind, howling a gale, swept the sea.
Twisting out of my hands, he escaped in the darkness.
The tree, twisted and broken, rotted away.
Theinfinitiveis usually preceded by its sign,to, but after some verbs (do,shall,will,may,can,dare,help,need,see,hear,feel,let,make,bid) and after the expressionshad better,had rather, it is usually the pure or root infinitive withoutto.
There are six forms of the infinitive:
The infinitive has various uses:
It is often necessary or desirable to join together two or more similar words, elements, or clauses in a sentence.Two nouns constituting the subject, for example, may have the same assertion made about them.
Time and tide wait for no man.
Time and tide wait for no man.
And, which joinstimeandtide, is aconjunction.
Two adjectives, two verbs, two adverbs, two prepositional phrases, or two clauses may be joined together with a conjunction.
The flag is colored red and blue.Time came and went.Men and women laughed and cried.The rains descended, and the floods came.The automobile is fast, but the airplane is faster.
The flag is colored red and blue.
Time came and went.
Men and women laughed and cried.
The rains descended, and the floods came.
The automobile is fast, but the airplane is faster.
Words likeandandbutare conjunctions.
Conjunctions which connect words, phrases, or clauses of equal grammatical value are calledco-ordinating conjunctions.
The most frequent areand,but,or,nor,for.
Subordinating conjunctionsare used to join a subordinate clause—noun, adjective, or adverb—to another clause or to some word in another clause. At the same time they show the exact significance and bearing of the subordinate clause.
We heard that the train was wrecked.He came because I called him.He remained though he wanted to go.If it rains I shall stay at home.
We heard that the train was wrecked.
He came because I called him.
He remained though he wanted to go.
If it rains I shall stay at home.
Subordinating conjunctions are also sometimes used to join participles or adjectives to the rest of the sentence. In such cases, the participle or the adjective modifies a noun.
Though moving slowly, the train was gaining.Though faithful to his master, the dog was shot.
Though moving slowly, the train was gaining.
Though faithful to his master, the dog was shot.
According to certain features of their structure, sentences are classified assimple,compound, orcomplex.
Asimple sentenceis one consisting of a single clause or assertion.
Time flies.Time came and went.Time and tide wait for no man.Men and women laughed and cried.
Time flies.
Time came and went.
Time and tide wait for no man.
Men and women laughed and cried.
The subject of a simple sentence may consist of one noun or pronoun with its modifiers, or of two or more nouns with their modifiers. In the latter case, the subject is called acompound subject. Similarly, the predicate may contain one verb or two or more verbs. Occasionally a sentence will have a compound subject and a compound predicate, as in the last example given.
Acompound sentenceis one which consists of two or more assertions of equal grammatical value—that is, neither assertion is grammatically subordinate to the other or to any part of the other.
The rain descended, and the floods came.The automobile is fast, but the airplane is faster.
The rain descended, and the floods came.
The automobile is fast, but the airplane is faster.
Acomplex sentenceis one which contains not only a main assertion (or more than one), but also one or more subordinate assertions—that is, it contains one or more assertions which are grammatically incorporated as a noun or an adjective or an adverb into the main clause or into another subordinate clause.
I saw that he had finished.Heavy automobiles which carry large loads run smoothly.The weather will be what fate determines.He broke the stone that he might find a fossil.
I saw that he had finished.
Heavy automobiles which carry large loads run smoothly.
The weather will be what fate determines.
He broke the stone that he might find a fossil.
Most of the elements of a sentence have a clear grammatical relation to one another. But there are pieces of structure which have no evident relationship to anything else.
Theparticiple absoluteis more frequent.
Parenthetical elements, likeso to speak,it is hoped,it is reported,they remark, which have no grammatical connection with the rest of the assertion, occur frequently. Sometimes they are inclosed within dashes, sometimes within parentheses, sometimes within commas.
This action, it is expected, will produce results.
This action, it is expected, will produce results.
Although the sentence has a normal order—subject, verb, object; or subject, verb, complement—it is rich and varied in the possibilities it possesses of variety and rearrangement, especially in the position of adjective, participial, and adverbial elements, and in the case of adverb clauses.
Nouns, pronouns, verbs, and two adjectives show changes in function and meaning by means of changes in form, by endings, or, sometimes in the case of verbs, by prefixing auxiliary verbs.
Nouns are declined to show case and number.
Pronouns are declined to show case and number.
Two adjectives show differences in number.
Verbs are conjugated to show person, number, tense, mood, and voice. Most of these changes are shown by the use of auxiliary verbs, which are placed before the infinitive or the past or present participle of the sense-verb. The combinations are called verb-groups.
Beis an extremely irregular composite verb. It is made up of three verbs,is(am,are,art),be, andwas(were).