SECTION 13.PERSPECTIVE ON THE SEA.
It has been shown (atpages 25to34) that the law of perspective, as commonly taught in our Schools of Art, is fallacious and contrary to everything seen in nature. If an object be held up in the air, and gradually carried away from an observer who maintains his position, it is true that all its parts will converge to one and the same point; but if the same object be placed upon the ground and similarly moved away from a fixed observer, the same predicate is false. In the first case thecentreof the object is thedatumto which every point of the exterior converges; but in the second case thegroundbecomes thedatum, in and towards which every part of the object converges in succession, beginning with the lowest, or that nearest to it.
Instances:—A man with light trousers and black boots walking along a level path, will appear at a certain distance as though the boots had been removed, and the trousers brought in contact with the ground.
A young girl, with short garments terminating ten or twelve inches above the feet, will, in walking forward, appear to sink towards the Earth, the space between which and the bottom of the clothes will appear to gradually diminish, and in the distance of half-a-mile the limbs, which were first seen for ten or twelve inches, will be invisible—the bottom of the garment will seem to touch the ground.
A small dog running along will appear to gradually shorten by the legs, which, in less than half a mile, will be invisible, and the body appear to glide upon the earth.
Horses and cattle moving away from a given point will seem to have lost their hoofs, and to be walking upon the outer bones of the limbs.
Carriages similarly receding will seem to lose that portion of the rim of the wheels which touches the Earth; the axles will seem to get lower; and at the distance of a few miles, the body will appear to drag along in contact with the ground. This is very remarkable in the case of a railway carriage when moving away upon a straight and level portion of line several miles in length. These instances, which are but a few of what might be quoted, will be sufficient to prove, beyond the power of doubt or the necessity for controversy, that upon a plane or horizontal surface, thelowest partof bodies receding froma given point of observation will disappearbefore the higher. This is precisely what is observed in the case of a ship at sea, when outward bound—thelowestpart—the hull, disappearing before the higher parts—the sails and mast head. Abstractedly, when the lowest part of a receding object thus disappears by entering the “vanishing point,” it could be seen again to any and every extent by a telescope, if the power were sufficient to magnify at the distance observed. This is to a great extent practicable upon smooth horizontal surfaces, as upon frozen lakes or canals; and upon long straight lines of railway. But the power of restoring such objects is greatly modified and diminished where the surface is undulating or otherwise moveable, as in large and level meadows, and pasture lands generally; in the vast prairies and grassy plains of America; and especially so upon the ocean, where the surface is always more or less in an undulating condition. In Holland and other level countries, persons have been seen in winter, skating upon the ice, at distances varying from ten to twenty miles. On some of the straight and “level” lines of railway which cross the prairies of America, the trains have been observed for more than twenty miles; but upon the sea the conditions are altered, and the hull of a receding vessel can only be seen for a few miles, and thiswill depend very greatly—the altitude of the observer being the same, upon the state of the water. When the surface is calm, the hull may be seen much farther than when it is rough and stormy; but under ordinary circumstances, when to the naked eye the hull has just become invisible, or is doubtfully visible, it may be seen again distinctly by the aid of a powerful telescope. Although abstractedly or mathematically there should be no limit to this power of restoring by a telescope a lost object upon a smooth horizontal surface, upon the sea this limit is soon observed; the water being variable in its degree of agitation, the limit of sight over its surface is equally variable, as shown by the following experiments:—In May, 1864, on several occasions when the water was unusually calm, from the landing stairs of the Victoria pier at Portsmouth, and from an elevation of 2 ft. 8 in. above the water, the greater part of the hull of the Nab Light-ship was, through a good telescope, distinctly visible; but on other experiments being made, when the water was less calm, no portion of it could be seen from the same elevation, notwithstanding that the most powerful telescopes were employed. At other times half the hull, and sometimes only the upper part of the bulwarks, were visible. If the hull had been invisible from the rotundity of the Earth, the followingcalculation will show that it should at all times have been 24 feet below the horizon:—The distance of the light-ship from the pier is 8 statute miles. The elevation of the observer being 32 inches above the water, would require 2 miles to be deducted as the distance of the supposed convex horizon; for the square of 2 multiplied by 8 inches (the fall in the first mile of the Earth’s curvation) equals 32 inches. This deducted from the 8 miles, will leave 6 miles as the distance from the horizon to the light ship. Hence 6² × 8 in. = 288 inches, or 24 feet. The top of the bulwarks, it was said, rose about 10 ft. above the water line; hence, deducting 10 from 24 feet, under all circumstances, even had the water been perfectly smooth and stationary, the top of the hull should have been 14 feet below the summit of the arc of water, or beneath the line of sight! This one fact is entirely fatal to the doctrine of the Earth’s rotundity. But such facts have been observed in various other places—the north-west light-ship in Liverpool Bay, and the light vessels of many other channels near the southern, eastern, and western shores of Great Britain. From the beach of Southsea Common, near Portsmouth, the observer lying down near the water, above the surface of which the eye was 2¹⁄₂ feet, and with a telescope looking across Spithead to the quarantine ship lying inthe “Roads,” between Ryde and Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, a distance of 7 miles, the copper sheathing of that vessel was distinctly seen, the depth of which was about 2 feet. Making the usual calculation in accordance with the doctrine of the Earth’s convexity, it will be seen that an arc of water ought to have existed between the two points, the summit of which arc should have been 16 feet above the copper sheathing of the vessel!
From an elevation of 2¹⁄₂ feet above the water opposite the Royal Yacht Club House, in West Cowes, Isle of Wight, the pile work and promenade of the pier at Stake’s Bay, near Gosport, and nearly opposite Osborne House, were easily distinguished through various telescopes: the distance is 7 miles, the altitude of the promenade 10 feet, and the usual calculation will show that this pier ought to have been many feet below the horizon!
It is a well-known fact that the light of the Eddystone lighthouse is often plainly visible from the beach in Plymouth Sound; and sometimes, when the sea is very calm, persons can see it distinctly when sitting in ordinary rowing boats in that part of the Sound which will allow the line of sight to pass between Drake’s Island and the western end of the Breakwater. The distance is 14 statute miles. In a list of lighthouses in awork called “The Lighthouses of the World,” by A. G. Findlay, F.R.G.S., published in 1862, by Richard H. Lawrie, 53, Fleet Street, London, it is said, at page 28:—“In the Tables the height of the flame above the highest tide high water level is given, so that it is theminimumrange of the light; to this elevation 10 feet is added for the height of the deck of the ship above the sea. Besides the increased distance to which low water will cause the light to be seen, the effect of refraction will also sometimes increase their range.” In the “Tables” above referred to, at page 36 the Eddystone light is said to be visible 13 miles. But these 13 miles are nautical measure; and as 3 nautical miles equal 3¹⁄₂ statute miles, the distance at which the Eddystone light is visible is over 15 statute miles. Notwithstanding that the Eddystone light is actually visible at a distance of 15 statute miles, and admitted to be so both by the Admiralty authorities and by calculation according to the doctrine of rotundity, very often at the same distance, the lantern is not visible at an elevation of 4 feet from the water; showing that the law of perspective, previously referred to, is greatly influenced by the state of the surface of the water over which the line of sight is directed. A remarkable illustration of this influence is given in theWestern Daily Mercury,published in Plymouth, of October 25, 1864. Several discussions had previously taken place at the Plymouth Athenæum and the Devonport Mechanics’ Institute, on the true figure of the Earth; subsequent to which a committee was formed for the purpose of making experiments bearing on the question at issue. The names of the gentlemen as given in the above-named journal were “Parallax” (the author of this work), “Theta” (Mr. Henry, a teacher in Her Majesty’s Dock-yard, Devonport), and Messrs. Osborne, Richards, Rickard, Mogg, Evers, and Pearce, all of Plymouth. From the report published as above stated, the following quotation is made:—Observation 6th: “On the beach, at 5 feet from the water level, the Eddystone was entirely out of sight.”
The matter may be summarized as follows:—At any time when the sea is calm and the weather clear, the Light of the Eddystone, which is 89 feet above the foundation on the rock, may be distinctly seen from an elevation of 5 feet above the water level; according to the Admiralty directions, it “may be seen 13 nautical (or 15 statute) miles,”[41]or one mile still farther away than the position of the observers on the above-named occasion; and yeton that occasion, and at a distance of only 14 statute miles, notwithstandingthat it was a very fine autumn day, and a clear back ground existed, not only was the lantern, which is 89 feet high, not visible, but thetop of the vane, which is 100 feet above the foundation was, as stated in the report, “entirely out of sight.”
[41]“Lighthouses of the World,” p. 36.
[41]“Lighthouses of the World,” p. 36.
LighthouseFIG. 32.
FIG. 32.
That vessels and lighthouses are sometimes more distinctly seen than at others; and that the lower parts of such objects are sooner lost sight of when the sea is rough than when it is calm, are items in the experience of seafaring people as common as their knowledge of the changes in the weather; and prominence is only given here to the above case because it was verified by persons of different opinions upon the subject of the Earth’s form, and in the presence of several hundreds of the most learned and respectable inhabitants of Plymouth and the neighbourhood. The conclusion which such observations necessitate and force upon us is, that the law of perspective which is everywhere visible on land, ismodifiedwhen observed in connection with objects upon or near the sea. Buthowmodified? If the water of the ocean were frozen and at perfect rest, any object upon its surface would be seen as far as telescopic or magnifying power could be brought to bear upon it. But because this is not the case—because the water is always more or less inmotion, not only of progression but of fluctuation, the swells and waves, into which the surface is broken operate to prevent the line of sight from passing parallel to the horizontal surface of the water. It has been shown at pages 16 to 20, and also at 25 to 33, that the surface of the Earth and Sea appears to rise up to the level, or altitude of the eye; and that at a certain distance the line of sight and the surface which is parallel to it appear to converge to a “vanishing point;” which point is “the horizon.” If this horizon, or vanishing point, were formed by the apparent junction of twoperfectly stationaryparallel lines, it could be penetrated by a telescope of sufficient power to magnify at the distance; but because upon the sea the surface of the water isnot stationary, the line of sight at the vanishing point becomes angular instead of parallel, and telescopic power is of little avail in restoring objects beyond this point. The following diagram will render this clear:—The horizontal line C D E and the line of sight A B are parallel to each other, and appear to meet at the vanishing point B. But at and about this pointthe line A B is intercepted by the undulating, or fluctuating surface of the water; the degree of which is variable, being sometimes very great and at others inconsiderable, and having to pass over the crest of the waves, as at H, is obliged to become A H, instead of A B, and will therefore fall upon a ship, lighthouse, or other object at the point S, or higher or lower as such objects are more or less beyond the point H.
It is worthy of note that the waves at the point H, whatever their real magnitude may be, aremagnifiedand rendered more obstructive by the very instrument—the telescope—which is employed to make the objects beyond more plainly visible: and thus the phenomenon is often very strikingly observed—that while a powerful telescope will render the sails and rigging of a ship when beyond the point H, or the optical horizon, so distinct that the very ropes are easily distinguished, not the slightest portion of the hull can be seen. The “crested waters” form a barrier to the horizontal line-of-sight, as substantial as would the summit of an intervening rock or island.
In the report which appeared in theWestern Daily Mercury, of Oct. 25, 1864, the following observations were also recorded:—“On the sea-front of the Camera house, and at an elevation of 110 feet from the mean level of the sea, aplane mirror was fixed, by the aid of a plumb-line, in atrue vertical position. In this mirror the distant horizon was distinctly visible on a level with the eye of the observer. This was the simple fact, as observed by the several members of the committee which had been appointed. But some of the observers remarked that the line of the horizon in the mirror rose and fell with the eye, as also did every thing else which was reflected, and that this ought to be recorded as anaddendum—granted. The surface of the sea appeared to regularly ascend from the base of the Hoe to the distant horizon. The horizon from the extreme east to the west, as far as the eye could see, was parallel to a horizontal line.”
The following version was recorded in the same journal, of the same date, and was furnished by one of the committee who had manifested a very marked aversion to the doctrine that the surface of all water is horizontal:—“A vertical looking-glass was suspended from the Camera and the horizon seen in it, as well as various other objects reflected, rising and falling with the eye. The water was seen in the glass to ascend from the base of the Hoe to the horizon. The horizon appeared parallel to a horizontal line.”
It will be observed that the two reports are substantially the same, and very strongly corroboratethe remarks made atpages 15,16, and17of this work. Indeed no other report could have been given without the author’s becoming subject to the charge of glaring, obstinate, and wilful misrepresentation. What then has again been demonstrated? That the surface of all wateris horizontal, and that, therefore, the Earth cannot possibly be anything other than a Plane. All appearances to the contrary have been shown to be purely optical and adventitious.
Horizontal seaFIG. 33.
FIG. 33.
Curved seaFIG. 34.
FIG. 34.
Another proof that the surface of all water is horizontal and that therefore the Earth cannot be a globe is furnished by the following experiment, which was made in May, 1864, on the new pier at Southsea, near Portsmouth:—A telescope was fixed upon a stand and directed across the water at Spithead to the pier head at Ryde, in the Isle of Wight, as shown in the subjoined diagram. The line of sight crossed a certain part of the funnel of one of the regular steamers trading between Portsmouth and the Isle of Wight; and it was observed to cut or fall upon the same part during the whole of the passage to Ryde Pier, thus proving that the water betweenthe two piers is horizontal, because it was parallel to the line of sight from the telescope fixed at Southsea. If the Earth were a globe the channel between Ryde and Southsea would be an arc of a circle, and as the distance across is 4¹⁄₂ statute miles the centre of the arc would be 40 inches higher than the two sides; and the steamer would have ascended an inclined plane for 2¹⁄₄ miles, or to the centre of the channel, and afterwards descended for the same distance towards Ryde. This ascent and descent would have been marked by the line of sight falling 40 inches nearer to the deck of the steamer when on the centre of the arc of water, as represented in the following diagram; but as the line of sight did not cut the steamer lower down when in the centre of the channel, and no such ascent and descent was observed, it follows necessarily that the surface of the water between Southsea and the Isle of Wight isnot convex, and therefore the Earth as a whole isnot a globe. The evidence against the doctrine of the Earth’s rotundity is so clear and perfect, and so completely fulfils the conditions required in specialand independent investigations, that it is impossible for any person who can put aside the bias of previous education to avoid the opposite conclusion that theEarth is a plane. This conclusion is greatly confirmed by the experience of mariners in regard to certain lighthouses. Where the light is fixed and very brilliant it can be seen at a distance, which the present doctrine of the Earth’s rotundity would render altogether impossible. For instance, at page 35 of “Lighthouses of the World,” the Ryde Pier Light, erected in 1852, is described as a bright fixed light, 21 feet above high water, and visible from an altitude of 10 feet at the distance of 12 nautical or 14 statute miles. The altitude of 10 feet would place the horizon at the distance of 4 statute miles from the observer. The square of the remaining 10 statute miles multiplied by 8 inches will give a fall or curvature downwards from the horizon of 66 feet. Deduct from this 21 feet, the altitude of the light, and we have 45 feet as the amount which the light ought to bebelow the horizon!
By the same authority, at page 39, the Bidston Hill Lighthouse, near Liverpool, is 228 feet above high water, one bright fixed light, visible 23 nautical or very nearly 27 statute miles. Deducting 4 miles for the height of the observer, squaring the remaining 23 miles and multiplyingthat product by 8 inches we have a downward curvature of 352 feet; from this deduct the altitude of the light, 228 feet, and there remains 124 feet as the distance which the light should bebelow the horizon!
Again, at page 40:—“The lower light on the ‘Calf of Man’ is 282 feet above high water, and is visible 23 nautical miles.” The usual calculation will show that it ought to be 70 feetbelow the horizon!
At page 41 the Cromer light is described as having an altitude of 274 feet above high water, and is visible 23 nautical miles, whereas it ought to be at that distance 78 feetbelow the horizon!
At page 9 it is said:—“The coal fire (which was once used) on the Spurn Point Lighthouse, at the mouth of the Humber, which was constructed on a good principle for burning, has been seen 30 miles off.” If the miles here given are nautical measure they would be equal to 35 statute miles. Deducting 4 miles as the usual amount for the distance of the horizon, there will remain 31 miles, which squared and multiplied by 8 inches will give 640 feet as the declination of the water from the horizon to the base of the Lighthouse, the altitude of which is given at page 42 as 93 feet above high water. This amount deducted from the above 640 feet will leave 547 feet as the distance which theSpurn Light ought to have beenbelow the horizon!
The two High Whitby Lights are 240 feet above high water (see page 42), and are visible 23 nautical miles at sea. The proper calculation will be 102 feetbelow the horizon!
At page 43, it is said that the Lower Farne Island Light is visible for 12 nautical or 14 statute miles, and the height above high water is 45 feet. The usual calculation will show that this light ought to be 67 feetbelow the horizon!
The Hekkengen Light, on the west coast of Norway (see page 54), is 66 feet above high water, and visible 16 statute miles. It ought to be sunk beneath the horizon 30 feet!
The Trondhjem Light (see p. 55), on the Ringholm Rock, west coast of Norway, is 51 feet high, and is visible 16 statute miles; but ought to be 45 feet below the horizon!
The Rondö Light, also on the west coast of Norway (see p. 55), is 161 feet high, and is visible for 25 statute miles; the proper calculation will prove that it ought to be above 130 feet below the horizon!
The Egerö Light, on west point of Island, south coast of Norway (see p. 56), and which is fitted up with the first order of the dioptric lights, is visible for 28 statute miles, and the altitude above high water is 154 feet; makingthe usual calculation we find this light ought to be depressed, or sunk, below the horizon 230 feet!
The Dunkerque Light, on the north coast of France (see p. 71), is 194 feet high, and visible 28 statute miles. The ordinary calculation will show that it ought to be 190 feet below the horizon!
The Goulfar Bay Light, on the west coast of France, is said at page 77, to be visible 31 statute miles, and to have an altitude at high water of 276 feet, at the distance given it ought to be 210 feet below the horizon!
At page 78, the Cordonan Light, on the River Gironde, west coast of France, is given as being visible 31 statute miles, and its altitude 207 feet, which would give its depression below the horizon as nearly 280 feet!
The Light at Madras (p. 104), on the Esplanade, is 132 feet high, and visible 28 statute miles, whereas at that distance it ought to be beneath the horizon above 250 feet!
The Port Nicholson Light, in New Zealand, erected in 1859 (p. 110), is visible 35 statute miles, the altitude is 420 feet above high water, and ought, if the water is convex, to be 220 feet below the horizon!
The Light on Cape Bonavista, Newfoundland, is 150 feet above high water, and is visible 35statute miles (p. 111), this will give on calculation for the Earth’s rotundity, 491 feet that the Light should be below the horizon!
Many other cases could be given from the same work, shewing that the practical observations of mariners, engineers, and surveyors, entirely ignore the doctrine that the Earth is a globe. The following cases taken from miscellaneous sources will be interesting as bearing upon and leading to the same conclusion. In theIllustrated London Newsof Oct. 20, 1849, an engraving is given of a new Lighthouse erected on the Irish coast, The accompanying descriptive matter contains the following sentence:—“Ballycotton Island rises 170 feet above the level of the sea; the height of the Lighthouse is 60 feet including the Lantern; giving the light an elevation of 230 feet, which is visible upwards of 35 miles to sea.” If the 35 miles are nautical measure the distance in statute measure would be over 40 miles; and allowing the usual distance for the horizon, there would be 36 miles from thence to the Lighthouse. The square of 36 multiplied by 8 inches amounts to 864 feet; deduct the total altitude of the Lantern, 230 feet, and the remainder, 634 feet, is the distance which the Light of Ballycotton ought to be below the horizon!
In theTimesnewspaper of Monday, Oct. 16, 1854, in an account of her Majesty’s visit to Great Grimsby from Hull, the following paragraph occurs:—“Their attention was first naturally directed to a gigantic tower which rises from the centre pier to the height of 300 feet, and can be seen 60 miles out at sea.” The 60 miles if nautical, and this is always understood when referring to distances at sea, would make 70 statute miles, to which the fall of 8 inches belongs, and as all observations at sea are considered to be made at an elevation of 10 feet above the water, for which four miles must be deducted from the whole distance, 66 statute miles will remain, the square of which multiplied by 8 inches, gives a declination towards the tower of 2,904 feet; deducting from this the altitude of the tower, 300 feet, we obtain the startling conclusion that the tower should be at the distance at which it is visible, (60 nautical miles,) more than 2,600 feetbelow the horizon!
The only modification which can be made or allowed in the preceding calculations is that for refraction, which is considered by surveyors generally to amount to about ¹⁄₁₂th of the altitude of the object observed. If we make this allowance it will reduce the various quotients by ¹⁄₁₂th, which is so little that the whole willbe substantially the same. Take the last quotation as an instance—2,600 feet divided by 12 gives 206, which deducted from 2,600 leaves 2,384 as the corrected amount for refraction.