Chapter 8

Hollick(Dr. Frederick), Socialist, b. Birmingham, 22 Dec. 1813. He was educated at the Mechanics’ Institute of that town, and became one of the Socialist lecturers under Robert Owen. He held a public discussion with J. Brindley at Liverpool, in 1840, on “What is Christianity?” On the failure of Owenism he went to America, where some of his works popularising medical science have had a large circulation.Hollis(John), English sceptic, b. 1757. Author ofSober and Serious Reasons for Scepticism, 1796;An Apology for Disbelief in Revealed Religion, 1799; andFree Thoughts, 1812. Died at High Wycombe, Bucks 26 Nov. 1824. Hollis, who came of anopulentdissenting family, was distinguished by his love of truth, his zeal in the cause of freedom, and by his beneficence.Holmes(William Vamplew), one of Carlile’s brave shopmen who came up from Leeds to uphold the right of free publication. He was sentenced to two years’ imprisonment, 1 March, ’22, for selling blasphemous and seditious libels inAn Address to the Reformers of Great Britain, and when in prison was told that “if hard labor was not expressed in his sentence, it was implied.” On his release Holmes went to Sheffield and commenced the open sale of all the prohibited publications.Holwell(John Zephaniah), noted as one of the survivors of the Black Hole of Calcutta, b. Dublin, 7 Sept. 1711. He practised as a surgeon, went to India as a clerk, defended a fort at Calcutta against Surajah Dowlah, was imprisoned with one hundred and forty-five others in the “Black Hole,” 20th June, 1756, of which he published aNarrative. He succeeded Clive as governor of Bengal. On returning to England he published a dissertation directed against belief in a special providence, and advocating the application of church endowments to the exigencies of the State (Bath, 1786). Died 5 Nov. 1798.Holyoake(Austin), English Freethinker, b. Birmingham, 27 Oct. 1826. His mental emancipation came from hearing the lectures of Robert Owen and his disciples. He took part in the agitation for the abolition of the newspaper stamp—assisting when risk and danger had to be met—and he co-operated with his brother in the production of theReasonerand other publications from ’45 till ’62. Soon after this he printed and sub-edited theNational Reformer, in which many of his Freethought articles appeared. Among his pamphlets may be mentionedHeaven and Hell,Ludicrous Aspects of Christianity,Thoughts on Atheism, theBook of Esther, andDaniel the Dreamer. He also composed a Secular Burial Service. Austin Holyoake took pride in the character of Freethought, and was ever zealous in promoting its welfare. His amiable spirit endearedhim to all who knew him. He died 10 April, 1874, leaving behind thoughts written on his deathbed, in which he repudiated all belief in theology.Holyoake(George Jacob), b. Birmingham, 13 April 1817. Became mathematical teacher of the Mechanics’ Institution. Influenced by Combe and Owen he became a Freethinker, and in ’40 a Socialist missionary. In ’42, when Southwell was imprisoned for writing in theOracle of Reason, Mr. Holyoake took charge of that journal, and wroteThe Spirit of Bonner in the Disciples of Jesus. He was soon arrested for a speech at Cheltenham, having said, in answer to a question, that he would put the Deity on half-pay. Tried Aug. ’42, he was sentenced to six months imprisonment, of which he gave a full account in hisLast Trial by Jury for Atheism in England. In Dec. ’43 he edited with M. Q. Ryall theMovement, bearing the motto from Bentham, “Maximise morals, minimise religion.” The same policy was pursued inThe Reasoner, which he edited from 1846 till 1861. Among his many pamphlets we must notice theLogic of Death, ’50, which went through numerous editions, and was included in his most important Freethought work,The Trial of Theism. In ’49 he published a brief memoir of R. Carlile. In ’51 he first used the term “Secularist,” and in Oct. ’52 the first Secular Conference was held at Manchester Mr. Holyoake presiding. In Jan. ’53 he held a six nights discussion with the Rev. Brewin Grant, and again in Oct. ’54. He purchased the business of James Watson, and issued many Freethought works, notablyThe Library of Reason—a series,The Cabinet of Reason, his ownSecularism,The Philosophy of the People, etc. In ’60 he was Secretary to the British Legion sent out to Garibaldi. Mr. Holyoake did much to remove the taxes upon knowledge, and has devoted much attention to Co-operation, having written a history of the movement and contributed to most of its journals.Home(Henry), Scottish judge, was b. 1696. His legal ability was made known by his publication ofRemarkable Decisions of the Court of Session, 1728. In 1752 he was raised to the bench as Lord Kames. He publishedEssays on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion(1751),Elements of Criticism(1762), andSketches of the History of Man, inwhich he proved himself in advance of his age. Died 27 Dec. 1782.Hon, Le (Henri). SeeLe Hon.Hooker(Sir Joseph Dalton), English naturalist, b. 1817. He studied medicine at Glasgow, graduating M.D ’39. In ’55 he became assistant-director of Kew Gardens, and from ’65–85 sole director. Renowned as a botanist, he was the first eminent man of science to proclaim his adoption of Darwinism.Hope(Thomas), novelist and antiquarian, b. 1770. Famous for his anonymousAnastasius, or Memories of a Modern Greek, he also wrote an original work onThe Origin and Prospects of Man’31. Died at London 3 Feb. 1831.Houten(Samuel van), Dutch Freethinker, b. Groningen. 17 Feb. 1837; he studied law and became a lawyer in that city. In ’69 he was chosen member of the Dutch Parliament. Has published many writings on political economy. In ’88 he wrote a book entitledDasCausalitätgesetz(The Law of Causality).Houston(George). Was the translator of d’Holbach’sEcce Homo, first published in Edinburgh in 1799, and sometimes ascribed to Joseph Webb. A second edition was issued in 1813. Houston was prosecuted and was imprisoned two years in Newgate, with a fine of £200. He afterwards went to New York, where he edited theMinerva(1822). In Jan. 1827, he startedThe Correspondence, which, we believe, was the first weekly Freethought journal published in America. It lasted till July 1828. He also republishedEcce Homo. Houston helped to establish in America a “Free Press Association” and a Society of Free Inquirers.Hovelacque(Abel), French scientist, b. Paris 14 Nov. 1843. He studied law and made part of the groupe ofla Pensée Nouvelle, with Asseline, Letourneau, Lefevre, etc. He also studied anthropology under Broca and published many articles in theRevue d’Anthropologie. He founded with Letourneau, Thulié, Asseline, etc. The “Bibliothèque des sciences contemporains” and published thereinLa Linguistique. He also founded with the same the library of anthropological science and published in collaboration with G. Hervé aprècisof Anthropology and a study of theNegroes of Africa. He has also contributedto the Dictionary of Anthropology. For the “Bibliothèque Materialiste” he wrote a work on Primitive man. He has also published choice extracts from the works of Voltaire, Diderot and Rousseau, a grammar of the Zend language, and a work on theAvesta Zoroaster and Mazdaism. In ’78 he was made a member of the municipal council of Paris, and in ’81 was elected deputy to the chamber where he sits with the autonomist socialist group.Howdon(John), author ofA Rational Investigation of the Principles of Natural Philosophy, Physical and Moral, printed at Haddington, 1840, in which he attacks belief in the Bible.Huber(Marie), Swiss Deist, b. of Protestant parents, Geneva, 1694. In a work on theSystem of Theologians, 1731, she opposed the dogma of eternal punishment. In ’38 publishedLetters on the Religion essential to Man. This was translated into English in the same year. Other works show English reading. She translated selections from theSpectator. Died at Lyons, 13 June, 1753.Hudail(Abul). See Muhammad ibn Hudail (Al Allaf.)Huet(Coenraad Busken), Dutch writer, b. the Hague, 28 Dec. 1826. He became minister of the Walloon Church at Haarlem, but through his Freethought left the church in ’63, and became editor of various newspapers, afterwards living in Paris. He wrote many works of literary value, and publishedLetters on the Bible, ’57, etc. Died 1887.Hugo(Victor Marie), French poet and novelist, b. Besançon, 26 Feb. 1802. Was first noted for hisOdes, published in ’21. His dramas “Hernani,” ’30, and “Marion Delorme,” ’31, were highly successful. He was admitted into the French Academy in ’41, and made a peer in ’45. He gave his cordial adhesion to the Republic of ’48, and was elected to the Assembly by the voters of Paris. He attacked Louis Napoleon, and after thecoup d’étatwas proscribed. He first went to Brussels, where he publishedNapoleon the Little, a biting satire. He afterwards settled at Guernsey, where he remained until the fall of the Empire, producingThe Legend of the Ages, ’59,Les Miserables, ’62,Toilers of the Sea, ’69, and other works. After his return to Paris he produced a new series of theLegend of the Ages,The Pope,Religions and Religion,Torquemada, and other poems.He died 22 May, 1885, and it being decided he should have a national funeral, the Pantheon was secularised for that purpose, the cross being removed. Since his death a poem entitledThe End of Satanhas been published.Hugues(Clovis), French Socialist, poet, and deputy, b. Menerbes, 3 Nov. 1850. In youth he desired to become a priest, but under the influence of Hugo left the black business. In ’71 he became head of the Communist movement at Marseilles. He was sentenced to three years’ imprisonment. In ’81 he was elected deputy, and sits on the extreme left.Humboldt(Friedrich Heinrich Alexander von), illustrious German naturalist and traveller, b. Berlin, 14 Sept. 1769. He studied under Heyne and Blumenbach, travelled in Holland, France and England with George Forster, the naturalist, and became director-general of mines. In 1799 he set out to explore South America and Mexico, and in 1804 returned witharich collection of animals, plants and minerals. Humboldt became a resident of Paris, where he enjoyed the friendship of Lalande, Delambre, Arago, and all the living distinguished French scientists. After numerous important contributions to scientific knowledge, at the age of seventy-four he composed his celebratedCosmos, the first volume of which appeared in ’45 and the fourth in ’58. ToVarnhagen von Ensehe wrote in 1841: “Bruno Bauer has found me pre-adamatically converted. Many years ago I wrote, ‘Toutes les réligions positives offrent trois parties distinctes; un traité de mœurs partout le même et très pur, un rève géologique, et un mythe ou petit roman historique; le dernier élément obtient le plus d’importance.’” Later on he says that Strauss disposes of “the Christian myths.” Humboldt was an unwearied student of science, paying no attention to religion, and opposed his brother in regard to his essayOn the Province of the Historian, because he considered it to acknowledge the belief in the divine government of the world, which seemed to him as complete a delusion as the hypothesis of a principle of life. He died in Berlin, 6 May, 1859, in his ninetieth year.Humboldt(Karl Wilhelm von), Prussian statesman and philosopher, b. Potsdam, 22 June,1767. He was educated by Campe. Went to Paris in 1789, and hailed the revolution withenthusiasm. In ’92 he publishedIdeas on the Organization of the State. He became a friend of Schiller and Goethe, and in 1809 was Minister of Public Instruction. He took part in founding the University of Berlin. He represented Prussia at the Congress of Vienna,’14. He advocated a liberal constitution, but finding the King averse, retired at the end of ’19, and devoted himself to the study of comparative philology. He said there were three things he could not comprehend—orthodox piety, romantic love, and music. He died 8 April, 1835. His works were collected and edited by his brother.Hume(David), philosopher and historian, b. Edinburgh, 26 April, 1711. In 1735 he went to France to study, and there wrote hisTreatise on Human Nature, published in 1739. This work then excited no interest friendly or hostile. Hume’sEssays Moral and Politicalappeared in 1742, and in 1752 hisInquiry Concerning the Principles of Moralswhich of all his writings he considered the best. In 1755 he published hisNatural History of Religion, which was furiously attacked by Warburton in an anonymous tract. In 1754 he published the first volume of hisHistory of England, which he did not complete till 1761. He became secretary to the Earl of Hertford, ambassador at Paris, where he was cordially welcomed by the philosophers. He returned in 1766, bringing Rousseau with him. Hume became Under Secretary of State in 1767, and in 1769 retired to Edinburgh, where he died 25 Aug. 1776. After his death hisDialogues on Natural Religionwere published, and also some unpublished essays on Suicide, the Immortality of the Soul, etc. Hume’s last days were singularly cheerful. His friend, the famous Dr. Adam Smith, considered him “as approaching as nearly to the idea of a perfectly wise and virtuous man as perhaps the nature of human frailty will permit.”Hunt(James), Ph.D., physiologist, b. 1833, was the founder of the Anthropological Society, of which he was the first president, ’63. He was the author of theNegro’s Place in Nature, a work on Stammering, etc. Died 28 Aug. 1869.Hunt(James Henry Leigh), poet, essayist and critic, b. Southgate, Middlesex, 19 Oct. 1784. was educated with Lamb and Coleridge at Christ’s Hospital, London. He joined hisbrother John in editing first theSunday News, 1805, and then theExaminer, 1808. They were condemned to pay a fine, each of £500, and to be imprisoned for two years, 1812–14, for a satirical article, in which the prince regent was called an “Adonis of fifty.” This imprisonment procured him the friendship of Shelley and Byron, with whom, after editing theIndicatorhe was associated in editing theLiberal. He wrote many choice books of poems and criticisms, and in hisReligion of the Heart, ’53, repudiates orthodoxy. Died 28 Aug. 1859.Hutten(Ulrich von), German poet and reformer, b. of noble family Steckelberg, Hesse Cassel, 22 April 1488. He was sent to Fulda to become a monk, but fled in 1504 to Erfurt, where he studiedhumaniora. After some wild adventures he went to Wittenberg in 1510, and Vienna 1512, and also studied at Pavia and Bologna. He returned to Germany in 1517 as a common soldier in the army of Maximilian. His great object was to free his country from sacerdotalism, and most of his writings are satires against the Pope, monks and clergy. Persecution drove him to Switzerland, but the Council of Zurich drovehimout of their territory and he died on the isle of Ufnau, Lake Zürich, 29 Aug. 1523.Hutton(James), Scotch geologist and philosopher, b. at Edinburgh 3 June, 1736. He graduated as M.D. at Leyden in 1749, and investigated the strata of the north of Scotland. He published a dissertation onLight, Heat, and Fire, and in hisTheory of the World, 1795, attributes geological phenomena to the action of fire. He also wrote a work entitledAn Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge, the opinions of which, says Chalmers, “abound in sceptical boldness and philosophical infidelity.” Died 26 March 1797.Huxley(Thomas Henry), LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., b. Ealing, 4 May, 1825. He studied medicine, and in ’46 took M.R.C.S., and was appointed assistant naval surgeon. His cruises afforded opportunities for his studies of natural history. In ’51 he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society, and in ’54 was made Professor at the School of Mines. In ’60 he lectured on “The Relation of Man to the Lower Animals,” and afterwards publishedEvidence as to Man’s Place in Nature(1863). In addition to numerous scientific works, Professor Huxley haswritten numerous forcible articles, addresses, etc., collected inLay Sermons, ’70;Critiques and Addresses, ’73; andAmerican Addresses, ’79. A vigorous writer, hisHumein the “English Men of Letters” series is a model of clear exposition. In his controversies with Mr. Gladstone, in his articles on theEvolution of Theology, and in his recent polemic with the Rev. Mr. Wace in theNineteenth Century, Professor Huxley shows all his freshness, and proves himself as ready in demolishing theological fictions as in demonstrating scientific facts. He states as his own life aims “The popularising of science and untiring opposition to that ecclesiastical spirit, that clericalism, which in England, as everywhere else, and to whatever denomination it may belong, is the deadly enemy of science.”Hypatia, Pagan philosopher and martyr, b. Alexandria early in the second half of the fourth century. She became a distinguished lecturer and head of the Neo-Platonic school (c. 400). The charms of her eloquence brought many disciples. By a Christian mob, incited by St. Cyril, she was in Lent 415 torn from her chariot, stripped naked, cut with oyster-shells and finally burnt piecemeal. This true story of Christian persecution has been disguised into a legend related of St. Catherine in the Roman breviary (Nov. 25).IbnBajjat. SeeAvenpace.IbnMassara. SeeMassarain Supplement.IbnRushd. SeeAverroes.IbnSabîn. SeeSabin.IbnSina. SeeAvicenna.IbnTofail. SeeAbu Bakr.Ibsen(Henrik), an eminent Norwegian dramatist and poet, b. Skien, 20 March, 1828. At first he studied medicine, but he turned his attention to literature. In ’52, through the influence of Ole Bull, he became director of the theatre at Bergen, for which he wrote a great deal. From ’57 to ’63 he directed the theatre at Christiania. In the following year he went to Rome. The Storthing accorded him an annual pension for his services to literature. His dramas,Brand, (PeerGynt),Kejser og Galilær(Cæsar [Julian] and the Galilean),Nora, andSamfundets Stotler(the Pillars of Society), andGhostsexhibithis unconventional spirit. Ibsen is an open unbeliever in Christianity. He looks forward to social regeneration through liberty, individuality, and education without superstition.Ilive(Jacob), English printer and letter founder, b. Bristol about 1710. He published a pretended translation of the Book of Jasher, 1751, and some other curious works. He was prosecuted for blasphemy inSome Modest Remarks on the late Bishop Sherlock’s Sermons, and sentenced to two years’ imprisonment, 15 June, 1756–10 June, 1758. He was confined in the Clerkenwell House of Correction and published some pamphlets exposing the bad condition of the prison and suggesting means for its improvement. He died in 1768.Imray(I. W.), author, b. 1802. Wrote in Carlile’sRepublicanandLion, and published “Altamont,” an atheistic drama, in 1828.Ingersoll(Robert Green), American orator, b. Dresden, New York, 11 Aug. 1833. His father was a Congregationalist clergyman. He studied law, and opened an office in Shawneetown, Illinois. In ’62 he became colonel of the 11th Illinois Cavalry, and served in the war, being taken prisoner. In ’66 he was appointed attorney-general for Illinois. At the National Republican Convention, ’76, he proposed Blaine for President in a speech that attracted much attention. In ’77 he refused the post of Minister to Germany. He has conducted many important cases, and defended C. B. Reynolds when tried for blasphemy in ’86. Col. Ingersoll is the most popular speaker in America. Eloquence, humor, and pathos are alike at his command. He is well known by his books, pamphlets, and speeches directed against Christianity. He had published theGods,Ghosts,Some Mistakes of Moses, and a collection of his Lectures, ’83, andProse Poems and Extracts, ’84. Most of his lectures have been republished in England. We mentionWhat must I do to be Saved?Hell,The Dying Creed,Myth and Miracle,Do I Blaspheme?Real Blasphemy. In the pages of theNorth American ReviewCol. Ingersoll has defended Freethought against Judge Black, the Rev. H. Field, Mr. Gladstone, and Cardinal Manning.Inman(Thomas), B.A., physician and archæologist, b. 1820. Educated at London University, he settled at Liverpool, beingconnected with the well-known shipping family of that port. He is chiefly known by his work onAncient Faiths Embodied in Ancient Names, in which he deals with the evidences of phallic worship amongst Jews and other nations. It was first published in ’69. A second edition appeared in ’73. He also wroteAncient Pagan and Modern Christian Symbolism Exposed and Explained, ’69, and a controversial Freethought work, entitledAncient Faiths and Modern, published at New York ’76. Dr. Inman was for some time President of the Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society, and was physician to the Royal Infirmary of that city. His professional life was one of untiring industry. He wrote several medical works, including two volumes on thePreservationand Restoration of Health. Died at Clifton, 3 May. 1876.Iron(Ralph), pseudonym of Olive Schreiner,q.v.Isnard(Felix), French physician, b. Grasse 1829. Author of a work onSpiritualism and Materialism, 1879.Isnard(Maximin), Girondin revolutionist, b. Grasse 16 Feb. 1751. He was made a member of the Assembly, in which he declared, “The Law, behold my God. I know no other.” He voted for the death of the King, and was nominated president of the Convention. On the fall of the Girondins he made his escape, and reappeared after the fall of Robespierre. In 1796 he was one of the Council ofFiveHundred. Died 1830.Isoard(Eric Michel Antoine), French writer, b. Paris, 1826. Was naval officer in ’48 but arrested as socialist in ’49. In ’70 he was made sous-prefet of Cambrai and wroteGuerre aux Jésuites.Isoard Delisle(Jean Baptiste Claude), called also Delisle de Sales, French man of letters, b. Lyons 1743. When young he entered the Congregation of the Oratory, but left theology for literature. In 1769 he published thePhilosophy of Nature, which in 1771 was discovered to be irreligious, and he was condemned to perpetual banishment. While in prison he was visited by many of the philosophers, and a subscription was opened for him, to which Voltaire gave five hundred francs. He went to the court of Frederick the Great, and subsequently published many works of little importance. Died at Paris 22 Sept. 1816.Jacob(Andre Alexandre). SeeErdan (A.)Jacobson(Augustus), American, author ofWhy I do not Believe, Chicago 1881, andThe Bible Inquirer.“Jacobus(Dom)” Pseudonym ofPotvin(Charles)q.v.Jacoby(Leopold) German author ofThe Idea of Development. 2 vols. Berlin 1874–76.Jacolliot(Louis), French orientalist, b. Saint Etienne, 1806. Brought up to the law, in ’43 he was made judge at Pondichery. He first aroused attention by his work,The Bible in India, ’70. He also has written onGenesis of Humanity, ’76.The Religions Legislators,Moses,Manu and Muhammad, ’80, andThe Natural and Social History of Humanity, ’84, and several works of travel.Jantet(Charles and Hector), two doctors of Lyons,b. the first in 1826, the second in ’28, have published together ableAperçus Philosophiqueson Rènan’s Life of Jesus, ’64, andDoctrine Medicale Matérialiste, 1866.Jaucourt(Louis de), Chevalier, French scholar and member of the Royal Society of London and of the academies of Berlin and Stockholm, b. Paris 27 Sept. 1704. He studied at Geneva, Cambridge, and Leyden, furnished theEncyclopédiewith many articles, and conducted theBibliothèque Raisonnée. Died at Compiègne, 3 Feb. 1779.Jefferies(Richard), English writer, b. 1848, famous for his descriptions of nature inThe Gamekeeper at Home,Wild Life in a Southern Country, etc. In his autobiographicalStory of My Heart(1883) Mr. Jefferies shows himself a thorough Freethinker. Died Goring-on-Thames, 14 Aug. 1887.Jefferson(Thomas), American statesman, b. Shadwell, Virginia, 2 April 1743. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1767. He became a member of the House of Burgesses, 1769–75. In 1774 he published hisSummary Views of the Rights of British-Americans. He drafted and reported to Congress the “Declaration of Independence” which was unanimously adopted, 4 July 1766. He was Governor of Virginia from 1719 to 1781, and originated a system of education in the State. He was Ambassador to Paris from 1785–89, secretary of state from 1789–93, vice-president 1791–1801 and third president of the United States 1801–9. In ’19 hefounded the University of Virginia, of which he was rector till his death, 4 July 1826. Dr. J. Thomas in hisDictionary of Biographysays “In religion he was what is denominated a freethinker.” He spoke in old age of “the hocus-pocusphantomof God, which like another Cerberus had one body and three heads.” See his life by J. Parton.Johnson(Richard Mentor), Colonel, American soldier and statesman, b. Bryant’s Station, Kentucky, 17 Oct. 1781. Was educated at Lexington, studied law, and practiced with success. Became member of the Kentucky Legislature in 1805, and raised a regiment of cavalry ’12. Fought with distinction against British and Indians. Was member of Congress from 1807–19, and from ’29–37; a United States Senator from ’19–29, and Vice-President of the United States, ’37–40. Is remembered by his report against the suspension of Sunday mails and his speeches in favor of rights of conscience. Died at Frankfort, Kentucky, 19 Nov. 1850.Johnson(Samuel), American author, b. Salem, Massachusetts, 10 Oct. 1822. He was educated at Harvard, and became pastor of a “Free Church” at Lynn in ’53. He never attached himself to any denomination, although in some points his views were like those of the Unitarians and Universalists. About ’46 he published, in conjunction with S. Longfellow, brother of the poet,Hymns of the Spirit,Oriental Religions in relation to Universal Religion, of which the volume on India appeared in ’72, China ’77, and Persia ’84. Died Andover, 19 Feb. 1882.Jones(Ernest Charles), barrister and political orator, b. Berlin, 25 Jan. 1819. His father was in the service of the King of Hanover, who became his godfather. Called to the bar in ’44 in the following year he joined the Chartist movement, editing thePeople’s Paper,Notes to the People, and other Chartist periodicals. In ’48 he was tried for making a seditious speech, and condemned to two years’ imprisonment, during which he wroteBeldagon Churchand other poems. He stood for Halifax in ’47, and Nottingham in ’53 and ’57, without success. He was much esteemed by the working classes in Manchester, where he died 26 Jan. 1869.Jones(John Gale), Political orator, b. 1771. At the time of the French Revolution he became a leading member of theLondon Corresponding Society. Arrested at Birmingham for sedition, he obtained a verdict of acquittal. He was subsequently committed to Newgate in Feb. 1810, for impugning the proceedings of the House of Commons, and there remained till his liberation was effected by the prorogation of Parliament, June 21. On 26 Dec. ’11 he was again convicted for “a seditious and blasphemous libel.” He was a resolute advocate of the rights of free publication during the trials of Carlile and his shopmen. Died Somers Town, 4 April, 1838.Jones(Lloyd), Socialist, b. of Catholic parents at Brandon, co. Cork, Ireland, in March, 1811. In ’27 he came over to Manchester, and in ’32 joined the followers of Robert Owen. He became “a social missionary,” and had numerous debates with ministers, notably one on “The Influence of Christianity” with J. Barker, then a Methodist, at Manchester, in ’39. Lloyd Jones was an active supporter of co-operation and trades-unionism, and frequently acted as arbitrator in disputes between masters and men. He contributed to theNew Moral World,Spirit of the Age,Glasgow Sentinel,Leeds Express,North British Daily Mail,Newcastle Chronicle, andCo-operative News. Died at Stockwell, 22 May, 1886, leaving behind aLife of Robert Owen.Joseph II., Emperor of Germany, son of Francis I. and Maria Theresa, b. Vienna 13 March 1741. In 1764 he was elected king of the Romans, and in the following year succeeded to the throne of Germany. He wrought many reforms, suppressed the Jesuits 1773, travelled in France as Count Falkenstein, saw d’Alembert but did not visit Voltaire. He abolished serfdom, allowed liberty of conscience, suppressed several convents, regulated others, abridged the power of the pope and the clergy, and mitigated the condition of the Jews. Carlyle says “a mighty reformer he had been, the greatest of his day. Austria gazed on him, its admiration not unmixed with terror. He rushed incessantly about, hardy as a Charles Twelfth; slept on his bearskin on the floor of any inn or hut;—flew at the throat of every absurdity, however broad and based or dangerously armed. ‘Disappear I say.’ A most prompt, severe, and yet beneficent and charitable kind of man. Immensely ambitious, that must be said withal. A great admirer of Friedrich; bentto imitate him with profit. ‘Very clever indeed’ says Friedrich, ‘but has the fault(a terribly grave one!) of generally taking the second step without having taken the first.’” Died Vienna 20 Feb. 1790.Jouy(Victor JosephEtienne de), French author b. Jouy near Versailles 1764. He served as soldier in India and afterwards in the wars of the Republic. A disciple of Voltaire to whom he erected a temple, he was a prolific writer, his plays being much esteemed in his own day. Died 4 Sept. 1846.Julianus(Flavius Claudius), Roman Emperor, b. Constantinople 17 Nov. 331. In the massacre of his family by the sons of Constantine he escaped. He was educated in the tenets of Christianity but returned to an eclectic Paganism. In 354 he was declared Cæsar. He made successful campaigns against the Germans who had overrun Gaul and in 361 was made Emperor. He proclaimed liberty of conscience and sought to uproot the Christian superstition by his writings, of which only fragments remain. As Emperor he exhibited great talent,tact, industry, and skill. He was one of the most gifted and learned of the Roman Emperors, and his short reign (Dec. 361—26 June, 363), comprehended the plans of a life-long administration. He died while seeking to repel a Persian invasion, and his death was followed by the triumph of Christianity and the long night of the dark ages.Junghuhn(Franz Wilhelm), traveller and naturalist, b. Mansfeld, Prussia 29 Oct 1812. His father was a barber and surgeon. Franz studied at Halle and Berlin. He distinguished himself by love for botany and geology. In a duel with another student he killed him and was sentenced to imprisonment at Ehrenbreitster for 20 years. There he simulated madness and was removed to the asylum at Coblentz, whence he escaped to Algiers. In ’34 he joined the Dutch Army in the Malay Archipelago. He travelled through the island of Java making a botanical and geological survey. In ’54 he published hisLicht enSchaduwbeeldenuit de binnenlanden van Java(Light and Shadow pictures from the interior of Java), which contains his ideas of God, religion and science, together with sketches of nature and of the manners of the inhabitants. This book aroused much indignation from the pious, but also much agreement amongfreethinkers, and led to the establishment ofDe Dageraad(The Daybreak,) the organ of the Dutch Freethinkers Union. Junghuhn afterwards returned to Java and died 21 April, ’64 at Lemberg, Preanges, Regentsch. HisLight and Shadow pictureshave been several times reprinted.Kalisch(Moritz Marcus), Ph.D., b. of Jewish parents in Pomerania, 16 May, 1828. Educated at the University of Berlin, where he studied under Vatke and others. Early in ’49 he came to England as a political refugee, and found employment as tutor to the Rothschild family. His criticalCommentary on the Pentateuchcommenced with a volume on Exodus, ’55, Genesis ’58, Leviticus in two vols. in ’67 and ’72 respectively. His rational criticism anticipated the school of Wellhausen. He publishedBible Studieson Balaam and Jonah ’77, and discussions on philosophy and religion in a very able and learned work entitledPath and Goal,’80. Kalisch also contributed to Scott’s series of Freethought tracts. Died at Baslow, Derbyshire, 23 Aug. 1885.Kames(Lord). SeeHome (Henry).Kant(Immanuel), German critical philosopher, b. Königsberg, 22 April, 1724. He became professor of mathematics in 1770. In 1781 he published his great work,The Critick of Pure Reason, which denied all knowledge of the “Thing itself,” and overthrew the dogmatism of earlier metaphysics. In 1792 the philosopher fell under the royal censorship for hisReligion within the Limits of Pure Reason. Kant effected a complete revolution in philosophy, and his immediate influence is not yet exhausted. Died at Königsberg, 12 Feb. 1804.Kapila.One of the earliest Hindu thinkers. His system is known as the Atheistic philosophy. It is expounded in the Sankhya Karika, an important relic of bold rationalistic Indian thought. His aphorisms have been translated by J. R. Ballantyne.Karneades.SeeCarneades.Keeler(Bronson C.) American author of an ableShort History of the Bible, being a popular account of the formation and development of the canon, published at Chicago 1881.Keim(Karl Theodor), German rationalist, b. Stuttgart, 17 Dec. 1825. Was educated at Tübingen, and became professorof theology at Zürich. Is chiefly known by hisHistory of Jesus of Nazara(’67–’72). He also wrote a striking work onPrimitive Christianity(’78), and endeavored to reproduce the lost work of Celsus. His rationalism hindered his promotion, and he was an invalid most of his days. Died at Giessen, where he was professor, 17 Nov. 1878.Keith(George), Lord Marshall, Scotch soldier, b. Kincardine 1685, was appointed by Queen Anne captain of Guard. His property being confiscated for aiding the Pretender, he went to the Continent, and like his brother, was in high favor with Frederick the Great. Died Berlin, 25 May, 1778.Keith(James Francis Edward), eminent military commander, b. Inverugie, Scotland, 11 June, 1696. Joined the army of the Pretender and was wounded at Sheriffmuir, 1715. He afterwards served with distinction in Spain and in Russia, where he rose to high favor under the Empress Elizabeth. In1747he took service with Frederick the Great as field-marshal, and became Governor of Berlin. Carlyle calls him “a very clear-eyed, sound observer of men and things. Frederick, the more he knows him, likes him the better.” From their correspondence it is evident Keith shared the sceptical opinions of Frederick. After brilliant exploits in the seven years’ war at Prague, Rossbach, and Olmutz, Marshal Keith fell in the battle of Hochkirch, 14 Oct. 1758.Kenrick(William), LL.D., English author, b. near Watford, Herts, about 1720. In 1751 he published, at Dublin, under the pen-name of Ontologos, an essay to prove that the soul is not immortal. His first poetic production was a volume ofEpistles, Philosophical and Moral(1759), addressed to Lorenzo; an avowed defence of scepticism. In 1775 he commenced theLondon Review, and the following year attacked Soame Jenyns’s work on Christianity. He translated some of the works of Buffon, Rousseau, and Voltaire. Died 10 June 1779.Kerr(Michael Crawford) American statesman, b. Titusville, Western Pennsylvania,15 March1827. He was member of the Indiana Legislature ’56, and elected to Congress in ’74 and endeavoured to revise the tariff in the direction of free-trade. Died Rockbridge, Virginia, 19 Aug. 1876, a confirmed Freethinker and Materialist.Ket,Kett, orKnight(Francis), of Norfolk, a relative of the rebellious tanner. He was of Windham and was an M.A. He was prosecuted for heresy and burnt in the castle ditch, Norwich, 14 Jan. 1588. Stowe says he was burnt for “divers detestable opinions against Christ our Saviour.”Khayyam(Omar) orUmar Khaiyam, Persian astronomer, poet, b. Naishapur Khorassan, in the second half of the eleventh century, and was distinguished by his reformation of the calendar as well as by his verses (Rubiyat), which E. Fitzgerald has so finely rendered in English. He alarmed his contemporaries and made himself obnoxious to the Sufis. Died about 1123. Omar laughed at the prophets and priests, and told men to be happy instead of worrying themselves about God and the Hereafter. He makes his soul say, “I myself am Heaven and Hell.”Kielland(Alexander Lange), Norwegian novelist, b.Stavanger, 18 Feb. 1849. He studied law at Christiania, but never practised. His stories,Workpeople,Skipper Worse,Poison, andSnowexhibit his bold opinions.Kleanthes.See Cleanthes.Klinger(Friedrich Maximilian von), German writer, b. Frankfort, 19 Feb. 1753. Went to Russia in 1780, and became reader to the Grand Duke Paul. Published poems, dramas, and romances, exhibiting the revolt of nature against conventionality. Goethe called him “a true apostle of the Gospel of nature.” Died at Petersburg, 25 Feb. 1831.Kneeland(Abner), American writer, b. Gardner, Mass., 7 April, 1774, became a Baptist and afterwards a Universalist minister. He invented a new system of orthography, published a translation of the New Testament, 1823,The Deist(2 Vols.), ’22, edited theOlive Branchand theChristian Inquirer. He wroteThe Fourth Epistle of Peter, ’29, and aReview of the Evidences of Christianity, being a series of lectures delivered in New York in ’29. In that year he removed to Boston, and in April ’31 commenced theBoston Investigator, the oldest Freethought journal. In ’33 he was indicted and tried for blasphemy for saying that he “did not believe in the God which Universalists did.” He was sentenced 21 Jan. ’34, to two months’ imprisonmentand fine of five hundred dollars. The verdict was confirmed in the Courts of Appeal in ’36, and he received two months’ imprisonment. Kneeland was a Pantheist. He took Frances Wright as an associate editor, and soon after left theBoston Investigatorin the hands of P. Mendum and Seaver, and retired to a farm at Salubria, where he died 27 August, 1844. His edition, with notes, of Voltaire’sPhilosophical Dictionary, was published in two volumes in 1852.Knoblauch(Karl von), German author, b. Dillenburg, 3 Nov. 1757. He was a friend of Mauvillon and published several works directed against supernaturalism and superstition. Died at Bernburg, 6 Sept. 1794.Knowlton(Charles) Dr., American physician and author, b. Templeton, Mass., 10 May, 1800. He published theFruits of Philosophy, for which he was imprisoned in ’32. He was a frequent correspondent of theBoston Investigator, and held a discussion on the Bible and Christianity with the Rev. Mr. Thacher of Harley. About ’29 he publishedThe Elements of Modern Materialism. Died in Winchester, Mass., 20 Feb. 1850.Knutzen(Matthias), b. Oldensworth, in Holstein, 1645. He early lost his parents, and was brought to an uncle at Königsberg, where he studied philosophy. He took to the adventurous life of a wandering scholar and propagated his principles in many places. In 1674 he preached Atheism publicly at Jena, in Germany, and had followers who were called “Gewissener,” from their acknowledging no other authority but conscience. It is said there were seven hundred in Jena alone. What became of him and them is unknown. A letter dated from Rome gives his principles. He denied the existence of either God or Devil, deemed churches and priests useless, and held that there is no life beyond the present, for which conscience is a sufficient guide, taking the place of the Bible, which contains great contradictions. He also wrote two dialogues.Koerbagh(Adriaan), Dutch martyr, b. Amsterdam, 1632 or 1633. He became a doctor of law and medicine. In 1668 he publishedA Flower Garden of all Loveliness, a dictionary of definitions in which he gave bold explanations. The work was rigidly suppressed, and the writer fled toCulemborg. There he translated a bookDe Trinitate, and began a work entitledA Light Shining in Dark Places, to illuminate the chief things of theology and religion by Vrederijk Waarmond, inquisitor of truth. Betrayed for a sum of money, Koerbagh was tried for blasphemy, heavily fined and sentenced to be imprisoned for ten years, to be followed by ten years banishment. He died in prison, Oct. 1669.Kolb(Georg Friedrich), German statistician and author, b. Spires 14 Sept. 1808, author of an ableHistory of Culture, 1869–70. Died at Munich 15 May,1884.Koornhert(Theodore). SeeCoornhert (Dirk Volkertszoon.)Korn(Selig), learned German Orientalist of Jewish birth, b. Prague, 26 April, 1804. A convert to Freethought, under the name of “F. Nork,” he wrote many works on mythology which may still be consulted with profit. A list is given in Fuerst’sBibliotheca Judaica. We mentionChristmas and Easter Explained by Oriental Sun Worship, Leipsic, ’36;Brahmins and Rabbins, Weissen, ’36;The Prophet Elijah as a Sun Myth, ’37;The Gods of the Syrians, ’42;Biblical Mythology of the Old and New Testament, 2 vols. Stuttgart, ’42–’43. Died at Teplitz, Bohemia, 16 Oct. 1850.Krause(Ernst H. Ludwig), German scientific writer, b. Zielenzig 22 Nov. 1839. He studied science and contributed to theVossische ZeitungandGartenlaube. In ’63 he published, under the pen-name of “Carus Sterne,” a work onThe Natural History of Ghosts, and in ’76 a work onGrowth and Decay, a history of evolution. In ’77 he established with Hæckel, Dr. Otto Caspari, and Professor Gustav Jaeger, the monthly magazineKosmos, devoted to the spread of Darwinism. This he conducted till ’82. InKosmosappeared the germ of his little book onErasmus Darwin, ’79, to which Charles Darwin wrote a preliminary notice. As “Carus Sterne” he has also written essays entitledPrattle from Paradise,The Crown of Creation, ’84, and an illustrated work in parts onAncient and Modern Ideas of the World, ’87, etc.Krekel(Arnold), American judge, b. Langenfield, Prussia 14 March, 1815. Went with parents to America in ’32 and settled in Missouri. In ’42 he was elected Justice of the Peace and afterwards county attorney. In ’52 he was electedto the Missouri State Legislature. He served in the civil war being elected colonel, was president of the constitutional convention of ’65 and signed the ordinance of emancipation by which the slaves of Missouri were set free. He was appointed judge by President Lincoln 9 March, ’65. A pronounced Agnostic, when he realized he was about to die he requested his wife not to wear mourning, saying that death was as natural as birth. Died at Kansas 14 July, 1888.Krekel(Mattie H. Hulett), b. of freethinking parents, Elkhart Indiana 13 April, 1840. Educated at Rockford, Illinois, in her 16th year became a teacher. Married Judge Krekel, after whose death, she devoted her services to the Freethought platform.Kropotkin(Petr Aleksyeevich)Prince, Russian anarchist, b. Moscow 9 Dec 1842. After studying at the Royal College of Pages he went to Siberia for five years to pursue geological researches. In ’71 he went to Belgium and Switzerland and joined the International. Arrested in Russia, he was condemned to three years imprisonment, escaped ’76 and came to England. In ’79 he founded at Geneva,Le Révoltéwas expelled. Accused in France in ’83 of complicity in the outrage at Lyons, he was condemned to five years imprisonment, but was released in ’86, since which he has lived in England. A brother who translated Herbert Spencer’s “Biology” into Russian, died in Siberia in the autumn of 1886.Laas(Ernst) German writer, b. Furstenwalde, 16 June, 1837. He has written three volumes onIdealism and Positivism, 1879–’84, and also onKant’s Place in the History of the Conflict between Faith and Science, Berlin, 1882. He was professor of philosophy at Strassburg, where he died 25 July, 1885.Labanca(Baldassarre), professor of moral philosophy in the University of Pisa, b. Agnone, 1829. He took part in the national movement of ’48, and in ’51 was imprisoned and afterwards expelled from Naples. He has written on progress in philosophy and also a study on primitive Christianity, dedicated to Giordano Bruno, the martyr of Freethought, ’86.Lachatre(Maurice), French writer, b. Issoudun 1814, edits a “Library of Progress,” in which has appeared his ownHistory of the Inquisition, andHistory of the Popes, ’83.Lacroix(Sigismund), the pen name of Sigismund Julien AdolphKrzyzanowski, b. Warsaw 26 May, 1845. His father was a refugee. He wrote with Yves GuyotThe Social Doctrines of Christianity. In ’74 he was elected a municipal councillor of Paris. In ’77 he was sentenced to three months’ imprisonment for calling Jesus “enfant adulterin” inLe Radical. In Feb. ’81 he was elected president of the municipal council, and in ’83 deputy to the French parliament.Laffitte(Pierre), French Positivist philosopher, b. 21 Feb. 1823 at Beguey (Gironde), became a disciple of Comte and one of his executors. He was professor of mathematics, but since the death of his master has given a weekly course of instruction in the formerapartmentof Comte. M. Laffitte has published discourses onThe General History of Humanity, ’59, andThe Great Types of Humanity, ’75–6. In ’78 he foundedLa Revue Occidentale.Lagrange(Joseph Louis), Count, eminent mathematician, b. Turin, 25 Jan. 1736. He published in 1788 hisAnalytical Mechanics, which is considered one of the masterpieces of the human intellect. He became a friend of D’Alembert, Diderot, Condorcet, and Delambre. He said he believed it impossible to prove there was a God. Died 10 April 1813.La Hontan(Jean), early French traveller in Canada, b. 1666. In his account ofDialogues with an American Savage, 1704, which was translated into English, he states objections to religion. Died in Hanover, 1715.Lainez(Alexandre), French poet, b. Chimay, Hainault, 1650, of the same family with the general of the Jesuits. He lived a wandering Bohemian life and went to Holland to see Bayle. Died at Paris 18 April, 1710.Laing(Samuel), politician and writer, b. Edinburgh 1812, the son of S. Laing of Orkney. Educated at Cambridge, where he took his degree ’32; called to the bar ’42; became secretary of the railway department of the Board of Trade; returned as Liberal M.P. for Kirkwall ’52; helped repeal duty on advertisements in newspapers. In ’60 he became finance minister for India. HisModern Science and Modern Thought, ’85, is a plain exposition of the incompatibility of the old and newview of the universe. In theModern Zoroastrian, ’87, he gives the philosophy of polarity, in which, however, he was anticipated by Mr. Crozier, who in turn was anticipated by Emerson. In ’88 he entered into a friendly correspondence with Mr. Gladstone on the subject of Agnosticism his portion of which has been published.Lakanal(Joseph), French educator, b. Serres, 14 July, 1762. Studied for priesthood, but gave up that career. He entered with ardor into the Revolution, was a member of the Convention 1792–5, and there protected the interests of science. At the restoration in 1814 he retired to America, and was welcomed by Jefferson and became president of the University ofLouisiana. He returned to France after the Revolution of ’30, and died in Paris 14 Feb. 1845.Lalande(Joseph Jèromele Francaisde), distinguished French astronomer, b. Bourg en Bresse, 11 July 1732. Educated by the Jesuits, he was made a member of the Academy of Sciences in his 20th year. In 1762 he became Professor of Astronomy at the College of France. In 1764 he published hisTreatise of Astronomy, to which Dupuis subjoined a memoir, which formed the basis of hisOrigin of all Religions, the idea of which he had taken from Lalande.In Aug 1793 Lalande hazarded his own life to save Dupont de Nemours, and some priests whom he concealed in the observatory of Mazarin college. It was upon Lalande’s observations that the Republican calender was drawn up. At Lalande’s instigation Sylvain Maréchal published hisDictionary of Atheists, to which the astronomer contributed supplements after Maréchal’s death. Lalande professed himself prouder of being an Atheist than of being an astronomer. HisBibliographie Astronomiqueis called by Prof. de Morgan “a perfect model of scientific bibliography.” It was said that never did a young man address himself to Lalande without receiving proof of his generosity. He died at Paris 4 April, 1807.Lamarck(Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine deMonet) French naturalist, b. Picardy 1 Aug. 1744, educated for the Church, but entered the army in 1761, and fought with distinction. Having been disabled, he went to Paris, studied Botany, and publishedFrench Florain 1788, which opened to him theAcademy of Sciences. He became assistant at the Museum of Natural History, and in 1809 propounded, in hisZoological Philosophy, a theory of transmutation of species. HisNatural History of Invertebrate Animals(1815–22) was justly celebrated. He became blind several years before his death, 18 Dec. 1829.Lamborelle(Louis). Belgian author of books onThe Good Old Times,Brussels, 1874;The Apostles and Martyrs of Liberty of Conscience, Antwerp, 1882, and other anti-clerical works. Lamborelle lost a post under government through his anticlerical views, and is one of the council of the Belgian Freethought party.Lamettrie(JulianOffrayde). French physician and philosopher, b. St. Malo, 25 Dec. 1709. Destined for the Church, he was educated under the Jesuits at Caen. He, however, became a physician, studying under Boerhaave, at Leyden. Returning to France, he became surgeon to the French Guard, and served at the battles of Fontenoy and Dettingen. Falling ill, he noticed that his faculties fluctuated with his physical state, and drew therefrom materialistic conclusions. The boldness with which he made his ideas known lost him his place, and he took refuge in Holland. Here he publishedThe Natural History of the Soul, under the pretence of its being a translation from the English of Charp [Sharp], 1745. This was followed byMan a Machine(1748), a work which was publicly burnt at Leyden, and orders given for the author’s arrest. It was translated into English, and reached a second edition (London, 1750). It was often attributed to D’Argens. Lamettrie held that the senses are the only avenues to knowledge, and that it is absurd to assume a god to explain motion. Only under Atheism will religious strife cease. Lamettrie found an asylum with Frederick the Great, to whom he became physician and reader (Feb. 1748). Here he publishedPhilosophical Reflections on the Origin of Animals(1750), translated Seneca on Happiness, etc. He died 11 Nov. 1751, and desired by his will to be buried in the garden of Lord Tyrconnel. The great king thought so well of him that he composed his funeral eulogy.La Mothe Le Vayer(François de). French sceptical philosopher, b. Paris, 1588, was patronised by Louis XIV., and waspreceptor to the Duke of Anjou. PublishedThe Virtue of PagansandDialogues after the Manner of the Ancients, in which he gave scope to his scepticism. Two editions of his collected works appeared, but neither of these containsThe Dialogues of Orasius Tubero(Frankfort 1606, probably a false date). Died 1672.Lancelin(Pierre F.), French materialist, b. about 1770. Became a constructive engineer in the French navy, wrote an ableIntroduction to the Analysis of Science, 3 vols. 1801–3, and a physico-mathematical theory of the organisation of worlds, 1805. Died Paris, 1809.Land(Jan Pieter Nicolaus), Dutch writer, b. Delft, 23 April, 1834. Has written critical studies on Spinoza, and brought out an edition of the philosopher’s works in conjunction with J. van Vloten.Landesmann(Heinrich). SeeLorm.Landor(Walter Savage), English poet, b. Ipsley Court, Warwickshire, 30 Jan. 1775. He was educated at Rugby and Oxford, and, inheriting a fortune, could indulge his tastes as an author. He published a volume of poems in 1795, andGebirin 1798. An ardent Republican, he served as a volunteer colonel in the Spanish Army against Napoleon from 1808 to 1814, besides devoting a considerable sum of money to the Spanish cause. He became a resident of Florence about 1816. His reputation chiefly rests on his greatImaginary Conversations, in which many bold ideas are presented in beautiful language. Landor was unquestionably the greatest English writer of his age. While nominally a Christian, he has scattered many Freethought sentiments over his various works. Died at Florence, 17 Sept. 1864.Lanessan(Jean Louis de), French naturalist, b. at Saint André de Cubzac (Gironde), 13 July, 1843. At 19 he became a naval physician, and M.D. in ’68. He was elected in ’79 as Radical member of theMunicipalCouncil of Paris, and re-elected in ’81. In August of the same year he was elected Deputy for the Department of the Seine. He foundedLe Reveil, edited theMarseillaise, and started the International Biological Library, to which he contributed a study on the doctrine of Darwin. He has written a standard work on botany, and haswritten vol. iii. of the “Materialists’ Library,” on theEvolution of Matter.Lanfrey(Pierre), French author and senator, b. Chambéry, 26 Oct. 1828, became known by a book onThe Church and the Philosophers of the Eighteenth Century, ’55, and celebrated by hisHistory of Napoleon I.’67–75. M. Lanfrey also wroteThe Political History of the Popes, a work placed on theIndex. Died at Pau, 15 Nov. 1877.Lang(Andrew), man of letters, b. Selkirk, 31 March, 1844. Educated at St. Andrews and Oxford. Mr. Lang made his name by his translation of theOdysseywith Mr. Butcher, and by his graceful poems and ballads. He has writtenIn the Wrong Paradise, and many other pleasant sketches. More serious work is shown inCustom and Myth, ’84, andMyth, Ritual and Religion, ’87. A disciple of E. B. Tylor, Mr. Lang successfully upholds the evolutionary view of mythology.Lang(Heinrich), German Rationalist, b. 14 Nov. 1826. Studied theology under Baur at Tübingen, and became teacher at Zürich, where he died, 13 Jan. 1876.Lange(Friedrich Albert), German philosopher and writer, b. Wald, near Solix, 28 Sept. 1828. He studied at Bonn, and became teacher in the gymnasium of Cologne, ’52. In ’53 he returned to Bonn as teacher of philosophy, and there enjoyed the friendship of Ueberweg. He became proprietor and editor of the democraticLandbote, and filled various municipal offices. In ’70 he was called to the chair of philosophy at Zürich, but resigned in ’72 and accepted a similar post at Marburg, where he died 21 Nov. 1875. His fame rests on his importantHistory of Materialism, which has been translated into English.Langsdorf(Karl Christian), German Deist, b. 18 May, 1757, author ofGod and Nature, a work on the immortality of the soul, and some mathematical books. Died Heidelberg, 10 June, 1834.Lankester(Edwin Ray), F.R.S., LL.D., English scientist, b. London, 15 May, 1847, and educated at St. Paul’s School and Oxford. Has published many scientific memoirs, revised the translation of Haeckel’sHistory of Creation, and has done much to forward evolutionary ideas. In 1876 he exposed thespiritist medium Slade, and procured his conviction. He is Professor of Zoology and Natural History in the University of London.La Place(Pierre Simon). One of the greatest astronomers, b. Beaumont-en-Auge, 23 March, 1749. His father was a poor peasant. Through the influence of D’Alembert, La Place became professor of mathematics in the military school, 1768. By his extraordinary abilities he became in 1785 member of the Academy of Science, which he enriched with many memoirs. In 1796 he published hisExposition of the System of the Universe, a popularisation of his greater work onCelestial Mechanics, 1799–1825. Among his sayings were, “What we know is but little, what we know not is immense.” “There is no need for the hypothesis of a God.” Died Paris, 5 March, 1827.Larevelliere-Lepaux(Louis MarieDE), French politician, b. Montaigu 25 Aug. 1753. Attached from youth to the ideas of Rousseau, he was elected with Volney to represent Angers in the national assembly. He was a moderate Republican, defended the proscribed Girondins, was doomed himself but escaped by concealment, and distinguished himself by seeking to replace Catholicism with theophilanthropy or natural religion. He wroteReflections on Worship and the National Fêtes. He became President of the Directory, and after the 18 Brumaire retired, refusing to swear fealty to the empire though offered a pension by Napoleon. Died Paris, 27 March, 1824.Larousse(Pierre Athanase), French lexicographer, b. of poor parents, 23 Oct. 1817, at Toucy, Yonne, where he became teacher. He edited many school books and founded theGrand Dictionnaire Universel du XIXe. Siecle, 1864–77. This is a collection of dictionaries, and may be called the Encyclopedie of this century. Most of M. Larousse’s colleagues were also Freethinkers. Died at Paris, 3 Jan. 1875.Larra(Mariano José de), distinguished Spanish author, b. Madrid, 4 March, 1809. He went with his family to France and completed his education. He returned to Spain in ’22. At eighteen he published a collection of poems, which was followed byEl Duende Satirico(The Satirical Goblin). In ’31appeared hisPobrecito Hablador(Poor Gossip), a paper in which he unmercifully satirised the public affairs and men of Spain. It was suppressed after its fourteenth number. He edited in the following year theRevistaEspañola, signing his articles “Figaro.” He travelled through Europe, and on his return to Madrid editedEl Mundo. Larra wrote also some dramas and translated Lamennais’Paroles d’un Croyant. Being disappointed in love he shot himself, 13 April, 1837. Ch. de Mazade, after speaking of Larra’s scepticism, adds, “Larra could see too deep to possess any faith whatever. All the truths of this world, he was wont to say, can be wrapped in a cigarette paper!”Larroque(Patrice), French philosopher, b. Beaume, 27 March, 1801. He became a teacher and was inspector of the academy of Toulouse, 1830–36, and rector of the academies of Cahors, Limoges, and Lyons, 1836–49. In the latter year he was denounced for his opposition to clerical ideas and lost his place. Among his numerous works we mentionDe l’Esclavage chez les Nations Chrétiennes, ’57, in which he proves that Christianity did not abolish slavery. This was followed by anCriticalExaminationof the Christian Religion, ’59, and a work onReligious Renovation, ’59, which proposes a moral system founded upon pure deism. Both were for a while prohibited in France. M. Larroque also wrote onReligion and Politics, ’78. Died at Paris, 15 June, 1879.Lassalle(Ferdinand Johann Gottlieb), founder of German Social Democratic party, b. of Jewish parents, 11 April, 1825, in Breslau, studied philosophy and law at Breslau and Berlin. He became a follower of Hegel and Feuerbach. Heine, at Paris, ’46, was charmed with him. Humboldt called him “Wunderkind.” In 1858 he published a profound work on the philosophy of Heraclitus. For planning an insurrection against the Prussian Government he was arrested, but won his acquittal. Died through a duel, 31 Aug. 1864.Lastarria(José Victorino), Chilian statesman and Positivist, b. Rancagua, 1812. From youth he applied himself to teaching and journalism, and in ’38 was appointed teacher of civil law and literature in the National Institute. He has founded several journals and literary societies. From ’43 he has beenat different times deputy to the legislature and secretary to the republic of Chili. He has also served as minister to Peru and Brazil. In ’73 he founded the Santiago Academy of Science and Literature; has written many works, and hisLecciones de Politicia Positivahas been translated into French by E. de Rivière and others, 1879.Lau(Theodor Ludwig), German philosopher, b. at Königsberg, 15 June 1670, studied at Königsberg and Halle, and about 1695 travelled through Holland, England, and France. In 1717 he published in Latin, at Frankfort,Philosophical Meditations on God, the World, and Man, which excited an outcry for its materialistic tendency and wassuppressed. He was a follower of Spinoza, and held several official positions from which he was deposed on account of his presumed atheism. Died at Altona, 8 Feb. 1740.Laurent(François), Belgian jurisconsult, b. Luxembourg, 8 July, 1810. Studied law and became an advocate. In ’35 he was made Professor of Civil Law in the University of Ghent, a post he held, despite clerical protests, till his retirement in ’80. A voluminous author on civil and international law, his principal work is entitledStudies in the History of Humanity. He was a strong advocate of the separation of Church and State, upon which he wrote, 1858–60. He also wroteLetters on the Jesuits, ’65. Died in 1887.Law(Harriet), English lecturess, who for many years occupied the secular platform, and engaged in numerous debates. She edited theSecular Chronicle, 1876–1879.Lawrence(James), Knight of Malta, b. Fairfield, Jamaica, 1773, of good Lancashire family. Educated at Eton and Gottingen; became acquainted with Schiller and Goethe at Stuttgart and Weimar, was detained with English prisoners at Verdun. In 1807 he published hisThe Empire of the Nairs, or the Rights of Women, a free-love romance which he wrote in German, French, and English. He also wrote in French and English, a curious bookletThe Children of God, London, 1853. He addressed a poem on Tolerance to Mr. Owen, on the occasion of his denouncing the religions of the world. It appears inThe Etonian Out of Bounds. Died at London 26 Sept. 1841.Lawrence(Sir William), surgeon, b. Cirencester, 1783. Admitted M.R.C.S., 1805, in ’13 he was chosen, F.R.S., and two years later was named Professor of Anatomy and Surgery at the Royal College of Surgeons. While he held that chair he delivered hisLectures on Man, which on their publication in 1819 roused a storm of bigotry. In his early manhood, Lawrence was an earnest advocate of radical reform; but notwithstanding his early unpopularity, he acquired a lucrative practice. Died London, 5 July, 1867.

Hollick(Dr. Frederick), Socialist, b. Birmingham, 22 Dec. 1813. He was educated at the Mechanics’ Institute of that town, and became one of the Socialist lecturers under Robert Owen. He held a public discussion with J. Brindley at Liverpool, in 1840, on “What is Christianity?” On the failure of Owenism he went to America, where some of his works popularising medical science have had a large circulation.Hollis(John), English sceptic, b. 1757. Author ofSober and Serious Reasons for Scepticism, 1796;An Apology for Disbelief in Revealed Religion, 1799; andFree Thoughts, 1812. Died at High Wycombe, Bucks 26 Nov. 1824. Hollis, who came of anopulentdissenting family, was distinguished by his love of truth, his zeal in the cause of freedom, and by his beneficence.Holmes(William Vamplew), one of Carlile’s brave shopmen who came up from Leeds to uphold the right of free publication. He was sentenced to two years’ imprisonment, 1 March, ’22, for selling blasphemous and seditious libels inAn Address to the Reformers of Great Britain, and when in prison was told that “if hard labor was not expressed in his sentence, it was implied.” On his release Holmes went to Sheffield and commenced the open sale of all the prohibited publications.Holwell(John Zephaniah), noted as one of the survivors of the Black Hole of Calcutta, b. Dublin, 7 Sept. 1711. He practised as a surgeon, went to India as a clerk, defended a fort at Calcutta against Surajah Dowlah, was imprisoned with one hundred and forty-five others in the “Black Hole,” 20th June, 1756, of which he published aNarrative. He succeeded Clive as governor of Bengal. On returning to England he published a dissertation directed against belief in a special providence, and advocating the application of church endowments to the exigencies of the State (Bath, 1786). Died 5 Nov. 1798.Holyoake(Austin), English Freethinker, b. Birmingham, 27 Oct. 1826. His mental emancipation came from hearing the lectures of Robert Owen and his disciples. He took part in the agitation for the abolition of the newspaper stamp—assisting when risk and danger had to be met—and he co-operated with his brother in the production of theReasonerand other publications from ’45 till ’62. Soon after this he printed and sub-edited theNational Reformer, in which many of his Freethought articles appeared. Among his pamphlets may be mentionedHeaven and Hell,Ludicrous Aspects of Christianity,Thoughts on Atheism, theBook of Esther, andDaniel the Dreamer. He also composed a Secular Burial Service. Austin Holyoake took pride in the character of Freethought, and was ever zealous in promoting its welfare. His amiable spirit endearedhim to all who knew him. He died 10 April, 1874, leaving behind thoughts written on his deathbed, in which he repudiated all belief in theology.Holyoake(George Jacob), b. Birmingham, 13 April 1817. Became mathematical teacher of the Mechanics’ Institution. Influenced by Combe and Owen he became a Freethinker, and in ’40 a Socialist missionary. In ’42, when Southwell was imprisoned for writing in theOracle of Reason, Mr. Holyoake took charge of that journal, and wroteThe Spirit of Bonner in the Disciples of Jesus. He was soon arrested for a speech at Cheltenham, having said, in answer to a question, that he would put the Deity on half-pay. Tried Aug. ’42, he was sentenced to six months imprisonment, of which he gave a full account in hisLast Trial by Jury for Atheism in England. In Dec. ’43 he edited with M. Q. Ryall theMovement, bearing the motto from Bentham, “Maximise morals, minimise religion.” The same policy was pursued inThe Reasoner, which he edited from 1846 till 1861. Among his many pamphlets we must notice theLogic of Death, ’50, which went through numerous editions, and was included in his most important Freethought work,The Trial of Theism. In ’49 he published a brief memoir of R. Carlile. In ’51 he first used the term “Secularist,” and in Oct. ’52 the first Secular Conference was held at Manchester Mr. Holyoake presiding. In Jan. ’53 he held a six nights discussion with the Rev. Brewin Grant, and again in Oct. ’54. He purchased the business of James Watson, and issued many Freethought works, notablyThe Library of Reason—a series,The Cabinet of Reason, his ownSecularism,The Philosophy of the People, etc. In ’60 he was Secretary to the British Legion sent out to Garibaldi. Mr. Holyoake did much to remove the taxes upon knowledge, and has devoted much attention to Co-operation, having written a history of the movement and contributed to most of its journals.Home(Henry), Scottish judge, was b. 1696. His legal ability was made known by his publication ofRemarkable Decisions of the Court of Session, 1728. In 1752 he was raised to the bench as Lord Kames. He publishedEssays on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion(1751),Elements of Criticism(1762), andSketches of the History of Man, inwhich he proved himself in advance of his age. Died 27 Dec. 1782.Hon, Le (Henri). SeeLe Hon.Hooker(Sir Joseph Dalton), English naturalist, b. 1817. He studied medicine at Glasgow, graduating M.D ’39. In ’55 he became assistant-director of Kew Gardens, and from ’65–85 sole director. Renowned as a botanist, he was the first eminent man of science to proclaim his adoption of Darwinism.Hope(Thomas), novelist and antiquarian, b. 1770. Famous for his anonymousAnastasius, or Memories of a Modern Greek, he also wrote an original work onThe Origin and Prospects of Man’31. Died at London 3 Feb. 1831.Houten(Samuel van), Dutch Freethinker, b. Groningen. 17 Feb. 1837; he studied law and became a lawyer in that city. In ’69 he was chosen member of the Dutch Parliament. Has published many writings on political economy. In ’88 he wrote a book entitledDasCausalitätgesetz(The Law of Causality).Houston(George). Was the translator of d’Holbach’sEcce Homo, first published in Edinburgh in 1799, and sometimes ascribed to Joseph Webb. A second edition was issued in 1813. Houston was prosecuted and was imprisoned two years in Newgate, with a fine of £200. He afterwards went to New York, where he edited theMinerva(1822). In Jan. 1827, he startedThe Correspondence, which, we believe, was the first weekly Freethought journal published in America. It lasted till July 1828. He also republishedEcce Homo. Houston helped to establish in America a “Free Press Association” and a Society of Free Inquirers.Hovelacque(Abel), French scientist, b. Paris 14 Nov. 1843. He studied law and made part of the groupe ofla Pensée Nouvelle, with Asseline, Letourneau, Lefevre, etc. He also studied anthropology under Broca and published many articles in theRevue d’Anthropologie. He founded with Letourneau, Thulié, Asseline, etc. The “Bibliothèque des sciences contemporains” and published thereinLa Linguistique. He also founded with the same the library of anthropological science and published in collaboration with G. Hervé aprècisof Anthropology and a study of theNegroes of Africa. He has also contributedto the Dictionary of Anthropology. For the “Bibliothèque Materialiste” he wrote a work on Primitive man. He has also published choice extracts from the works of Voltaire, Diderot and Rousseau, a grammar of the Zend language, and a work on theAvesta Zoroaster and Mazdaism. In ’78 he was made a member of the municipal council of Paris, and in ’81 was elected deputy to the chamber where he sits with the autonomist socialist group.Howdon(John), author ofA Rational Investigation of the Principles of Natural Philosophy, Physical and Moral, printed at Haddington, 1840, in which he attacks belief in the Bible.Huber(Marie), Swiss Deist, b. of Protestant parents, Geneva, 1694. In a work on theSystem of Theologians, 1731, she opposed the dogma of eternal punishment. In ’38 publishedLetters on the Religion essential to Man. This was translated into English in the same year. Other works show English reading. She translated selections from theSpectator. Died at Lyons, 13 June, 1753.Hudail(Abul). See Muhammad ibn Hudail (Al Allaf.)Huet(Coenraad Busken), Dutch writer, b. the Hague, 28 Dec. 1826. He became minister of the Walloon Church at Haarlem, but through his Freethought left the church in ’63, and became editor of various newspapers, afterwards living in Paris. He wrote many works of literary value, and publishedLetters on the Bible, ’57, etc. Died 1887.Hugo(Victor Marie), French poet and novelist, b. Besançon, 26 Feb. 1802. Was first noted for hisOdes, published in ’21. His dramas “Hernani,” ’30, and “Marion Delorme,” ’31, were highly successful. He was admitted into the French Academy in ’41, and made a peer in ’45. He gave his cordial adhesion to the Republic of ’48, and was elected to the Assembly by the voters of Paris. He attacked Louis Napoleon, and after thecoup d’étatwas proscribed. He first went to Brussels, where he publishedNapoleon the Little, a biting satire. He afterwards settled at Guernsey, where he remained until the fall of the Empire, producingThe Legend of the Ages, ’59,Les Miserables, ’62,Toilers of the Sea, ’69, and other works. After his return to Paris he produced a new series of theLegend of the Ages,The Pope,Religions and Religion,Torquemada, and other poems.He died 22 May, 1885, and it being decided he should have a national funeral, the Pantheon was secularised for that purpose, the cross being removed. Since his death a poem entitledThe End of Satanhas been published.Hugues(Clovis), French Socialist, poet, and deputy, b. Menerbes, 3 Nov. 1850. In youth he desired to become a priest, but under the influence of Hugo left the black business. In ’71 he became head of the Communist movement at Marseilles. He was sentenced to three years’ imprisonment. In ’81 he was elected deputy, and sits on the extreme left.Humboldt(Friedrich Heinrich Alexander von), illustrious German naturalist and traveller, b. Berlin, 14 Sept. 1769. He studied under Heyne and Blumenbach, travelled in Holland, France and England with George Forster, the naturalist, and became director-general of mines. In 1799 he set out to explore South America and Mexico, and in 1804 returned witharich collection of animals, plants and minerals. Humboldt became a resident of Paris, where he enjoyed the friendship of Lalande, Delambre, Arago, and all the living distinguished French scientists. After numerous important contributions to scientific knowledge, at the age of seventy-four he composed his celebratedCosmos, the first volume of which appeared in ’45 and the fourth in ’58. ToVarnhagen von Ensehe wrote in 1841: “Bruno Bauer has found me pre-adamatically converted. Many years ago I wrote, ‘Toutes les réligions positives offrent trois parties distinctes; un traité de mœurs partout le même et très pur, un rève géologique, et un mythe ou petit roman historique; le dernier élément obtient le plus d’importance.’” Later on he says that Strauss disposes of “the Christian myths.” Humboldt was an unwearied student of science, paying no attention to religion, and opposed his brother in regard to his essayOn the Province of the Historian, because he considered it to acknowledge the belief in the divine government of the world, which seemed to him as complete a delusion as the hypothesis of a principle of life. He died in Berlin, 6 May, 1859, in his ninetieth year.Humboldt(Karl Wilhelm von), Prussian statesman and philosopher, b. Potsdam, 22 June,1767. He was educated by Campe. Went to Paris in 1789, and hailed the revolution withenthusiasm. In ’92 he publishedIdeas on the Organization of the State. He became a friend of Schiller and Goethe, and in 1809 was Minister of Public Instruction. He took part in founding the University of Berlin. He represented Prussia at the Congress of Vienna,’14. He advocated a liberal constitution, but finding the King averse, retired at the end of ’19, and devoted himself to the study of comparative philology. He said there were three things he could not comprehend—orthodox piety, romantic love, and music. He died 8 April, 1835. His works were collected and edited by his brother.Hume(David), philosopher and historian, b. Edinburgh, 26 April, 1711. In 1735 he went to France to study, and there wrote hisTreatise on Human Nature, published in 1739. This work then excited no interest friendly or hostile. Hume’sEssays Moral and Politicalappeared in 1742, and in 1752 hisInquiry Concerning the Principles of Moralswhich of all his writings he considered the best. In 1755 he published hisNatural History of Religion, which was furiously attacked by Warburton in an anonymous tract. In 1754 he published the first volume of hisHistory of England, which he did not complete till 1761. He became secretary to the Earl of Hertford, ambassador at Paris, where he was cordially welcomed by the philosophers. He returned in 1766, bringing Rousseau with him. Hume became Under Secretary of State in 1767, and in 1769 retired to Edinburgh, where he died 25 Aug. 1776. After his death hisDialogues on Natural Religionwere published, and also some unpublished essays on Suicide, the Immortality of the Soul, etc. Hume’s last days were singularly cheerful. His friend, the famous Dr. Adam Smith, considered him “as approaching as nearly to the idea of a perfectly wise and virtuous man as perhaps the nature of human frailty will permit.”Hunt(James), Ph.D., physiologist, b. 1833, was the founder of the Anthropological Society, of which he was the first president, ’63. He was the author of theNegro’s Place in Nature, a work on Stammering, etc. Died 28 Aug. 1869.Hunt(James Henry Leigh), poet, essayist and critic, b. Southgate, Middlesex, 19 Oct. 1784. was educated with Lamb and Coleridge at Christ’s Hospital, London. He joined hisbrother John in editing first theSunday News, 1805, and then theExaminer, 1808. They were condemned to pay a fine, each of £500, and to be imprisoned for two years, 1812–14, for a satirical article, in which the prince regent was called an “Adonis of fifty.” This imprisonment procured him the friendship of Shelley and Byron, with whom, after editing theIndicatorhe was associated in editing theLiberal. He wrote many choice books of poems and criticisms, and in hisReligion of the Heart, ’53, repudiates orthodoxy. Died 28 Aug. 1859.Hutten(Ulrich von), German poet and reformer, b. of noble family Steckelberg, Hesse Cassel, 22 April 1488. He was sent to Fulda to become a monk, but fled in 1504 to Erfurt, where he studiedhumaniora. After some wild adventures he went to Wittenberg in 1510, and Vienna 1512, and also studied at Pavia and Bologna. He returned to Germany in 1517 as a common soldier in the army of Maximilian. His great object was to free his country from sacerdotalism, and most of his writings are satires against the Pope, monks and clergy. Persecution drove him to Switzerland, but the Council of Zurich drovehimout of their territory and he died on the isle of Ufnau, Lake Zürich, 29 Aug. 1523.Hutton(James), Scotch geologist and philosopher, b. at Edinburgh 3 June, 1736. He graduated as M.D. at Leyden in 1749, and investigated the strata of the north of Scotland. He published a dissertation onLight, Heat, and Fire, and in hisTheory of the World, 1795, attributes geological phenomena to the action of fire. He also wrote a work entitledAn Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge, the opinions of which, says Chalmers, “abound in sceptical boldness and philosophical infidelity.” Died 26 March 1797.Huxley(Thomas Henry), LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., b. Ealing, 4 May, 1825. He studied medicine, and in ’46 took M.R.C.S., and was appointed assistant naval surgeon. His cruises afforded opportunities for his studies of natural history. In ’51 he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society, and in ’54 was made Professor at the School of Mines. In ’60 he lectured on “The Relation of Man to the Lower Animals,” and afterwards publishedEvidence as to Man’s Place in Nature(1863). In addition to numerous scientific works, Professor Huxley haswritten numerous forcible articles, addresses, etc., collected inLay Sermons, ’70;Critiques and Addresses, ’73; andAmerican Addresses, ’79. A vigorous writer, hisHumein the “English Men of Letters” series is a model of clear exposition. In his controversies with Mr. Gladstone, in his articles on theEvolution of Theology, and in his recent polemic with the Rev. Mr. Wace in theNineteenth Century, Professor Huxley shows all his freshness, and proves himself as ready in demolishing theological fictions as in demonstrating scientific facts. He states as his own life aims “The popularising of science and untiring opposition to that ecclesiastical spirit, that clericalism, which in England, as everywhere else, and to whatever denomination it may belong, is the deadly enemy of science.”Hypatia, Pagan philosopher and martyr, b. Alexandria early in the second half of the fourth century. She became a distinguished lecturer and head of the Neo-Platonic school (c. 400). The charms of her eloquence brought many disciples. By a Christian mob, incited by St. Cyril, she was in Lent 415 torn from her chariot, stripped naked, cut with oyster-shells and finally burnt piecemeal. This true story of Christian persecution has been disguised into a legend related of St. Catherine in the Roman breviary (Nov. 25).IbnBajjat. SeeAvenpace.IbnMassara. SeeMassarain Supplement.IbnRushd. SeeAverroes.IbnSabîn. SeeSabin.IbnSina. SeeAvicenna.IbnTofail. SeeAbu Bakr.Ibsen(Henrik), an eminent Norwegian dramatist and poet, b. Skien, 20 March, 1828. At first he studied medicine, but he turned his attention to literature. In ’52, through the influence of Ole Bull, he became director of the theatre at Bergen, for which he wrote a great deal. From ’57 to ’63 he directed the theatre at Christiania. In the following year he went to Rome. The Storthing accorded him an annual pension for his services to literature. His dramas,Brand, (PeerGynt),Kejser og Galilær(Cæsar [Julian] and the Galilean),Nora, andSamfundets Stotler(the Pillars of Society), andGhostsexhibithis unconventional spirit. Ibsen is an open unbeliever in Christianity. He looks forward to social regeneration through liberty, individuality, and education without superstition.Ilive(Jacob), English printer and letter founder, b. Bristol about 1710. He published a pretended translation of the Book of Jasher, 1751, and some other curious works. He was prosecuted for blasphemy inSome Modest Remarks on the late Bishop Sherlock’s Sermons, and sentenced to two years’ imprisonment, 15 June, 1756–10 June, 1758. He was confined in the Clerkenwell House of Correction and published some pamphlets exposing the bad condition of the prison and suggesting means for its improvement. He died in 1768.Imray(I. W.), author, b. 1802. Wrote in Carlile’sRepublicanandLion, and published “Altamont,” an atheistic drama, in 1828.Ingersoll(Robert Green), American orator, b. Dresden, New York, 11 Aug. 1833. His father was a Congregationalist clergyman. He studied law, and opened an office in Shawneetown, Illinois. In ’62 he became colonel of the 11th Illinois Cavalry, and served in the war, being taken prisoner. In ’66 he was appointed attorney-general for Illinois. At the National Republican Convention, ’76, he proposed Blaine for President in a speech that attracted much attention. In ’77 he refused the post of Minister to Germany. He has conducted many important cases, and defended C. B. Reynolds when tried for blasphemy in ’86. Col. Ingersoll is the most popular speaker in America. Eloquence, humor, and pathos are alike at his command. He is well known by his books, pamphlets, and speeches directed against Christianity. He had published theGods,Ghosts,Some Mistakes of Moses, and a collection of his Lectures, ’83, andProse Poems and Extracts, ’84. Most of his lectures have been republished in England. We mentionWhat must I do to be Saved?Hell,The Dying Creed,Myth and Miracle,Do I Blaspheme?Real Blasphemy. In the pages of theNorth American ReviewCol. Ingersoll has defended Freethought against Judge Black, the Rev. H. Field, Mr. Gladstone, and Cardinal Manning.Inman(Thomas), B.A., physician and archæologist, b. 1820. Educated at London University, he settled at Liverpool, beingconnected with the well-known shipping family of that port. He is chiefly known by his work onAncient Faiths Embodied in Ancient Names, in which he deals with the evidences of phallic worship amongst Jews and other nations. It was first published in ’69. A second edition appeared in ’73. He also wroteAncient Pagan and Modern Christian Symbolism Exposed and Explained, ’69, and a controversial Freethought work, entitledAncient Faiths and Modern, published at New York ’76. Dr. Inman was for some time President of the Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society, and was physician to the Royal Infirmary of that city. His professional life was one of untiring industry. He wrote several medical works, including two volumes on thePreservationand Restoration of Health. Died at Clifton, 3 May. 1876.Iron(Ralph), pseudonym of Olive Schreiner,q.v.Isnard(Felix), French physician, b. Grasse 1829. Author of a work onSpiritualism and Materialism, 1879.Isnard(Maximin), Girondin revolutionist, b. Grasse 16 Feb. 1751. He was made a member of the Assembly, in which he declared, “The Law, behold my God. I know no other.” He voted for the death of the King, and was nominated president of the Convention. On the fall of the Girondins he made his escape, and reappeared after the fall of Robespierre. In 1796 he was one of the Council ofFiveHundred. Died 1830.Isoard(Eric Michel Antoine), French writer, b. Paris, 1826. Was naval officer in ’48 but arrested as socialist in ’49. In ’70 he was made sous-prefet of Cambrai and wroteGuerre aux Jésuites.Isoard Delisle(Jean Baptiste Claude), called also Delisle de Sales, French man of letters, b. Lyons 1743. When young he entered the Congregation of the Oratory, but left theology for literature. In 1769 he published thePhilosophy of Nature, which in 1771 was discovered to be irreligious, and he was condemned to perpetual banishment. While in prison he was visited by many of the philosophers, and a subscription was opened for him, to which Voltaire gave five hundred francs. He went to the court of Frederick the Great, and subsequently published many works of little importance. Died at Paris 22 Sept. 1816.Jacob(Andre Alexandre). SeeErdan (A.)Jacobson(Augustus), American, author ofWhy I do not Believe, Chicago 1881, andThe Bible Inquirer.“Jacobus(Dom)” Pseudonym ofPotvin(Charles)q.v.Jacoby(Leopold) German author ofThe Idea of Development. 2 vols. Berlin 1874–76.Jacolliot(Louis), French orientalist, b. Saint Etienne, 1806. Brought up to the law, in ’43 he was made judge at Pondichery. He first aroused attention by his work,The Bible in India, ’70. He also has written onGenesis of Humanity, ’76.The Religions Legislators,Moses,Manu and Muhammad, ’80, andThe Natural and Social History of Humanity, ’84, and several works of travel.Jantet(Charles and Hector), two doctors of Lyons,b. the first in 1826, the second in ’28, have published together ableAperçus Philosophiqueson Rènan’s Life of Jesus, ’64, andDoctrine Medicale Matérialiste, 1866.Jaucourt(Louis de), Chevalier, French scholar and member of the Royal Society of London and of the academies of Berlin and Stockholm, b. Paris 27 Sept. 1704. He studied at Geneva, Cambridge, and Leyden, furnished theEncyclopédiewith many articles, and conducted theBibliothèque Raisonnée. Died at Compiègne, 3 Feb. 1779.Jefferies(Richard), English writer, b. 1848, famous for his descriptions of nature inThe Gamekeeper at Home,Wild Life in a Southern Country, etc. In his autobiographicalStory of My Heart(1883) Mr. Jefferies shows himself a thorough Freethinker. Died Goring-on-Thames, 14 Aug. 1887.Jefferson(Thomas), American statesman, b. Shadwell, Virginia, 2 April 1743. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1767. He became a member of the House of Burgesses, 1769–75. In 1774 he published hisSummary Views of the Rights of British-Americans. He drafted and reported to Congress the “Declaration of Independence” which was unanimously adopted, 4 July 1766. He was Governor of Virginia from 1719 to 1781, and originated a system of education in the State. He was Ambassador to Paris from 1785–89, secretary of state from 1789–93, vice-president 1791–1801 and third president of the United States 1801–9. In ’19 hefounded the University of Virginia, of which he was rector till his death, 4 July 1826. Dr. J. Thomas in hisDictionary of Biographysays “In religion he was what is denominated a freethinker.” He spoke in old age of “the hocus-pocusphantomof God, which like another Cerberus had one body and three heads.” See his life by J. Parton.Johnson(Richard Mentor), Colonel, American soldier and statesman, b. Bryant’s Station, Kentucky, 17 Oct. 1781. Was educated at Lexington, studied law, and practiced with success. Became member of the Kentucky Legislature in 1805, and raised a regiment of cavalry ’12. Fought with distinction against British and Indians. Was member of Congress from 1807–19, and from ’29–37; a United States Senator from ’19–29, and Vice-President of the United States, ’37–40. Is remembered by his report against the suspension of Sunday mails and his speeches in favor of rights of conscience. Died at Frankfort, Kentucky, 19 Nov. 1850.Johnson(Samuel), American author, b. Salem, Massachusetts, 10 Oct. 1822. He was educated at Harvard, and became pastor of a “Free Church” at Lynn in ’53. He never attached himself to any denomination, although in some points his views were like those of the Unitarians and Universalists. About ’46 he published, in conjunction with S. Longfellow, brother of the poet,Hymns of the Spirit,Oriental Religions in relation to Universal Religion, of which the volume on India appeared in ’72, China ’77, and Persia ’84. Died Andover, 19 Feb. 1882.Jones(Ernest Charles), barrister and political orator, b. Berlin, 25 Jan. 1819. His father was in the service of the King of Hanover, who became his godfather. Called to the bar in ’44 in the following year he joined the Chartist movement, editing thePeople’s Paper,Notes to the People, and other Chartist periodicals. In ’48 he was tried for making a seditious speech, and condemned to two years’ imprisonment, during which he wroteBeldagon Churchand other poems. He stood for Halifax in ’47, and Nottingham in ’53 and ’57, without success. He was much esteemed by the working classes in Manchester, where he died 26 Jan. 1869.Jones(John Gale), Political orator, b. 1771. At the time of the French Revolution he became a leading member of theLondon Corresponding Society. Arrested at Birmingham for sedition, he obtained a verdict of acquittal. He was subsequently committed to Newgate in Feb. 1810, for impugning the proceedings of the House of Commons, and there remained till his liberation was effected by the prorogation of Parliament, June 21. On 26 Dec. ’11 he was again convicted for “a seditious and blasphemous libel.” He was a resolute advocate of the rights of free publication during the trials of Carlile and his shopmen. Died Somers Town, 4 April, 1838.Jones(Lloyd), Socialist, b. of Catholic parents at Brandon, co. Cork, Ireland, in March, 1811. In ’27 he came over to Manchester, and in ’32 joined the followers of Robert Owen. He became “a social missionary,” and had numerous debates with ministers, notably one on “The Influence of Christianity” with J. Barker, then a Methodist, at Manchester, in ’39. Lloyd Jones was an active supporter of co-operation and trades-unionism, and frequently acted as arbitrator in disputes between masters and men. He contributed to theNew Moral World,Spirit of the Age,Glasgow Sentinel,Leeds Express,North British Daily Mail,Newcastle Chronicle, andCo-operative News. Died at Stockwell, 22 May, 1886, leaving behind aLife of Robert Owen.Joseph II., Emperor of Germany, son of Francis I. and Maria Theresa, b. Vienna 13 March 1741. In 1764 he was elected king of the Romans, and in the following year succeeded to the throne of Germany. He wrought many reforms, suppressed the Jesuits 1773, travelled in France as Count Falkenstein, saw d’Alembert but did not visit Voltaire. He abolished serfdom, allowed liberty of conscience, suppressed several convents, regulated others, abridged the power of the pope and the clergy, and mitigated the condition of the Jews. Carlyle says “a mighty reformer he had been, the greatest of his day. Austria gazed on him, its admiration not unmixed with terror. He rushed incessantly about, hardy as a Charles Twelfth; slept on his bearskin on the floor of any inn or hut;—flew at the throat of every absurdity, however broad and based or dangerously armed. ‘Disappear I say.’ A most prompt, severe, and yet beneficent and charitable kind of man. Immensely ambitious, that must be said withal. A great admirer of Friedrich; bentto imitate him with profit. ‘Very clever indeed’ says Friedrich, ‘but has the fault(a terribly grave one!) of generally taking the second step without having taken the first.’” Died Vienna 20 Feb. 1790.Jouy(Victor JosephEtienne de), French author b. Jouy near Versailles 1764. He served as soldier in India and afterwards in the wars of the Republic. A disciple of Voltaire to whom he erected a temple, he was a prolific writer, his plays being much esteemed in his own day. Died 4 Sept. 1846.Julianus(Flavius Claudius), Roman Emperor, b. Constantinople 17 Nov. 331. In the massacre of his family by the sons of Constantine he escaped. He was educated in the tenets of Christianity but returned to an eclectic Paganism. In 354 he was declared Cæsar. He made successful campaigns against the Germans who had overrun Gaul and in 361 was made Emperor. He proclaimed liberty of conscience and sought to uproot the Christian superstition by his writings, of which only fragments remain. As Emperor he exhibited great talent,tact, industry, and skill. He was one of the most gifted and learned of the Roman Emperors, and his short reign (Dec. 361—26 June, 363), comprehended the plans of a life-long administration. He died while seeking to repel a Persian invasion, and his death was followed by the triumph of Christianity and the long night of the dark ages.Junghuhn(Franz Wilhelm), traveller and naturalist, b. Mansfeld, Prussia 29 Oct 1812. His father was a barber and surgeon. Franz studied at Halle and Berlin. He distinguished himself by love for botany and geology. In a duel with another student he killed him and was sentenced to imprisonment at Ehrenbreitster for 20 years. There he simulated madness and was removed to the asylum at Coblentz, whence he escaped to Algiers. In ’34 he joined the Dutch Army in the Malay Archipelago. He travelled through the island of Java making a botanical and geological survey. In ’54 he published hisLicht enSchaduwbeeldenuit de binnenlanden van Java(Light and Shadow pictures from the interior of Java), which contains his ideas of God, religion and science, together with sketches of nature and of the manners of the inhabitants. This book aroused much indignation from the pious, but also much agreement amongfreethinkers, and led to the establishment ofDe Dageraad(The Daybreak,) the organ of the Dutch Freethinkers Union. Junghuhn afterwards returned to Java and died 21 April, ’64 at Lemberg, Preanges, Regentsch. HisLight and Shadow pictureshave been several times reprinted.Kalisch(Moritz Marcus), Ph.D., b. of Jewish parents in Pomerania, 16 May, 1828. Educated at the University of Berlin, where he studied under Vatke and others. Early in ’49 he came to England as a political refugee, and found employment as tutor to the Rothschild family. His criticalCommentary on the Pentateuchcommenced with a volume on Exodus, ’55, Genesis ’58, Leviticus in two vols. in ’67 and ’72 respectively. His rational criticism anticipated the school of Wellhausen. He publishedBible Studieson Balaam and Jonah ’77, and discussions on philosophy and religion in a very able and learned work entitledPath and Goal,’80. Kalisch also contributed to Scott’s series of Freethought tracts. Died at Baslow, Derbyshire, 23 Aug. 1885.Kames(Lord). SeeHome (Henry).Kant(Immanuel), German critical philosopher, b. Königsberg, 22 April, 1724. He became professor of mathematics in 1770. In 1781 he published his great work,The Critick of Pure Reason, which denied all knowledge of the “Thing itself,” and overthrew the dogmatism of earlier metaphysics. In 1792 the philosopher fell under the royal censorship for hisReligion within the Limits of Pure Reason. Kant effected a complete revolution in philosophy, and his immediate influence is not yet exhausted. Died at Königsberg, 12 Feb. 1804.Kapila.One of the earliest Hindu thinkers. His system is known as the Atheistic philosophy. It is expounded in the Sankhya Karika, an important relic of bold rationalistic Indian thought. His aphorisms have been translated by J. R. Ballantyne.Karneades.SeeCarneades.Keeler(Bronson C.) American author of an ableShort History of the Bible, being a popular account of the formation and development of the canon, published at Chicago 1881.Keim(Karl Theodor), German rationalist, b. Stuttgart, 17 Dec. 1825. Was educated at Tübingen, and became professorof theology at Zürich. Is chiefly known by hisHistory of Jesus of Nazara(’67–’72). He also wrote a striking work onPrimitive Christianity(’78), and endeavored to reproduce the lost work of Celsus. His rationalism hindered his promotion, and he was an invalid most of his days. Died at Giessen, where he was professor, 17 Nov. 1878.Keith(George), Lord Marshall, Scotch soldier, b. Kincardine 1685, was appointed by Queen Anne captain of Guard. His property being confiscated for aiding the Pretender, he went to the Continent, and like his brother, was in high favor with Frederick the Great. Died Berlin, 25 May, 1778.Keith(James Francis Edward), eminent military commander, b. Inverugie, Scotland, 11 June, 1696. Joined the army of the Pretender and was wounded at Sheriffmuir, 1715. He afterwards served with distinction in Spain and in Russia, where he rose to high favor under the Empress Elizabeth. In1747he took service with Frederick the Great as field-marshal, and became Governor of Berlin. Carlyle calls him “a very clear-eyed, sound observer of men and things. Frederick, the more he knows him, likes him the better.” From their correspondence it is evident Keith shared the sceptical opinions of Frederick. After brilliant exploits in the seven years’ war at Prague, Rossbach, and Olmutz, Marshal Keith fell in the battle of Hochkirch, 14 Oct. 1758.Kenrick(William), LL.D., English author, b. near Watford, Herts, about 1720. In 1751 he published, at Dublin, under the pen-name of Ontologos, an essay to prove that the soul is not immortal. His first poetic production was a volume ofEpistles, Philosophical and Moral(1759), addressed to Lorenzo; an avowed defence of scepticism. In 1775 he commenced theLondon Review, and the following year attacked Soame Jenyns’s work on Christianity. He translated some of the works of Buffon, Rousseau, and Voltaire. Died 10 June 1779.Kerr(Michael Crawford) American statesman, b. Titusville, Western Pennsylvania,15 March1827. He was member of the Indiana Legislature ’56, and elected to Congress in ’74 and endeavoured to revise the tariff in the direction of free-trade. Died Rockbridge, Virginia, 19 Aug. 1876, a confirmed Freethinker and Materialist.Ket,Kett, orKnight(Francis), of Norfolk, a relative of the rebellious tanner. He was of Windham and was an M.A. He was prosecuted for heresy and burnt in the castle ditch, Norwich, 14 Jan. 1588. Stowe says he was burnt for “divers detestable opinions against Christ our Saviour.”Khayyam(Omar) orUmar Khaiyam, Persian astronomer, poet, b. Naishapur Khorassan, in the second half of the eleventh century, and was distinguished by his reformation of the calendar as well as by his verses (Rubiyat), which E. Fitzgerald has so finely rendered in English. He alarmed his contemporaries and made himself obnoxious to the Sufis. Died about 1123. Omar laughed at the prophets and priests, and told men to be happy instead of worrying themselves about God and the Hereafter. He makes his soul say, “I myself am Heaven and Hell.”Kielland(Alexander Lange), Norwegian novelist, b.Stavanger, 18 Feb. 1849. He studied law at Christiania, but never practised. His stories,Workpeople,Skipper Worse,Poison, andSnowexhibit his bold opinions.Kleanthes.See Cleanthes.Klinger(Friedrich Maximilian von), German writer, b. Frankfort, 19 Feb. 1753. Went to Russia in 1780, and became reader to the Grand Duke Paul. Published poems, dramas, and romances, exhibiting the revolt of nature against conventionality. Goethe called him “a true apostle of the Gospel of nature.” Died at Petersburg, 25 Feb. 1831.Kneeland(Abner), American writer, b. Gardner, Mass., 7 April, 1774, became a Baptist and afterwards a Universalist minister. He invented a new system of orthography, published a translation of the New Testament, 1823,The Deist(2 Vols.), ’22, edited theOlive Branchand theChristian Inquirer. He wroteThe Fourth Epistle of Peter, ’29, and aReview of the Evidences of Christianity, being a series of lectures delivered in New York in ’29. In that year he removed to Boston, and in April ’31 commenced theBoston Investigator, the oldest Freethought journal. In ’33 he was indicted and tried for blasphemy for saying that he “did not believe in the God which Universalists did.” He was sentenced 21 Jan. ’34, to two months’ imprisonmentand fine of five hundred dollars. The verdict was confirmed in the Courts of Appeal in ’36, and he received two months’ imprisonment. Kneeland was a Pantheist. He took Frances Wright as an associate editor, and soon after left theBoston Investigatorin the hands of P. Mendum and Seaver, and retired to a farm at Salubria, where he died 27 August, 1844. His edition, with notes, of Voltaire’sPhilosophical Dictionary, was published in two volumes in 1852.Knoblauch(Karl von), German author, b. Dillenburg, 3 Nov. 1757. He was a friend of Mauvillon and published several works directed against supernaturalism and superstition. Died at Bernburg, 6 Sept. 1794.Knowlton(Charles) Dr., American physician and author, b. Templeton, Mass., 10 May, 1800. He published theFruits of Philosophy, for which he was imprisoned in ’32. He was a frequent correspondent of theBoston Investigator, and held a discussion on the Bible and Christianity with the Rev. Mr. Thacher of Harley. About ’29 he publishedThe Elements of Modern Materialism. Died in Winchester, Mass., 20 Feb. 1850.Knutzen(Matthias), b. Oldensworth, in Holstein, 1645. He early lost his parents, and was brought to an uncle at Königsberg, where he studied philosophy. He took to the adventurous life of a wandering scholar and propagated his principles in many places. In 1674 he preached Atheism publicly at Jena, in Germany, and had followers who were called “Gewissener,” from their acknowledging no other authority but conscience. It is said there were seven hundred in Jena alone. What became of him and them is unknown. A letter dated from Rome gives his principles. He denied the existence of either God or Devil, deemed churches and priests useless, and held that there is no life beyond the present, for which conscience is a sufficient guide, taking the place of the Bible, which contains great contradictions. He also wrote two dialogues.Koerbagh(Adriaan), Dutch martyr, b. Amsterdam, 1632 or 1633. He became a doctor of law and medicine. In 1668 he publishedA Flower Garden of all Loveliness, a dictionary of definitions in which he gave bold explanations. The work was rigidly suppressed, and the writer fled toCulemborg. There he translated a bookDe Trinitate, and began a work entitledA Light Shining in Dark Places, to illuminate the chief things of theology and religion by Vrederijk Waarmond, inquisitor of truth. Betrayed for a sum of money, Koerbagh was tried for blasphemy, heavily fined and sentenced to be imprisoned for ten years, to be followed by ten years banishment. He died in prison, Oct. 1669.Kolb(Georg Friedrich), German statistician and author, b. Spires 14 Sept. 1808, author of an ableHistory of Culture, 1869–70. Died at Munich 15 May,1884.Koornhert(Theodore). SeeCoornhert (Dirk Volkertszoon.)Korn(Selig), learned German Orientalist of Jewish birth, b. Prague, 26 April, 1804. A convert to Freethought, under the name of “F. Nork,” he wrote many works on mythology which may still be consulted with profit. A list is given in Fuerst’sBibliotheca Judaica. We mentionChristmas and Easter Explained by Oriental Sun Worship, Leipsic, ’36;Brahmins and Rabbins, Weissen, ’36;The Prophet Elijah as a Sun Myth, ’37;The Gods of the Syrians, ’42;Biblical Mythology of the Old and New Testament, 2 vols. Stuttgart, ’42–’43. Died at Teplitz, Bohemia, 16 Oct. 1850.Krause(Ernst H. Ludwig), German scientific writer, b. Zielenzig 22 Nov. 1839. He studied science and contributed to theVossische ZeitungandGartenlaube. In ’63 he published, under the pen-name of “Carus Sterne,” a work onThe Natural History of Ghosts, and in ’76 a work onGrowth and Decay, a history of evolution. In ’77 he established with Hæckel, Dr. Otto Caspari, and Professor Gustav Jaeger, the monthly magazineKosmos, devoted to the spread of Darwinism. This he conducted till ’82. InKosmosappeared the germ of his little book onErasmus Darwin, ’79, to which Charles Darwin wrote a preliminary notice. As “Carus Sterne” he has also written essays entitledPrattle from Paradise,The Crown of Creation, ’84, and an illustrated work in parts onAncient and Modern Ideas of the World, ’87, etc.Krekel(Arnold), American judge, b. Langenfield, Prussia 14 March, 1815. Went with parents to America in ’32 and settled in Missouri. In ’42 he was elected Justice of the Peace and afterwards county attorney. In ’52 he was electedto the Missouri State Legislature. He served in the civil war being elected colonel, was president of the constitutional convention of ’65 and signed the ordinance of emancipation by which the slaves of Missouri were set free. He was appointed judge by President Lincoln 9 March, ’65. A pronounced Agnostic, when he realized he was about to die he requested his wife not to wear mourning, saying that death was as natural as birth. Died at Kansas 14 July, 1888.Krekel(Mattie H. Hulett), b. of freethinking parents, Elkhart Indiana 13 April, 1840. Educated at Rockford, Illinois, in her 16th year became a teacher. Married Judge Krekel, after whose death, she devoted her services to the Freethought platform.Kropotkin(Petr Aleksyeevich)Prince, Russian anarchist, b. Moscow 9 Dec 1842. After studying at the Royal College of Pages he went to Siberia for five years to pursue geological researches. In ’71 he went to Belgium and Switzerland and joined the International. Arrested in Russia, he was condemned to three years imprisonment, escaped ’76 and came to England. In ’79 he founded at Geneva,Le Révoltéwas expelled. Accused in France in ’83 of complicity in the outrage at Lyons, he was condemned to five years imprisonment, but was released in ’86, since which he has lived in England. A brother who translated Herbert Spencer’s “Biology” into Russian, died in Siberia in the autumn of 1886.Laas(Ernst) German writer, b. Furstenwalde, 16 June, 1837. He has written three volumes onIdealism and Positivism, 1879–’84, and also onKant’s Place in the History of the Conflict between Faith and Science, Berlin, 1882. He was professor of philosophy at Strassburg, where he died 25 July, 1885.Labanca(Baldassarre), professor of moral philosophy in the University of Pisa, b. Agnone, 1829. He took part in the national movement of ’48, and in ’51 was imprisoned and afterwards expelled from Naples. He has written on progress in philosophy and also a study on primitive Christianity, dedicated to Giordano Bruno, the martyr of Freethought, ’86.Lachatre(Maurice), French writer, b. Issoudun 1814, edits a “Library of Progress,” in which has appeared his ownHistory of the Inquisition, andHistory of the Popes, ’83.Lacroix(Sigismund), the pen name of Sigismund Julien AdolphKrzyzanowski, b. Warsaw 26 May, 1845. His father was a refugee. He wrote with Yves GuyotThe Social Doctrines of Christianity. In ’74 he was elected a municipal councillor of Paris. In ’77 he was sentenced to three months’ imprisonment for calling Jesus “enfant adulterin” inLe Radical. In Feb. ’81 he was elected president of the municipal council, and in ’83 deputy to the French parliament.Laffitte(Pierre), French Positivist philosopher, b. 21 Feb. 1823 at Beguey (Gironde), became a disciple of Comte and one of his executors. He was professor of mathematics, but since the death of his master has given a weekly course of instruction in the formerapartmentof Comte. M. Laffitte has published discourses onThe General History of Humanity, ’59, andThe Great Types of Humanity, ’75–6. In ’78 he foundedLa Revue Occidentale.Lagrange(Joseph Louis), Count, eminent mathematician, b. Turin, 25 Jan. 1736. He published in 1788 hisAnalytical Mechanics, which is considered one of the masterpieces of the human intellect. He became a friend of D’Alembert, Diderot, Condorcet, and Delambre. He said he believed it impossible to prove there was a God. Died 10 April 1813.La Hontan(Jean), early French traveller in Canada, b. 1666. In his account ofDialogues with an American Savage, 1704, which was translated into English, he states objections to religion. Died in Hanover, 1715.Lainez(Alexandre), French poet, b. Chimay, Hainault, 1650, of the same family with the general of the Jesuits. He lived a wandering Bohemian life and went to Holland to see Bayle. Died at Paris 18 April, 1710.Laing(Samuel), politician and writer, b. Edinburgh 1812, the son of S. Laing of Orkney. Educated at Cambridge, where he took his degree ’32; called to the bar ’42; became secretary of the railway department of the Board of Trade; returned as Liberal M.P. for Kirkwall ’52; helped repeal duty on advertisements in newspapers. In ’60 he became finance minister for India. HisModern Science and Modern Thought, ’85, is a plain exposition of the incompatibility of the old and newview of the universe. In theModern Zoroastrian, ’87, he gives the philosophy of polarity, in which, however, he was anticipated by Mr. Crozier, who in turn was anticipated by Emerson. In ’88 he entered into a friendly correspondence with Mr. Gladstone on the subject of Agnosticism his portion of which has been published.Lakanal(Joseph), French educator, b. Serres, 14 July, 1762. Studied for priesthood, but gave up that career. He entered with ardor into the Revolution, was a member of the Convention 1792–5, and there protected the interests of science. At the restoration in 1814 he retired to America, and was welcomed by Jefferson and became president of the University ofLouisiana. He returned to France after the Revolution of ’30, and died in Paris 14 Feb. 1845.Lalande(Joseph Jèromele Francaisde), distinguished French astronomer, b. Bourg en Bresse, 11 July 1732. Educated by the Jesuits, he was made a member of the Academy of Sciences in his 20th year. In 1762 he became Professor of Astronomy at the College of France. In 1764 he published hisTreatise of Astronomy, to which Dupuis subjoined a memoir, which formed the basis of hisOrigin of all Religions, the idea of which he had taken from Lalande.In Aug 1793 Lalande hazarded his own life to save Dupont de Nemours, and some priests whom he concealed in the observatory of Mazarin college. It was upon Lalande’s observations that the Republican calender was drawn up. At Lalande’s instigation Sylvain Maréchal published hisDictionary of Atheists, to which the astronomer contributed supplements after Maréchal’s death. Lalande professed himself prouder of being an Atheist than of being an astronomer. HisBibliographie Astronomiqueis called by Prof. de Morgan “a perfect model of scientific bibliography.” It was said that never did a young man address himself to Lalande without receiving proof of his generosity. He died at Paris 4 April, 1807.Lamarck(Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine deMonet) French naturalist, b. Picardy 1 Aug. 1744, educated for the Church, but entered the army in 1761, and fought with distinction. Having been disabled, he went to Paris, studied Botany, and publishedFrench Florain 1788, which opened to him theAcademy of Sciences. He became assistant at the Museum of Natural History, and in 1809 propounded, in hisZoological Philosophy, a theory of transmutation of species. HisNatural History of Invertebrate Animals(1815–22) was justly celebrated. He became blind several years before his death, 18 Dec. 1829.Lamborelle(Louis). Belgian author of books onThe Good Old Times,Brussels, 1874;The Apostles and Martyrs of Liberty of Conscience, Antwerp, 1882, and other anti-clerical works. Lamborelle lost a post under government through his anticlerical views, and is one of the council of the Belgian Freethought party.Lamettrie(JulianOffrayde). French physician and philosopher, b. St. Malo, 25 Dec. 1709. Destined for the Church, he was educated under the Jesuits at Caen. He, however, became a physician, studying under Boerhaave, at Leyden. Returning to France, he became surgeon to the French Guard, and served at the battles of Fontenoy and Dettingen. Falling ill, he noticed that his faculties fluctuated with his physical state, and drew therefrom materialistic conclusions. The boldness with which he made his ideas known lost him his place, and he took refuge in Holland. Here he publishedThe Natural History of the Soul, under the pretence of its being a translation from the English of Charp [Sharp], 1745. This was followed byMan a Machine(1748), a work which was publicly burnt at Leyden, and orders given for the author’s arrest. It was translated into English, and reached a second edition (London, 1750). It was often attributed to D’Argens. Lamettrie held that the senses are the only avenues to knowledge, and that it is absurd to assume a god to explain motion. Only under Atheism will religious strife cease. Lamettrie found an asylum with Frederick the Great, to whom he became physician and reader (Feb. 1748). Here he publishedPhilosophical Reflections on the Origin of Animals(1750), translated Seneca on Happiness, etc. He died 11 Nov. 1751, and desired by his will to be buried in the garden of Lord Tyrconnel. The great king thought so well of him that he composed his funeral eulogy.La Mothe Le Vayer(François de). French sceptical philosopher, b. Paris, 1588, was patronised by Louis XIV., and waspreceptor to the Duke of Anjou. PublishedThe Virtue of PagansandDialogues after the Manner of the Ancients, in which he gave scope to his scepticism. Two editions of his collected works appeared, but neither of these containsThe Dialogues of Orasius Tubero(Frankfort 1606, probably a false date). Died 1672.Lancelin(Pierre F.), French materialist, b. about 1770. Became a constructive engineer in the French navy, wrote an ableIntroduction to the Analysis of Science, 3 vols. 1801–3, and a physico-mathematical theory of the organisation of worlds, 1805. Died Paris, 1809.Land(Jan Pieter Nicolaus), Dutch writer, b. Delft, 23 April, 1834. Has written critical studies on Spinoza, and brought out an edition of the philosopher’s works in conjunction with J. van Vloten.Landesmann(Heinrich). SeeLorm.Landor(Walter Savage), English poet, b. Ipsley Court, Warwickshire, 30 Jan. 1775. He was educated at Rugby and Oxford, and, inheriting a fortune, could indulge his tastes as an author. He published a volume of poems in 1795, andGebirin 1798. An ardent Republican, he served as a volunteer colonel in the Spanish Army against Napoleon from 1808 to 1814, besides devoting a considerable sum of money to the Spanish cause. He became a resident of Florence about 1816. His reputation chiefly rests on his greatImaginary Conversations, in which many bold ideas are presented in beautiful language. Landor was unquestionably the greatest English writer of his age. While nominally a Christian, he has scattered many Freethought sentiments over his various works. Died at Florence, 17 Sept. 1864.Lanessan(Jean Louis de), French naturalist, b. at Saint André de Cubzac (Gironde), 13 July, 1843. At 19 he became a naval physician, and M.D. in ’68. He was elected in ’79 as Radical member of theMunicipalCouncil of Paris, and re-elected in ’81. In August of the same year he was elected Deputy for the Department of the Seine. He foundedLe Reveil, edited theMarseillaise, and started the International Biological Library, to which he contributed a study on the doctrine of Darwin. He has written a standard work on botany, and haswritten vol. iii. of the “Materialists’ Library,” on theEvolution of Matter.Lanfrey(Pierre), French author and senator, b. Chambéry, 26 Oct. 1828, became known by a book onThe Church and the Philosophers of the Eighteenth Century, ’55, and celebrated by hisHistory of Napoleon I.’67–75. M. Lanfrey also wroteThe Political History of the Popes, a work placed on theIndex. Died at Pau, 15 Nov. 1877.Lang(Andrew), man of letters, b. Selkirk, 31 March, 1844. Educated at St. Andrews and Oxford. Mr. Lang made his name by his translation of theOdysseywith Mr. Butcher, and by his graceful poems and ballads. He has writtenIn the Wrong Paradise, and many other pleasant sketches. More serious work is shown inCustom and Myth, ’84, andMyth, Ritual and Religion, ’87. A disciple of E. B. Tylor, Mr. Lang successfully upholds the evolutionary view of mythology.Lang(Heinrich), German Rationalist, b. 14 Nov. 1826. Studied theology under Baur at Tübingen, and became teacher at Zürich, where he died, 13 Jan. 1876.Lange(Friedrich Albert), German philosopher and writer, b. Wald, near Solix, 28 Sept. 1828. He studied at Bonn, and became teacher in the gymnasium of Cologne, ’52. In ’53 he returned to Bonn as teacher of philosophy, and there enjoyed the friendship of Ueberweg. He became proprietor and editor of the democraticLandbote, and filled various municipal offices. In ’70 he was called to the chair of philosophy at Zürich, but resigned in ’72 and accepted a similar post at Marburg, where he died 21 Nov. 1875. His fame rests on his importantHistory of Materialism, which has been translated into English.Langsdorf(Karl Christian), German Deist, b. 18 May, 1757, author ofGod and Nature, a work on the immortality of the soul, and some mathematical books. Died Heidelberg, 10 June, 1834.Lankester(Edwin Ray), F.R.S., LL.D., English scientist, b. London, 15 May, 1847, and educated at St. Paul’s School and Oxford. Has published many scientific memoirs, revised the translation of Haeckel’sHistory of Creation, and has done much to forward evolutionary ideas. In 1876 he exposed thespiritist medium Slade, and procured his conviction. He is Professor of Zoology and Natural History in the University of London.La Place(Pierre Simon). One of the greatest astronomers, b. Beaumont-en-Auge, 23 March, 1749. His father was a poor peasant. Through the influence of D’Alembert, La Place became professor of mathematics in the military school, 1768. By his extraordinary abilities he became in 1785 member of the Academy of Science, which he enriched with many memoirs. In 1796 he published hisExposition of the System of the Universe, a popularisation of his greater work onCelestial Mechanics, 1799–1825. Among his sayings were, “What we know is but little, what we know not is immense.” “There is no need for the hypothesis of a God.” Died Paris, 5 March, 1827.Larevelliere-Lepaux(Louis MarieDE), French politician, b. Montaigu 25 Aug. 1753. Attached from youth to the ideas of Rousseau, he was elected with Volney to represent Angers in the national assembly. He was a moderate Republican, defended the proscribed Girondins, was doomed himself but escaped by concealment, and distinguished himself by seeking to replace Catholicism with theophilanthropy or natural religion. He wroteReflections on Worship and the National Fêtes. He became President of the Directory, and after the 18 Brumaire retired, refusing to swear fealty to the empire though offered a pension by Napoleon. Died Paris, 27 March, 1824.Larousse(Pierre Athanase), French lexicographer, b. of poor parents, 23 Oct. 1817, at Toucy, Yonne, where he became teacher. He edited many school books and founded theGrand Dictionnaire Universel du XIXe. Siecle, 1864–77. This is a collection of dictionaries, and may be called the Encyclopedie of this century. Most of M. Larousse’s colleagues were also Freethinkers. Died at Paris, 3 Jan. 1875.Larra(Mariano José de), distinguished Spanish author, b. Madrid, 4 March, 1809. He went with his family to France and completed his education. He returned to Spain in ’22. At eighteen he published a collection of poems, which was followed byEl Duende Satirico(The Satirical Goblin). In ’31appeared hisPobrecito Hablador(Poor Gossip), a paper in which he unmercifully satirised the public affairs and men of Spain. It was suppressed after its fourteenth number. He edited in the following year theRevistaEspañola, signing his articles “Figaro.” He travelled through Europe, and on his return to Madrid editedEl Mundo. Larra wrote also some dramas and translated Lamennais’Paroles d’un Croyant. Being disappointed in love he shot himself, 13 April, 1837. Ch. de Mazade, after speaking of Larra’s scepticism, adds, “Larra could see too deep to possess any faith whatever. All the truths of this world, he was wont to say, can be wrapped in a cigarette paper!”Larroque(Patrice), French philosopher, b. Beaume, 27 March, 1801. He became a teacher and was inspector of the academy of Toulouse, 1830–36, and rector of the academies of Cahors, Limoges, and Lyons, 1836–49. In the latter year he was denounced for his opposition to clerical ideas and lost his place. Among his numerous works we mentionDe l’Esclavage chez les Nations Chrétiennes, ’57, in which he proves that Christianity did not abolish slavery. This was followed by anCriticalExaminationof the Christian Religion, ’59, and a work onReligious Renovation, ’59, which proposes a moral system founded upon pure deism. Both were for a while prohibited in France. M. Larroque also wrote onReligion and Politics, ’78. Died at Paris, 15 June, 1879.Lassalle(Ferdinand Johann Gottlieb), founder of German Social Democratic party, b. of Jewish parents, 11 April, 1825, in Breslau, studied philosophy and law at Breslau and Berlin. He became a follower of Hegel and Feuerbach. Heine, at Paris, ’46, was charmed with him. Humboldt called him “Wunderkind.” In 1858 he published a profound work on the philosophy of Heraclitus. For planning an insurrection against the Prussian Government he was arrested, but won his acquittal. Died through a duel, 31 Aug. 1864.Lastarria(José Victorino), Chilian statesman and Positivist, b. Rancagua, 1812. From youth he applied himself to teaching and journalism, and in ’38 was appointed teacher of civil law and literature in the National Institute. He has founded several journals and literary societies. From ’43 he has beenat different times deputy to the legislature and secretary to the republic of Chili. He has also served as minister to Peru and Brazil. In ’73 he founded the Santiago Academy of Science and Literature; has written many works, and hisLecciones de Politicia Positivahas been translated into French by E. de Rivière and others, 1879.Lau(Theodor Ludwig), German philosopher, b. at Königsberg, 15 June 1670, studied at Königsberg and Halle, and about 1695 travelled through Holland, England, and France. In 1717 he published in Latin, at Frankfort,Philosophical Meditations on God, the World, and Man, which excited an outcry for its materialistic tendency and wassuppressed. He was a follower of Spinoza, and held several official positions from which he was deposed on account of his presumed atheism. Died at Altona, 8 Feb. 1740.Laurent(François), Belgian jurisconsult, b. Luxembourg, 8 July, 1810. Studied law and became an advocate. In ’35 he was made Professor of Civil Law in the University of Ghent, a post he held, despite clerical protests, till his retirement in ’80. A voluminous author on civil and international law, his principal work is entitledStudies in the History of Humanity. He was a strong advocate of the separation of Church and State, upon which he wrote, 1858–60. He also wroteLetters on the Jesuits, ’65. Died in 1887.Law(Harriet), English lecturess, who for many years occupied the secular platform, and engaged in numerous debates. She edited theSecular Chronicle, 1876–1879.Lawrence(James), Knight of Malta, b. Fairfield, Jamaica, 1773, of good Lancashire family. Educated at Eton and Gottingen; became acquainted with Schiller and Goethe at Stuttgart and Weimar, was detained with English prisoners at Verdun. In 1807 he published hisThe Empire of the Nairs, or the Rights of Women, a free-love romance which he wrote in German, French, and English. He also wrote in French and English, a curious bookletThe Children of God, London, 1853. He addressed a poem on Tolerance to Mr. Owen, on the occasion of his denouncing the religions of the world. It appears inThe Etonian Out of Bounds. Died at London 26 Sept. 1841.Lawrence(Sir William), surgeon, b. Cirencester, 1783. Admitted M.R.C.S., 1805, in ’13 he was chosen, F.R.S., and two years later was named Professor of Anatomy and Surgery at the Royal College of Surgeons. While he held that chair he delivered hisLectures on Man, which on their publication in 1819 roused a storm of bigotry. In his early manhood, Lawrence was an earnest advocate of radical reform; but notwithstanding his early unpopularity, he acquired a lucrative practice. Died London, 5 July, 1867.

Hollick(Dr. Frederick), Socialist, b. Birmingham, 22 Dec. 1813. He was educated at the Mechanics’ Institute of that town, and became one of the Socialist lecturers under Robert Owen. He held a public discussion with J. Brindley at Liverpool, in 1840, on “What is Christianity?” On the failure of Owenism he went to America, where some of his works popularising medical science have had a large circulation.

Hollis(John), English sceptic, b. 1757. Author ofSober and Serious Reasons for Scepticism, 1796;An Apology for Disbelief in Revealed Religion, 1799; andFree Thoughts, 1812. Died at High Wycombe, Bucks 26 Nov. 1824. Hollis, who came of anopulentdissenting family, was distinguished by his love of truth, his zeal in the cause of freedom, and by his beneficence.

Holmes(William Vamplew), one of Carlile’s brave shopmen who came up from Leeds to uphold the right of free publication. He was sentenced to two years’ imprisonment, 1 March, ’22, for selling blasphemous and seditious libels inAn Address to the Reformers of Great Britain, and when in prison was told that “if hard labor was not expressed in his sentence, it was implied.” On his release Holmes went to Sheffield and commenced the open sale of all the prohibited publications.

Holwell(John Zephaniah), noted as one of the survivors of the Black Hole of Calcutta, b. Dublin, 7 Sept. 1711. He practised as a surgeon, went to India as a clerk, defended a fort at Calcutta against Surajah Dowlah, was imprisoned with one hundred and forty-five others in the “Black Hole,” 20th June, 1756, of which he published aNarrative. He succeeded Clive as governor of Bengal. On returning to England he published a dissertation directed against belief in a special providence, and advocating the application of church endowments to the exigencies of the State (Bath, 1786). Died 5 Nov. 1798.

Holyoake(Austin), English Freethinker, b. Birmingham, 27 Oct. 1826. His mental emancipation came from hearing the lectures of Robert Owen and his disciples. He took part in the agitation for the abolition of the newspaper stamp—assisting when risk and danger had to be met—and he co-operated with his brother in the production of theReasonerand other publications from ’45 till ’62. Soon after this he printed and sub-edited theNational Reformer, in which many of his Freethought articles appeared. Among his pamphlets may be mentionedHeaven and Hell,Ludicrous Aspects of Christianity,Thoughts on Atheism, theBook of Esther, andDaniel the Dreamer. He also composed a Secular Burial Service. Austin Holyoake took pride in the character of Freethought, and was ever zealous in promoting its welfare. His amiable spirit endearedhim to all who knew him. He died 10 April, 1874, leaving behind thoughts written on his deathbed, in which he repudiated all belief in theology.

Holyoake(George Jacob), b. Birmingham, 13 April 1817. Became mathematical teacher of the Mechanics’ Institution. Influenced by Combe and Owen he became a Freethinker, and in ’40 a Socialist missionary. In ’42, when Southwell was imprisoned for writing in theOracle of Reason, Mr. Holyoake took charge of that journal, and wroteThe Spirit of Bonner in the Disciples of Jesus. He was soon arrested for a speech at Cheltenham, having said, in answer to a question, that he would put the Deity on half-pay. Tried Aug. ’42, he was sentenced to six months imprisonment, of which he gave a full account in hisLast Trial by Jury for Atheism in England. In Dec. ’43 he edited with M. Q. Ryall theMovement, bearing the motto from Bentham, “Maximise morals, minimise religion.” The same policy was pursued inThe Reasoner, which he edited from 1846 till 1861. Among his many pamphlets we must notice theLogic of Death, ’50, which went through numerous editions, and was included in his most important Freethought work,The Trial of Theism. In ’49 he published a brief memoir of R. Carlile. In ’51 he first used the term “Secularist,” and in Oct. ’52 the first Secular Conference was held at Manchester Mr. Holyoake presiding. In Jan. ’53 he held a six nights discussion with the Rev. Brewin Grant, and again in Oct. ’54. He purchased the business of James Watson, and issued many Freethought works, notablyThe Library of Reason—a series,The Cabinet of Reason, his ownSecularism,The Philosophy of the People, etc. In ’60 he was Secretary to the British Legion sent out to Garibaldi. Mr. Holyoake did much to remove the taxes upon knowledge, and has devoted much attention to Co-operation, having written a history of the movement and contributed to most of its journals.

Home(Henry), Scottish judge, was b. 1696. His legal ability was made known by his publication ofRemarkable Decisions of the Court of Session, 1728. In 1752 he was raised to the bench as Lord Kames. He publishedEssays on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion(1751),Elements of Criticism(1762), andSketches of the History of Man, inwhich he proved himself in advance of his age. Died 27 Dec. 1782.

Hon, Le (Henri). SeeLe Hon.

Hooker(Sir Joseph Dalton), English naturalist, b. 1817. He studied medicine at Glasgow, graduating M.D ’39. In ’55 he became assistant-director of Kew Gardens, and from ’65–85 sole director. Renowned as a botanist, he was the first eminent man of science to proclaim his adoption of Darwinism.

Hope(Thomas), novelist and antiquarian, b. 1770. Famous for his anonymousAnastasius, or Memories of a Modern Greek, he also wrote an original work onThe Origin and Prospects of Man’31. Died at London 3 Feb. 1831.

Houten(Samuel van), Dutch Freethinker, b. Groningen. 17 Feb. 1837; he studied law and became a lawyer in that city. In ’69 he was chosen member of the Dutch Parliament. Has published many writings on political economy. In ’88 he wrote a book entitledDasCausalitätgesetz(The Law of Causality).

Houston(George). Was the translator of d’Holbach’sEcce Homo, first published in Edinburgh in 1799, and sometimes ascribed to Joseph Webb. A second edition was issued in 1813. Houston was prosecuted and was imprisoned two years in Newgate, with a fine of £200. He afterwards went to New York, where he edited theMinerva(1822). In Jan. 1827, he startedThe Correspondence, which, we believe, was the first weekly Freethought journal published in America. It lasted till July 1828. He also republishedEcce Homo. Houston helped to establish in America a “Free Press Association” and a Society of Free Inquirers.

Hovelacque(Abel), French scientist, b. Paris 14 Nov. 1843. He studied law and made part of the groupe ofla Pensée Nouvelle, with Asseline, Letourneau, Lefevre, etc. He also studied anthropology under Broca and published many articles in theRevue d’Anthropologie. He founded with Letourneau, Thulié, Asseline, etc. The “Bibliothèque des sciences contemporains” and published thereinLa Linguistique. He also founded with the same the library of anthropological science and published in collaboration with G. Hervé aprècisof Anthropology and a study of theNegroes of Africa. He has also contributedto the Dictionary of Anthropology. For the “Bibliothèque Materialiste” he wrote a work on Primitive man. He has also published choice extracts from the works of Voltaire, Diderot and Rousseau, a grammar of the Zend language, and a work on theAvesta Zoroaster and Mazdaism. In ’78 he was made a member of the municipal council of Paris, and in ’81 was elected deputy to the chamber where he sits with the autonomist socialist group.

Howdon(John), author ofA Rational Investigation of the Principles of Natural Philosophy, Physical and Moral, printed at Haddington, 1840, in which he attacks belief in the Bible.

Huber(Marie), Swiss Deist, b. of Protestant parents, Geneva, 1694. In a work on theSystem of Theologians, 1731, she opposed the dogma of eternal punishment. In ’38 publishedLetters on the Religion essential to Man. This was translated into English in the same year. Other works show English reading. She translated selections from theSpectator. Died at Lyons, 13 June, 1753.

Hudail(Abul). See Muhammad ibn Hudail (Al Allaf.)

Huet(Coenraad Busken), Dutch writer, b. the Hague, 28 Dec. 1826. He became minister of the Walloon Church at Haarlem, but through his Freethought left the church in ’63, and became editor of various newspapers, afterwards living in Paris. He wrote many works of literary value, and publishedLetters on the Bible, ’57, etc. Died 1887.

Hugo(Victor Marie), French poet and novelist, b. Besançon, 26 Feb. 1802. Was first noted for hisOdes, published in ’21. His dramas “Hernani,” ’30, and “Marion Delorme,” ’31, were highly successful. He was admitted into the French Academy in ’41, and made a peer in ’45. He gave his cordial adhesion to the Republic of ’48, and was elected to the Assembly by the voters of Paris. He attacked Louis Napoleon, and after thecoup d’étatwas proscribed. He first went to Brussels, where he publishedNapoleon the Little, a biting satire. He afterwards settled at Guernsey, where he remained until the fall of the Empire, producingThe Legend of the Ages, ’59,Les Miserables, ’62,Toilers of the Sea, ’69, and other works. After his return to Paris he produced a new series of theLegend of the Ages,The Pope,Religions and Religion,Torquemada, and other poems.He died 22 May, 1885, and it being decided he should have a national funeral, the Pantheon was secularised for that purpose, the cross being removed. Since his death a poem entitledThe End of Satanhas been published.

Hugues(Clovis), French Socialist, poet, and deputy, b. Menerbes, 3 Nov. 1850. In youth he desired to become a priest, but under the influence of Hugo left the black business. In ’71 he became head of the Communist movement at Marseilles. He was sentenced to three years’ imprisonment. In ’81 he was elected deputy, and sits on the extreme left.

Humboldt(Friedrich Heinrich Alexander von), illustrious German naturalist and traveller, b. Berlin, 14 Sept. 1769. He studied under Heyne and Blumenbach, travelled in Holland, France and England with George Forster, the naturalist, and became director-general of mines. In 1799 he set out to explore South America and Mexico, and in 1804 returned witharich collection of animals, plants and minerals. Humboldt became a resident of Paris, where he enjoyed the friendship of Lalande, Delambre, Arago, and all the living distinguished French scientists. After numerous important contributions to scientific knowledge, at the age of seventy-four he composed his celebratedCosmos, the first volume of which appeared in ’45 and the fourth in ’58. ToVarnhagen von Ensehe wrote in 1841: “Bruno Bauer has found me pre-adamatically converted. Many years ago I wrote, ‘Toutes les réligions positives offrent trois parties distinctes; un traité de mœurs partout le même et très pur, un rève géologique, et un mythe ou petit roman historique; le dernier élément obtient le plus d’importance.’” Later on he says that Strauss disposes of “the Christian myths.” Humboldt was an unwearied student of science, paying no attention to religion, and opposed his brother in regard to his essayOn the Province of the Historian, because he considered it to acknowledge the belief in the divine government of the world, which seemed to him as complete a delusion as the hypothesis of a principle of life. He died in Berlin, 6 May, 1859, in his ninetieth year.

Humboldt(Karl Wilhelm von), Prussian statesman and philosopher, b. Potsdam, 22 June,1767. He was educated by Campe. Went to Paris in 1789, and hailed the revolution withenthusiasm. In ’92 he publishedIdeas on the Organization of the State. He became a friend of Schiller and Goethe, and in 1809 was Minister of Public Instruction. He took part in founding the University of Berlin. He represented Prussia at the Congress of Vienna,’14. He advocated a liberal constitution, but finding the King averse, retired at the end of ’19, and devoted himself to the study of comparative philology. He said there were three things he could not comprehend—orthodox piety, romantic love, and music. He died 8 April, 1835. His works were collected and edited by his brother.

Hume(David), philosopher and historian, b. Edinburgh, 26 April, 1711. In 1735 he went to France to study, and there wrote hisTreatise on Human Nature, published in 1739. This work then excited no interest friendly or hostile. Hume’sEssays Moral and Politicalappeared in 1742, and in 1752 hisInquiry Concerning the Principles of Moralswhich of all his writings he considered the best. In 1755 he published hisNatural History of Religion, which was furiously attacked by Warburton in an anonymous tract. In 1754 he published the first volume of hisHistory of England, which he did not complete till 1761. He became secretary to the Earl of Hertford, ambassador at Paris, where he was cordially welcomed by the philosophers. He returned in 1766, bringing Rousseau with him. Hume became Under Secretary of State in 1767, and in 1769 retired to Edinburgh, where he died 25 Aug. 1776. After his death hisDialogues on Natural Religionwere published, and also some unpublished essays on Suicide, the Immortality of the Soul, etc. Hume’s last days were singularly cheerful. His friend, the famous Dr. Adam Smith, considered him “as approaching as nearly to the idea of a perfectly wise and virtuous man as perhaps the nature of human frailty will permit.”

Hunt(James), Ph.D., physiologist, b. 1833, was the founder of the Anthropological Society, of which he was the first president, ’63. He was the author of theNegro’s Place in Nature, a work on Stammering, etc. Died 28 Aug. 1869.

Hunt(James Henry Leigh), poet, essayist and critic, b. Southgate, Middlesex, 19 Oct. 1784. was educated with Lamb and Coleridge at Christ’s Hospital, London. He joined hisbrother John in editing first theSunday News, 1805, and then theExaminer, 1808. They were condemned to pay a fine, each of £500, and to be imprisoned for two years, 1812–14, for a satirical article, in which the prince regent was called an “Adonis of fifty.” This imprisonment procured him the friendship of Shelley and Byron, with whom, after editing theIndicatorhe was associated in editing theLiberal. He wrote many choice books of poems and criticisms, and in hisReligion of the Heart, ’53, repudiates orthodoxy. Died 28 Aug. 1859.

Hutten(Ulrich von), German poet and reformer, b. of noble family Steckelberg, Hesse Cassel, 22 April 1488. He was sent to Fulda to become a monk, but fled in 1504 to Erfurt, where he studiedhumaniora. After some wild adventures he went to Wittenberg in 1510, and Vienna 1512, and also studied at Pavia and Bologna. He returned to Germany in 1517 as a common soldier in the army of Maximilian. His great object was to free his country from sacerdotalism, and most of his writings are satires against the Pope, monks and clergy. Persecution drove him to Switzerland, but the Council of Zurich drovehimout of their territory and he died on the isle of Ufnau, Lake Zürich, 29 Aug. 1523.

Hutton(James), Scotch geologist and philosopher, b. at Edinburgh 3 June, 1736. He graduated as M.D. at Leyden in 1749, and investigated the strata of the north of Scotland. He published a dissertation onLight, Heat, and Fire, and in hisTheory of the World, 1795, attributes geological phenomena to the action of fire. He also wrote a work entitledAn Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge, the opinions of which, says Chalmers, “abound in sceptical boldness and philosophical infidelity.” Died 26 March 1797.

Huxley(Thomas Henry), LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., b. Ealing, 4 May, 1825. He studied medicine, and in ’46 took M.R.C.S., and was appointed assistant naval surgeon. His cruises afforded opportunities for his studies of natural history. In ’51 he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society, and in ’54 was made Professor at the School of Mines. In ’60 he lectured on “The Relation of Man to the Lower Animals,” and afterwards publishedEvidence as to Man’s Place in Nature(1863). In addition to numerous scientific works, Professor Huxley haswritten numerous forcible articles, addresses, etc., collected inLay Sermons, ’70;Critiques and Addresses, ’73; andAmerican Addresses, ’79. A vigorous writer, hisHumein the “English Men of Letters” series is a model of clear exposition. In his controversies with Mr. Gladstone, in his articles on theEvolution of Theology, and in his recent polemic with the Rev. Mr. Wace in theNineteenth Century, Professor Huxley shows all his freshness, and proves himself as ready in demolishing theological fictions as in demonstrating scientific facts. He states as his own life aims “The popularising of science and untiring opposition to that ecclesiastical spirit, that clericalism, which in England, as everywhere else, and to whatever denomination it may belong, is the deadly enemy of science.”

Hypatia, Pagan philosopher and martyr, b. Alexandria early in the second half of the fourth century. She became a distinguished lecturer and head of the Neo-Platonic school (c. 400). The charms of her eloquence brought many disciples. By a Christian mob, incited by St. Cyril, she was in Lent 415 torn from her chariot, stripped naked, cut with oyster-shells and finally burnt piecemeal. This true story of Christian persecution has been disguised into a legend related of St. Catherine in the Roman breviary (Nov. 25).

IbnBajjat. SeeAvenpace.

IbnMassara. SeeMassarain Supplement.

IbnRushd. SeeAverroes.

IbnSabîn. SeeSabin.

IbnSina. SeeAvicenna.

IbnTofail. SeeAbu Bakr.

Ibsen(Henrik), an eminent Norwegian dramatist and poet, b. Skien, 20 March, 1828. At first he studied medicine, but he turned his attention to literature. In ’52, through the influence of Ole Bull, he became director of the theatre at Bergen, for which he wrote a great deal. From ’57 to ’63 he directed the theatre at Christiania. In the following year he went to Rome. The Storthing accorded him an annual pension for his services to literature. His dramas,Brand, (PeerGynt),Kejser og Galilær(Cæsar [Julian] and the Galilean),Nora, andSamfundets Stotler(the Pillars of Society), andGhostsexhibithis unconventional spirit. Ibsen is an open unbeliever in Christianity. He looks forward to social regeneration through liberty, individuality, and education without superstition.

Ilive(Jacob), English printer and letter founder, b. Bristol about 1710. He published a pretended translation of the Book of Jasher, 1751, and some other curious works. He was prosecuted for blasphemy inSome Modest Remarks on the late Bishop Sherlock’s Sermons, and sentenced to two years’ imprisonment, 15 June, 1756–10 June, 1758. He was confined in the Clerkenwell House of Correction and published some pamphlets exposing the bad condition of the prison and suggesting means for its improvement. He died in 1768.

Imray(I. W.), author, b. 1802. Wrote in Carlile’sRepublicanandLion, and published “Altamont,” an atheistic drama, in 1828.

Ingersoll(Robert Green), American orator, b. Dresden, New York, 11 Aug. 1833. His father was a Congregationalist clergyman. He studied law, and opened an office in Shawneetown, Illinois. In ’62 he became colonel of the 11th Illinois Cavalry, and served in the war, being taken prisoner. In ’66 he was appointed attorney-general for Illinois. At the National Republican Convention, ’76, he proposed Blaine for President in a speech that attracted much attention. In ’77 he refused the post of Minister to Germany. He has conducted many important cases, and defended C. B. Reynolds when tried for blasphemy in ’86. Col. Ingersoll is the most popular speaker in America. Eloquence, humor, and pathos are alike at his command. He is well known by his books, pamphlets, and speeches directed against Christianity. He had published theGods,Ghosts,Some Mistakes of Moses, and a collection of his Lectures, ’83, andProse Poems and Extracts, ’84. Most of his lectures have been republished in England. We mentionWhat must I do to be Saved?Hell,The Dying Creed,Myth and Miracle,Do I Blaspheme?Real Blasphemy. In the pages of theNorth American ReviewCol. Ingersoll has defended Freethought against Judge Black, the Rev. H. Field, Mr. Gladstone, and Cardinal Manning.

Inman(Thomas), B.A., physician and archæologist, b. 1820. Educated at London University, he settled at Liverpool, beingconnected with the well-known shipping family of that port. He is chiefly known by his work onAncient Faiths Embodied in Ancient Names, in which he deals with the evidences of phallic worship amongst Jews and other nations. It was first published in ’69. A second edition appeared in ’73. He also wroteAncient Pagan and Modern Christian Symbolism Exposed and Explained, ’69, and a controversial Freethought work, entitledAncient Faiths and Modern, published at New York ’76. Dr. Inman was for some time President of the Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society, and was physician to the Royal Infirmary of that city. His professional life was one of untiring industry. He wrote several medical works, including two volumes on thePreservationand Restoration of Health. Died at Clifton, 3 May. 1876.

Iron(Ralph), pseudonym of Olive Schreiner,q.v.

Isnard(Felix), French physician, b. Grasse 1829. Author of a work onSpiritualism and Materialism, 1879.

Isnard(Maximin), Girondin revolutionist, b. Grasse 16 Feb. 1751. He was made a member of the Assembly, in which he declared, “The Law, behold my God. I know no other.” He voted for the death of the King, and was nominated president of the Convention. On the fall of the Girondins he made his escape, and reappeared after the fall of Robespierre. In 1796 he was one of the Council ofFiveHundred. Died 1830.

Isoard(Eric Michel Antoine), French writer, b. Paris, 1826. Was naval officer in ’48 but arrested as socialist in ’49. In ’70 he was made sous-prefet of Cambrai and wroteGuerre aux Jésuites.

Isoard Delisle(Jean Baptiste Claude), called also Delisle de Sales, French man of letters, b. Lyons 1743. When young he entered the Congregation of the Oratory, but left theology for literature. In 1769 he published thePhilosophy of Nature, which in 1771 was discovered to be irreligious, and he was condemned to perpetual banishment. While in prison he was visited by many of the philosophers, and a subscription was opened for him, to which Voltaire gave five hundred francs. He went to the court of Frederick the Great, and subsequently published many works of little importance. Died at Paris 22 Sept. 1816.

Jacob(Andre Alexandre). SeeErdan (A.)

Jacobson(Augustus), American, author ofWhy I do not Believe, Chicago 1881, andThe Bible Inquirer.

“Jacobus(Dom)” Pseudonym ofPotvin(Charles)q.v.

Jacoby(Leopold) German author ofThe Idea of Development. 2 vols. Berlin 1874–76.

Jacolliot(Louis), French orientalist, b. Saint Etienne, 1806. Brought up to the law, in ’43 he was made judge at Pondichery. He first aroused attention by his work,The Bible in India, ’70. He also has written onGenesis of Humanity, ’76.The Religions Legislators,Moses,Manu and Muhammad, ’80, andThe Natural and Social History of Humanity, ’84, and several works of travel.

Jantet(Charles and Hector), two doctors of Lyons,b. the first in 1826, the second in ’28, have published together ableAperçus Philosophiqueson Rènan’s Life of Jesus, ’64, andDoctrine Medicale Matérialiste, 1866.

Jaucourt(Louis de), Chevalier, French scholar and member of the Royal Society of London and of the academies of Berlin and Stockholm, b. Paris 27 Sept. 1704. He studied at Geneva, Cambridge, and Leyden, furnished theEncyclopédiewith many articles, and conducted theBibliothèque Raisonnée. Died at Compiègne, 3 Feb. 1779.

Jefferies(Richard), English writer, b. 1848, famous for his descriptions of nature inThe Gamekeeper at Home,Wild Life in a Southern Country, etc. In his autobiographicalStory of My Heart(1883) Mr. Jefferies shows himself a thorough Freethinker. Died Goring-on-Thames, 14 Aug. 1887.

Jefferson(Thomas), American statesman, b. Shadwell, Virginia, 2 April 1743. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1767. He became a member of the House of Burgesses, 1769–75. In 1774 he published hisSummary Views of the Rights of British-Americans. He drafted and reported to Congress the “Declaration of Independence” which was unanimously adopted, 4 July 1766. He was Governor of Virginia from 1719 to 1781, and originated a system of education in the State. He was Ambassador to Paris from 1785–89, secretary of state from 1789–93, vice-president 1791–1801 and third president of the United States 1801–9. In ’19 hefounded the University of Virginia, of which he was rector till his death, 4 July 1826. Dr. J. Thomas in hisDictionary of Biographysays “In religion he was what is denominated a freethinker.” He spoke in old age of “the hocus-pocusphantomof God, which like another Cerberus had one body and three heads.” See his life by J. Parton.

Johnson(Richard Mentor), Colonel, American soldier and statesman, b. Bryant’s Station, Kentucky, 17 Oct. 1781. Was educated at Lexington, studied law, and practiced with success. Became member of the Kentucky Legislature in 1805, and raised a regiment of cavalry ’12. Fought with distinction against British and Indians. Was member of Congress from 1807–19, and from ’29–37; a United States Senator from ’19–29, and Vice-President of the United States, ’37–40. Is remembered by his report against the suspension of Sunday mails and his speeches in favor of rights of conscience. Died at Frankfort, Kentucky, 19 Nov. 1850.

Johnson(Samuel), American author, b. Salem, Massachusetts, 10 Oct. 1822. He was educated at Harvard, and became pastor of a “Free Church” at Lynn in ’53. He never attached himself to any denomination, although in some points his views were like those of the Unitarians and Universalists. About ’46 he published, in conjunction with S. Longfellow, brother of the poet,Hymns of the Spirit,Oriental Religions in relation to Universal Religion, of which the volume on India appeared in ’72, China ’77, and Persia ’84. Died Andover, 19 Feb. 1882.

Jones(Ernest Charles), barrister and political orator, b. Berlin, 25 Jan. 1819. His father was in the service of the King of Hanover, who became his godfather. Called to the bar in ’44 in the following year he joined the Chartist movement, editing thePeople’s Paper,Notes to the People, and other Chartist periodicals. In ’48 he was tried for making a seditious speech, and condemned to two years’ imprisonment, during which he wroteBeldagon Churchand other poems. He stood for Halifax in ’47, and Nottingham in ’53 and ’57, without success. He was much esteemed by the working classes in Manchester, where he died 26 Jan. 1869.

Jones(John Gale), Political orator, b. 1771. At the time of the French Revolution he became a leading member of theLondon Corresponding Society. Arrested at Birmingham for sedition, he obtained a verdict of acquittal. He was subsequently committed to Newgate in Feb. 1810, for impugning the proceedings of the House of Commons, and there remained till his liberation was effected by the prorogation of Parliament, June 21. On 26 Dec. ’11 he was again convicted for “a seditious and blasphemous libel.” He was a resolute advocate of the rights of free publication during the trials of Carlile and his shopmen. Died Somers Town, 4 April, 1838.

Jones(Lloyd), Socialist, b. of Catholic parents at Brandon, co. Cork, Ireland, in March, 1811. In ’27 he came over to Manchester, and in ’32 joined the followers of Robert Owen. He became “a social missionary,” and had numerous debates with ministers, notably one on “The Influence of Christianity” with J. Barker, then a Methodist, at Manchester, in ’39. Lloyd Jones was an active supporter of co-operation and trades-unionism, and frequently acted as arbitrator in disputes between masters and men. He contributed to theNew Moral World,Spirit of the Age,Glasgow Sentinel,Leeds Express,North British Daily Mail,Newcastle Chronicle, andCo-operative News. Died at Stockwell, 22 May, 1886, leaving behind aLife of Robert Owen.

Joseph II., Emperor of Germany, son of Francis I. and Maria Theresa, b. Vienna 13 March 1741. In 1764 he was elected king of the Romans, and in the following year succeeded to the throne of Germany. He wrought many reforms, suppressed the Jesuits 1773, travelled in France as Count Falkenstein, saw d’Alembert but did not visit Voltaire. He abolished serfdom, allowed liberty of conscience, suppressed several convents, regulated others, abridged the power of the pope and the clergy, and mitigated the condition of the Jews. Carlyle says “a mighty reformer he had been, the greatest of his day. Austria gazed on him, its admiration not unmixed with terror. He rushed incessantly about, hardy as a Charles Twelfth; slept on his bearskin on the floor of any inn or hut;—flew at the throat of every absurdity, however broad and based or dangerously armed. ‘Disappear I say.’ A most prompt, severe, and yet beneficent and charitable kind of man. Immensely ambitious, that must be said withal. A great admirer of Friedrich; bentto imitate him with profit. ‘Very clever indeed’ says Friedrich, ‘but has the fault(a terribly grave one!) of generally taking the second step without having taken the first.’” Died Vienna 20 Feb. 1790.

Jouy(Victor JosephEtienne de), French author b. Jouy near Versailles 1764. He served as soldier in India and afterwards in the wars of the Republic. A disciple of Voltaire to whom he erected a temple, he was a prolific writer, his plays being much esteemed in his own day. Died 4 Sept. 1846.

Julianus(Flavius Claudius), Roman Emperor, b. Constantinople 17 Nov. 331. In the massacre of his family by the sons of Constantine he escaped. He was educated in the tenets of Christianity but returned to an eclectic Paganism. In 354 he was declared Cæsar. He made successful campaigns against the Germans who had overrun Gaul and in 361 was made Emperor. He proclaimed liberty of conscience and sought to uproot the Christian superstition by his writings, of which only fragments remain. As Emperor he exhibited great talent,tact, industry, and skill. He was one of the most gifted and learned of the Roman Emperors, and his short reign (Dec. 361—26 June, 363), comprehended the plans of a life-long administration. He died while seeking to repel a Persian invasion, and his death was followed by the triumph of Christianity and the long night of the dark ages.

Junghuhn(Franz Wilhelm), traveller and naturalist, b. Mansfeld, Prussia 29 Oct 1812. His father was a barber and surgeon. Franz studied at Halle and Berlin. He distinguished himself by love for botany and geology. In a duel with another student he killed him and was sentenced to imprisonment at Ehrenbreitster for 20 years. There he simulated madness and was removed to the asylum at Coblentz, whence he escaped to Algiers. In ’34 he joined the Dutch Army in the Malay Archipelago. He travelled through the island of Java making a botanical and geological survey. In ’54 he published hisLicht enSchaduwbeeldenuit de binnenlanden van Java(Light and Shadow pictures from the interior of Java), which contains his ideas of God, religion and science, together with sketches of nature and of the manners of the inhabitants. This book aroused much indignation from the pious, but also much agreement amongfreethinkers, and led to the establishment ofDe Dageraad(The Daybreak,) the organ of the Dutch Freethinkers Union. Junghuhn afterwards returned to Java and died 21 April, ’64 at Lemberg, Preanges, Regentsch. HisLight and Shadow pictureshave been several times reprinted.

Kalisch(Moritz Marcus), Ph.D., b. of Jewish parents in Pomerania, 16 May, 1828. Educated at the University of Berlin, where he studied under Vatke and others. Early in ’49 he came to England as a political refugee, and found employment as tutor to the Rothschild family. His criticalCommentary on the Pentateuchcommenced with a volume on Exodus, ’55, Genesis ’58, Leviticus in two vols. in ’67 and ’72 respectively. His rational criticism anticipated the school of Wellhausen. He publishedBible Studieson Balaam and Jonah ’77, and discussions on philosophy and religion in a very able and learned work entitledPath and Goal,’80. Kalisch also contributed to Scott’s series of Freethought tracts. Died at Baslow, Derbyshire, 23 Aug. 1885.

Kames(Lord). SeeHome (Henry).

Kant(Immanuel), German critical philosopher, b. Königsberg, 22 April, 1724. He became professor of mathematics in 1770. In 1781 he published his great work,The Critick of Pure Reason, which denied all knowledge of the “Thing itself,” and overthrew the dogmatism of earlier metaphysics. In 1792 the philosopher fell under the royal censorship for hisReligion within the Limits of Pure Reason. Kant effected a complete revolution in philosophy, and his immediate influence is not yet exhausted. Died at Königsberg, 12 Feb. 1804.

Kapila.One of the earliest Hindu thinkers. His system is known as the Atheistic philosophy. It is expounded in the Sankhya Karika, an important relic of bold rationalistic Indian thought. His aphorisms have been translated by J. R. Ballantyne.

Karneades.SeeCarneades.

Keeler(Bronson C.) American author of an ableShort History of the Bible, being a popular account of the formation and development of the canon, published at Chicago 1881.

Keim(Karl Theodor), German rationalist, b. Stuttgart, 17 Dec. 1825. Was educated at Tübingen, and became professorof theology at Zürich. Is chiefly known by hisHistory of Jesus of Nazara(’67–’72). He also wrote a striking work onPrimitive Christianity(’78), and endeavored to reproduce the lost work of Celsus. His rationalism hindered his promotion, and he was an invalid most of his days. Died at Giessen, where he was professor, 17 Nov. 1878.

Keith(George), Lord Marshall, Scotch soldier, b. Kincardine 1685, was appointed by Queen Anne captain of Guard. His property being confiscated for aiding the Pretender, he went to the Continent, and like his brother, was in high favor with Frederick the Great. Died Berlin, 25 May, 1778.

Keith(James Francis Edward), eminent military commander, b. Inverugie, Scotland, 11 June, 1696. Joined the army of the Pretender and was wounded at Sheriffmuir, 1715. He afterwards served with distinction in Spain and in Russia, where he rose to high favor under the Empress Elizabeth. In1747he took service with Frederick the Great as field-marshal, and became Governor of Berlin. Carlyle calls him “a very clear-eyed, sound observer of men and things. Frederick, the more he knows him, likes him the better.” From their correspondence it is evident Keith shared the sceptical opinions of Frederick. After brilliant exploits in the seven years’ war at Prague, Rossbach, and Olmutz, Marshal Keith fell in the battle of Hochkirch, 14 Oct. 1758.

Kenrick(William), LL.D., English author, b. near Watford, Herts, about 1720. In 1751 he published, at Dublin, under the pen-name of Ontologos, an essay to prove that the soul is not immortal. His first poetic production was a volume ofEpistles, Philosophical and Moral(1759), addressed to Lorenzo; an avowed defence of scepticism. In 1775 he commenced theLondon Review, and the following year attacked Soame Jenyns’s work on Christianity. He translated some of the works of Buffon, Rousseau, and Voltaire. Died 10 June 1779.

Kerr(Michael Crawford) American statesman, b. Titusville, Western Pennsylvania,15 March1827. He was member of the Indiana Legislature ’56, and elected to Congress in ’74 and endeavoured to revise the tariff in the direction of free-trade. Died Rockbridge, Virginia, 19 Aug. 1876, a confirmed Freethinker and Materialist.

Ket,Kett, orKnight(Francis), of Norfolk, a relative of the rebellious tanner. He was of Windham and was an M.A. He was prosecuted for heresy and burnt in the castle ditch, Norwich, 14 Jan. 1588. Stowe says he was burnt for “divers detestable opinions against Christ our Saviour.”

Khayyam(Omar) orUmar Khaiyam, Persian astronomer, poet, b. Naishapur Khorassan, in the second half of the eleventh century, and was distinguished by his reformation of the calendar as well as by his verses (Rubiyat), which E. Fitzgerald has so finely rendered in English. He alarmed his contemporaries and made himself obnoxious to the Sufis. Died about 1123. Omar laughed at the prophets and priests, and told men to be happy instead of worrying themselves about God and the Hereafter. He makes his soul say, “I myself am Heaven and Hell.”

Kielland(Alexander Lange), Norwegian novelist, b.Stavanger, 18 Feb. 1849. He studied law at Christiania, but never practised. His stories,Workpeople,Skipper Worse,Poison, andSnowexhibit his bold opinions.

Kleanthes.See Cleanthes.

Klinger(Friedrich Maximilian von), German writer, b. Frankfort, 19 Feb. 1753. Went to Russia in 1780, and became reader to the Grand Duke Paul. Published poems, dramas, and romances, exhibiting the revolt of nature against conventionality. Goethe called him “a true apostle of the Gospel of nature.” Died at Petersburg, 25 Feb. 1831.

Kneeland(Abner), American writer, b. Gardner, Mass., 7 April, 1774, became a Baptist and afterwards a Universalist minister. He invented a new system of orthography, published a translation of the New Testament, 1823,The Deist(2 Vols.), ’22, edited theOlive Branchand theChristian Inquirer. He wroteThe Fourth Epistle of Peter, ’29, and aReview of the Evidences of Christianity, being a series of lectures delivered in New York in ’29. In that year he removed to Boston, and in April ’31 commenced theBoston Investigator, the oldest Freethought journal. In ’33 he was indicted and tried for blasphemy for saying that he “did not believe in the God which Universalists did.” He was sentenced 21 Jan. ’34, to two months’ imprisonmentand fine of five hundred dollars. The verdict was confirmed in the Courts of Appeal in ’36, and he received two months’ imprisonment. Kneeland was a Pantheist. He took Frances Wright as an associate editor, and soon after left theBoston Investigatorin the hands of P. Mendum and Seaver, and retired to a farm at Salubria, where he died 27 August, 1844. His edition, with notes, of Voltaire’sPhilosophical Dictionary, was published in two volumes in 1852.

Knoblauch(Karl von), German author, b. Dillenburg, 3 Nov. 1757. He was a friend of Mauvillon and published several works directed against supernaturalism and superstition. Died at Bernburg, 6 Sept. 1794.

Knowlton(Charles) Dr., American physician and author, b. Templeton, Mass., 10 May, 1800. He published theFruits of Philosophy, for which he was imprisoned in ’32. He was a frequent correspondent of theBoston Investigator, and held a discussion on the Bible and Christianity with the Rev. Mr. Thacher of Harley. About ’29 he publishedThe Elements of Modern Materialism. Died in Winchester, Mass., 20 Feb. 1850.

Knutzen(Matthias), b. Oldensworth, in Holstein, 1645. He early lost his parents, and was brought to an uncle at Königsberg, where he studied philosophy. He took to the adventurous life of a wandering scholar and propagated his principles in many places. In 1674 he preached Atheism publicly at Jena, in Germany, and had followers who were called “Gewissener,” from their acknowledging no other authority but conscience. It is said there were seven hundred in Jena alone. What became of him and them is unknown. A letter dated from Rome gives his principles. He denied the existence of either God or Devil, deemed churches and priests useless, and held that there is no life beyond the present, for which conscience is a sufficient guide, taking the place of the Bible, which contains great contradictions. He also wrote two dialogues.

Koerbagh(Adriaan), Dutch martyr, b. Amsterdam, 1632 or 1633. He became a doctor of law and medicine. In 1668 he publishedA Flower Garden of all Loveliness, a dictionary of definitions in which he gave bold explanations. The work was rigidly suppressed, and the writer fled toCulemborg. There he translated a bookDe Trinitate, and began a work entitledA Light Shining in Dark Places, to illuminate the chief things of theology and religion by Vrederijk Waarmond, inquisitor of truth. Betrayed for a sum of money, Koerbagh was tried for blasphemy, heavily fined and sentenced to be imprisoned for ten years, to be followed by ten years banishment. He died in prison, Oct. 1669.

Kolb(Georg Friedrich), German statistician and author, b. Spires 14 Sept. 1808, author of an ableHistory of Culture, 1869–70. Died at Munich 15 May,1884.

Koornhert(Theodore). SeeCoornhert (Dirk Volkertszoon.)

Korn(Selig), learned German Orientalist of Jewish birth, b. Prague, 26 April, 1804. A convert to Freethought, under the name of “F. Nork,” he wrote many works on mythology which may still be consulted with profit. A list is given in Fuerst’sBibliotheca Judaica. We mentionChristmas and Easter Explained by Oriental Sun Worship, Leipsic, ’36;Brahmins and Rabbins, Weissen, ’36;The Prophet Elijah as a Sun Myth, ’37;The Gods of the Syrians, ’42;Biblical Mythology of the Old and New Testament, 2 vols. Stuttgart, ’42–’43. Died at Teplitz, Bohemia, 16 Oct. 1850.

Krause(Ernst H. Ludwig), German scientific writer, b. Zielenzig 22 Nov. 1839. He studied science and contributed to theVossische ZeitungandGartenlaube. In ’63 he published, under the pen-name of “Carus Sterne,” a work onThe Natural History of Ghosts, and in ’76 a work onGrowth and Decay, a history of evolution. In ’77 he established with Hæckel, Dr. Otto Caspari, and Professor Gustav Jaeger, the monthly magazineKosmos, devoted to the spread of Darwinism. This he conducted till ’82. InKosmosappeared the germ of his little book onErasmus Darwin, ’79, to which Charles Darwin wrote a preliminary notice. As “Carus Sterne” he has also written essays entitledPrattle from Paradise,The Crown of Creation, ’84, and an illustrated work in parts onAncient and Modern Ideas of the World, ’87, etc.

Krekel(Arnold), American judge, b. Langenfield, Prussia 14 March, 1815. Went with parents to America in ’32 and settled in Missouri. In ’42 he was elected Justice of the Peace and afterwards county attorney. In ’52 he was electedto the Missouri State Legislature. He served in the civil war being elected colonel, was president of the constitutional convention of ’65 and signed the ordinance of emancipation by which the slaves of Missouri were set free. He was appointed judge by President Lincoln 9 March, ’65. A pronounced Agnostic, when he realized he was about to die he requested his wife not to wear mourning, saying that death was as natural as birth. Died at Kansas 14 July, 1888.

Krekel(Mattie H. Hulett), b. of freethinking parents, Elkhart Indiana 13 April, 1840. Educated at Rockford, Illinois, in her 16th year became a teacher. Married Judge Krekel, after whose death, she devoted her services to the Freethought platform.

Kropotkin(Petr Aleksyeevich)Prince, Russian anarchist, b. Moscow 9 Dec 1842. After studying at the Royal College of Pages he went to Siberia for five years to pursue geological researches. In ’71 he went to Belgium and Switzerland and joined the International. Arrested in Russia, he was condemned to three years imprisonment, escaped ’76 and came to England. In ’79 he founded at Geneva,Le Révoltéwas expelled. Accused in France in ’83 of complicity in the outrage at Lyons, he was condemned to five years imprisonment, but was released in ’86, since which he has lived in England. A brother who translated Herbert Spencer’s “Biology” into Russian, died in Siberia in the autumn of 1886.

Laas(Ernst) German writer, b. Furstenwalde, 16 June, 1837. He has written three volumes onIdealism and Positivism, 1879–’84, and also onKant’s Place in the History of the Conflict between Faith and Science, Berlin, 1882. He was professor of philosophy at Strassburg, where he died 25 July, 1885.

Labanca(Baldassarre), professor of moral philosophy in the University of Pisa, b. Agnone, 1829. He took part in the national movement of ’48, and in ’51 was imprisoned and afterwards expelled from Naples. He has written on progress in philosophy and also a study on primitive Christianity, dedicated to Giordano Bruno, the martyr of Freethought, ’86.

Lachatre(Maurice), French writer, b. Issoudun 1814, edits a “Library of Progress,” in which has appeared his ownHistory of the Inquisition, andHistory of the Popes, ’83.

Lacroix(Sigismund), the pen name of Sigismund Julien AdolphKrzyzanowski, b. Warsaw 26 May, 1845. His father was a refugee. He wrote with Yves GuyotThe Social Doctrines of Christianity. In ’74 he was elected a municipal councillor of Paris. In ’77 he was sentenced to three months’ imprisonment for calling Jesus “enfant adulterin” inLe Radical. In Feb. ’81 he was elected president of the municipal council, and in ’83 deputy to the French parliament.

Laffitte(Pierre), French Positivist philosopher, b. 21 Feb. 1823 at Beguey (Gironde), became a disciple of Comte and one of his executors. He was professor of mathematics, but since the death of his master has given a weekly course of instruction in the formerapartmentof Comte. M. Laffitte has published discourses onThe General History of Humanity, ’59, andThe Great Types of Humanity, ’75–6. In ’78 he foundedLa Revue Occidentale.

Lagrange(Joseph Louis), Count, eminent mathematician, b. Turin, 25 Jan. 1736. He published in 1788 hisAnalytical Mechanics, which is considered one of the masterpieces of the human intellect. He became a friend of D’Alembert, Diderot, Condorcet, and Delambre. He said he believed it impossible to prove there was a God. Died 10 April 1813.

La Hontan(Jean), early French traveller in Canada, b. 1666. In his account ofDialogues with an American Savage, 1704, which was translated into English, he states objections to religion. Died in Hanover, 1715.

Lainez(Alexandre), French poet, b. Chimay, Hainault, 1650, of the same family with the general of the Jesuits. He lived a wandering Bohemian life and went to Holland to see Bayle. Died at Paris 18 April, 1710.

Laing(Samuel), politician and writer, b. Edinburgh 1812, the son of S. Laing of Orkney. Educated at Cambridge, where he took his degree ’32; called to the bar ’42; became secretary of the railway department of the Board of Trade; returned as Liberal M.P. for Kirkwall ’52; helped repeal duty on advertisements in newspapers. In ’60 he became finance minister for India. HisModern Science and Modern Thought, ’85, is a plain exposition of the incompatibility of the old and newview of the universe. In theModern Zoroastrian, ’87, he gives the philosophy of polarity, in which, however, he was anticipated by Mr. Crozier, who in turn was anticipated by Emerson. In ’88 he entered into a friendly correspondence with Mr. Gladstone on the subject of Agnosticism his portion of which has been published.

Lakanal(Joseph), French educator, b. Serres, 14 July, 1762. Studied for priesthood, but gave up that career. He entered with ardor into the Revolution, was a member of the Convention 1792–5, and there protected the interests of science. At the restoration in 1814 he retired to America, and was welcomed by Jefferson and became president of the University ofLouisiana. He returned to France after the Revolution of ’30, and died in Paris 14 Feb. 1845.

Lalande(Joseph Jèromele Francaisde), distinguished French astronomer, b. Bourg en Bresse, 11 July 1732. Educated by the Jesuits, he was made a member of the Academy of Sciences in his 20th year. In 1762 he became Professor of Astronomy at the College of France. In 1764 he published hisTreatise of Astronomy, to which Dupuis subjoined a memoir, which formed the basis of hisOrigin of all Religions, the idea of which he had taken from Lalande.In Aug 1793 Lalande hazarded his own life to save Dupont de Nemours, and some priests whom he concealed in the observatory of Mazarin college. It was upon Lalande’s observations that the Republican calender was drawn up. At Lalande’s instigation Sylvain Maréchal published hisDictionary of Atheists, to which the astronomer contributed supplements after Maréchal’s death. Lalande professed himself prouder of being an Atheist than of being an astronomer. HisBibliographie Astronomiqueis called by Prof. de Morgan “a perfect model of scientific bibliography.” It was said that never did a young man address himself to Lalande without receiving proof of his generosity. He died at Paris 4 April, 1807.

Lamarck(Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine deMonet) French naturalist, b. Picardy 1 Aug. 1744, educated for the Church, but entered the army in 1761, and fought with distinction. Having been disabled, he went to Paris, studied Botany, and publishedFrench Florain 1788, which opened to him theAcademy of Sciences. He became assistant at the Museum of Natural History, and in 1809 propounded, in hisZoological Philosophy, a theory of transmutation of species. HisNatural History of Invertebrate Animals(1815–22) was justly celebrated. He became blind several years before his death, 18 Dec. 1829.

Lamborelle(Louis). Belgian author of books onThe Good Old Times,Brussels, 1874;The Apostles and Martyrs of Liberty of Conscience, Antwerp, 1882, and other anti-clerical works. Lamborelle lost a post under government through his anticlerical views, and is one of the council of the Belgian Freethought party.

Lamettrie(JulianOffrayde). French physician and philosopher, b. St. Malo, 25 Dec. 1709. Destined for the Church, he was educated under the Jesuits at Caen. He, however, became a physician, studying under Boerhaave, at Leyden. Returning to France, he became surgeon to the French Guard, and served at the battles of Fontenoy and Dettingen. Falling ill, he noticed that his faculties fluctuated with his physical state, and drew therefrom materialistic conclusions. The boldness with which he made his ideas known lost him his place, and he took refuge in Holland. Here he publishedThe Natural History of the Soul, under the pretence of its being a translation from the English of Charp [Sharp], 1745. This was followed byMan a Machine(1748), a work which was publicly burnt at Leyden, and orders given for the author’s arrest. It was translated into English, and reached a second edition (London, 1750). It was often attributed to D’Argens. Lamettrie held that the senses are the only avenues to knowledge, and that it is absurd to assume a god to explain motion. Only under Atheism will religious strife cease. Lamettrie found an asylum with Frederick the Great, to whom he became physician and reader (Feb. 1748). Here he publishedPhilosophical Reflections on the Origin of Animals(1750), translated Seneca on Happiness, etc. He died 11 Nov. 1751, and desired by his will to be buried in the garden of Lord Tyrconnel. The great king thought so well of him that he composed his funeral eulogy.

La Mothe Le Vayer(François de). French sceptical philosopher, b. Paris, 1588, was patronised by Louis XIV., and waspreceptor to the Duke of Anjou. PublishedThe Virtue of PagansandDialogues after the Manner of the Ancients, in which he gave scope to his scepticism. Two editions of his collected works appeared, but neither of these containsThe Dialogues of Orasius Tubero(Frankfort 1606, probably a false date). Died 1672.

Lancelin(Pierre F.), French materialist, b. about 1770. Became a constructive engineer in the French navy, wrote an ableIntroduction to the Analysis of Science, 3 vols. 1801–3, and a physico-mathematical theory of the organisation of worlds, 1805. Died Paris, 1809.

Land(Jan Pieter Nicolaus), Dutch writer, b. Delft, 23 April, 1834. Has written critical studies on Spinoza, and brought out an edition of the philosopher’s works in conjunction with J. van Vloten.

Landesmann(Heinrich). SeeLorm.

Landor(Walter Savage), English poet, b. Ipsley Court, Warwickshire, 30 Jan. 1775. He was educated at Rugby and Oxford, and, inheriting a fortune, could indulge his tastes as an author. He published a volume of poems in 1795, andGebirin 1798. An ardent Republican, he served as a volunteer colonel in the Spanish Army against Napoleon from 1808 to 1814, besides devoting a considerable sum of money to the Spanish cause. He became a resident of Florence about 1816. His reputation chiefly rests on his greatImaginary Conversations, in which many bold ideas are presented in beautiful language. Landor was unquestionably the greatest English writer of his age. While nominally a Christian, he has scattered many Freethought sentiments over his various works. Died at Florence, 17 Sept. 1864.

Lanessan(Jean Louis de), French naturalist, b. at Saint André de Cubzac (Gironde), 13 July, 1843. At 19 he became a naval physician, and M.D. in ’68. He was elected in ’79 as Radical member of theMunicipalCouncil of Paris, and re-elected in ’81. In August of the same year he was elected Deputy for the Department of the Seine. He foundedLe Reveil, edited theMarseillaise, and started the International Biological Library, to which he contributed a study on the doctrine of Darwin. He has written a standard work on botany, and haswritten vol. iii. of the “Materialists’ Library,” on theEvolution of Matter.

Lanfrey(Pierre), French author and senator, b. Chambéry, 26 Oct. 1828, became known by a book onThe Church and the Philosophers of the Eighteenth Century, ’55, and celebrated by hisHistory of Napoleon I.’67–75. M. Lanfrey also wroteThe Political History of the Popes, a work placed on theIndex. Died at Pau, 15 Nov. 1877.

Lang(Andrew), man of letters, b. Selkirk, 31 March, 1844. Educated at St. Andrews and Oxford. Mr. Lang made his name by his translation of theOdysseywith Mr. Butcher, and by his graceful poems and ballads. He has writtenIn the Wrong Paradise, and many other pleasant sketches. More serious work is shown inCustom and Myth, ’84, andMyth, Ritual and Religion, ’87. A disciple of E. B. Tylor, Mr. Lang successfully upholds the evolutionary view of mythology.

Lang(Heinrich), German Rationalist, b. 14 Nov. 1826. Studied theology under Baur at Tübingen, and became teacher at Zürich, where he died, 13 Jan. 1876.

Lange(Friedrich Albert), German philosopher and writer, b. Wald, near Solix, 28 Sept. 1828. He studied at Bonn, and became teacher in the gymnasium of Cologne, ’52. In ’53 he returned to Bonn as teacher of philosophy, and there enjoyed the friendship of Ueberweg. He became proprietor and editor of the democraticLandbote, and filled various municipal offices. In ’70 he was called to the chair of philosophy at Zürich, but resigned in ’72 and accepted a similar post at Marburg, where he died 21 Nov. 1875. His fame rests on his importantHistory of Materialism, which has been translated into English.

Langsdorf(Karl Christian), German Deist, b. 18 May, 1757, author ofGod and Nature, a work on the immortality of the soul, and some mathematical books. Died Heidelberg, 10 June, 1834.

Lankester(Edwin Ray), F.R.S., LL.D., English scientist, b. London, 15 May, 1847, and educated at St. Paul’s School and Oxford. Has published many scientific memoirs, revised the translation of Haeckel’sHistory of Creation, and has done much to forward evolutionary ideas. In 1876 he exposed thespiritist medium Slade, and procured his conviction. He is Professor of Zoology and Natural History in the University of London.

La Place(Pierre Simon). One of the greatest astronomers, b. Beaumont-en-Auge, 23 March, 1749. His father was a poor peasant. Through the influence of D’Alembert, La Place became professor of mathematics in the military school, 1768. By his extraordinary abilities he became in 1785 member of the Academy of Science, which he enriched with many memoirs. In 1796 he published hisExposition of the System of the Universe, a popularisation of his greater work onCelestial Mechanics, 1799–1825. Among his sayings were, “What we know is but little, what we know not is immense.” “There is no need for the hypothesis of a God.” Died Paris, 5 March, 1827.

Larevelliere-Lepaux(Louis MarieDE), French politician, b. Montaigu 25 Aug. 1753. Attached from youth to the ideas of Rousseau, he was elected with Volney to represent Angers in the national assembly. He was a moderate Republican, defended the proscribed Girondins, was doomed himself but escaped by concealment, and distinguished himself by seeking to replace Catholicism with theophilanthropy or natural religion. He wroteReflections on Worship and the National Fêtes. He became President of the Directory, and after the 18 Brumaire retired, refusing to swear fealty to the empire though offered a pension by Napoleon. Died Paris, 27 March, 1824.

Larousse(Pierre Athanase), French lexicographer, b. of poor parents, 23 Oct. 1817, at Toucy, Yonne, where he became teacher. He edited many school books and founded theGrand Dictionnaire Universel du XIXe. Siecle, 1864–77. This is a collection of dictionaries, and may be called the Encyclopedie of this century. Most of M. Larousse’s colleagues were also Freethinkers. Died at Paris, 3 Jan. 1875.

Larra(Mariano José de), distinguished Spanish author, b. Madrid, 4 March, 1809. He went with his family to France and completed his education. He returned to Spain in ’22. At eighteen he published a collection of poems, which was followed byEl Duende Satirico(The Satirical Goblin). In ’31appeared hisPobrecito Hablador(Poor Gossip), a paper in which he unmercifully satirised the public affairs and men of Spain. It was suppressed after its fourteenth number. He edited in the following year theRevistaEspañola, signing his articles “Figaro.” He travelled through Europe, and on his return to Madrid editedEl Mundo. Larra wrote also some dramas and translated Lamennais’Paroles d’un Croyant. Being disappointed in love he shot himself, 13 April, 1837. Ch. de Mazade, after speaking of Larra’s scepticism, adds, “Larra could see too deep to possess any faith whatever. All the truths of this world, he was wont to say, can be wrapped in a cigarette paper!”

Larroque(Patrice), French philosopher, b. Beaume, 27 March, 1801. He became a teacher and was inspector of the academy of Toulouse, 1830–36, and rector of the academies of Cahors, Limoges, and Lyons, 1836–49. In the latter year he was denounced for his opposition to clerical ideas and lost his place. Among his numerous works we mentionDe l’Esclavage chez les Nations Chrétiennes, ’57, in which he proves that Christianity did not abolish slavery. This was followed by anCriticalExaminationof the Christian Religion, ’59, and a work onReligious Renovation, ’59, which proposes a moral system founded upon pure deism. Both were for a while prohibited in France. M. Larroque also wrote onReligion and Politics, ’78. Died at Paris, 15 June, 1879.

Lassalle(Ferdinand Johann Gottlieb), founder of German Social Democratic party, b. of Jewish parents, 11 April, 1825, in Breslau, studied philosophy and law at Breslau and Berlin. He became a follower of Hegel and Feuerbach. Heine, at Paris, ’46, was charmed with him. Humboldt called him “Wunderkind.” In 1858 he published a profound work on the philosophy of Heraclitus. For planning an insurrection against the Prussian Government he was arrested, but won his acquittal. Died through a duel, 31 Aug. 1864.

Lastarria(José Victorino), Chilian statesman and Positivist, b. Rancagua, 1812. From youth he applied himself to teaching and journalism, and in ’38 was appointed teacher of civil law and literature in the National Institute. He has founded several journals and literary societies. From ’43 he has beenat different times deputy to the legislature and secretary to the republic of Chili. He has also served as minister to Peru and Brazil. In ’73 he founded the Santiago Academy of Science and Literature; has written many works, and hisLecciones de Politicia Positivahas been translated into French by E. de Rivière and others, 1879.

Lau(Theodor Ludwig), German philosopher, b. at Königsberg, 15 June 1670, studied at Königsberg and Halle, and about 1695 travelled through Holland, England, and France. In 1717 he published in Latin, at Frankfort,Philosophical Meditations on God, the World, and Man, which excited an outcry for its materialistic tendency and wassuppressed. He was a follower of Spinoza, and held several official positions from which he was deposed on account of his presumed atheism. Died at Altona, 8 Feb. 1740.

Laurent(François), Belgian jurisconsult, b. Luxembourg, 8 July, 1810. Studied law and became an advocate. In ’35 he was made Professor of Civil Law in the University of Ghent, a post he held, despite clerical protests, till his retirement in ’80. A voluminous author on civil and international law, his principal work is entitledStudies in the History of Humanity. He was a strong advocate of the separation of Church and State, upon which he wrote, 1858–60. He also wroteLetters on the Jesuits, ’65. Died in 1887.

Law(Harriet), English lecturess, who for many years occupied the secular platform, and engaged in numerous debates. She edited theSecular Chronicle, 1876–1879.

Lawrence(James), Knight of Malta, b. Fairfield, Jamaica, 1773, of good Lancashire family. Educated at Eton and Gottingen; became acquainted with Schiller and Goethe at Stuttgart and Weimar, was detained with English prisoners at Verdun. In 1807 he published hisThe Empire of the Nairs, or the Rights of Women, a free-love romance which he wrote in German, French, and English. He also wrote in French and English, a curious bookletThe Children of God, London, 1853. He addressed a poem on Tolerance to Mr. Owen, on the occasion of his denouncing the religions of the world. It appears inThe Etonian Out of Bounds. Died at London 26 Sept. 1841.

Lawrence(Sir William), surgeon, b. Cirencester, 1783. Admitted M.R.C.S., 1805, in ’13 he was chosen, F.R.S., and two years later was named Professor of Anatomy and Surgery at the Royal College of Surgeons. While he held that chair he delivered hisLectures on Man, which on their publication in 1819 roused a storm of bigotry. In his early manhood, Lawrence was an earnest advocate of radical reform; but notwithstanding his early unpopularity, he acquired a lucrative practice. Died London, 5 July, 1867.

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