Chapter 9

Layton(Henry), educated at Oxford, and studied at Gray’s Inn, being called to the bar. He wrote anonymously observations on Dr. Bentley’sConfutation of Atheism(1693), and aSearch After Souls, and Spiritual Observations in Man(1700).Leblais(Alphonse), French professor of mathematics, b. Mans, 1820. Author of a study in Positivist philosophy entitledMaterialism and Spiritualism(1865), to which Littré contributed a preface.Le Bovier de Fontenelle.SeeFontenelle.Lecky(William Edward Hartpole), historian, b. near Dublin, 26 March, 1838. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin. His works, which are characterised by great boldness and originality of thought, areA History of the Rise and Spirit of Rationalism in Europe(’65),A History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne(’69), andA History of England in the Eighteenth Century(1878–87).Leclerc(Georges Louis). SeeBuffon.Leclerc de Septchenes(N.), b. at Paris. Became secretary to Louis XVI., translated the first three vols. of Gibbon, and wrote an essay on the religion of the ancient Greeks (1787). A friend of Lalande, he prepared an edition of Freret, published after his death. Died at Plombieres, 9 June, 1788.Leconte de Lisle(Charles Marie René), French poet, b. Isle of Bourbon, 23 Oct. 1818. After travelling in India, returned to Paris, and took part in the revolution of ’48, but has since devoted himself mainly to poetry, though he has written alsoA Republican CatechismandA Popular History of Christianity(’71). One of his finest poems isKain. On being elevated to the seat of Victor Hugo at the Academy in ’87, he gave umbrage toJews and Catholics by incidentally speaking of Moses as “the chief of a horde of ferocious nomads.”Lecount(Peter), lieutenant in the French navy. He was engaged in the battle of Navarino. Came to England as a mathematician in the construction of the London and Birmingham Railway, of which he wrote a history (1839). He wrote a curious book in three volumes entitledA Few Hundred Bible Contradictions; A Hunt After the Devil and other Old Matters, by John P. Y., M.D.; published by H. Hetherington (’43). The author’s name occurs on p. 144, vol i., as “the Rev. Peter Lecount.”Leenhof(Frederick van), b. Middelburg (Zealand), Aug. 1647. Became a minister of Zwolle, where he published a work entitledHeaven on Earth(1703), which subjected him to accusations of Atheism. It was translated into German in 1706.Lefevre(André), French writer, b. Provins, 9 Nov. 1834. He became, at the age of twenty-three, one of the editors of theMagasin Pittoresque. He wrote much inLa Libre PenséeandLa Pensée Nouvelle; has translatedLucretiusin verse (’76), and writtenReligions and Mythologies Compared(’77); contributed a sketchyHistory of Philosophyto the Library of Contemporary Science (’78); has writtenMan Across the Ages(’80) and theRenaissance of Materialism(’81). He has also edited theLettres Persanesof Montesquieu, someDialoguesof Voltaire, and Diderot’sLa Religieuse(’86).Lefort(César), disciple of Comte. Has published a work on the method of modern science (Paris, 1864).Lefrancais de Lalande.SeeLalande.Legate(Bartholomew), Antitrinitarian native of Essex, b. about 1572, was thrown into prison on a charge of heresy, 1611. King James had many personal interviews with him. On one occasion the king asked him if he did not pray to Jesus Christ. He replied that he had done so in the days of his ignorance, but not for the last seven years. “Away, base fellow!” said His Majesty, “It shall never be said that one stayeth in my presence who hath never prayed to the Savior for seven years together.” He was burnt at Smithfield by theKing’s writ,De Hæretico Comburendo, 18 March, 1612, being one of the last persons so punished in England.Leguay de Premontval.SeePremontval.Le Hon(Henri) Belgian scientist, b. Ville-Pommerœul (Hainault) 1809, was captain in the Belgian army, professor at the military school of Brussels, and Chevalier of the Order of Leopold. Author ofL’Homme Fossile en Europe, ’66. Translated Professor Omboni’s exposition of Darwinism. Died at San Remo, 1872.Leidy(Joseph), M.D., American naturalist, b. Philadelphia, 9 Sept. 1823. He became professor of biology at the University of Philadelphia, and is eminent for his contributions to American palæontology.Leigh(Henry Stone), English author of a Deistic work on theReligions of the World, 1869.Leland(Theron C.), American journalist, b. 9 April, 1821. He edited with Wakeman the journalMan. Died 2 June, 1885.Lemaire(Charles), member of the Academical Society of Saint Quentin, author of an atheistic philosophical work, in two vols., entitledInitiation to the Philosophy of Liberty, Paris, 1842.Lemonnier(Camille), Belgian writer, b. Ixel les Bruxelles, 1845, author of stories and works on Hysteria, Death, etc., in which he evinces his freethought sentiments.Lenau(Nicolaus),i.e.Nicolaus Franz Niembsch vonStrehlenau, Hungarian poet, b. Czatad, 15 Aug. 1802. His poems, written in German, are pessimistic, and his constitutional melancholy deepened into insanity. Died Ober-Döbling, near Vienna, 22 Aug. 1850.Lennstrand(Viktor E.), Swedish writer and orator, b. Gefle, 30 Jan. 1861. Educated at Upsala University. Founded the Swedish Utilitarian Society, March ’88, and in May was sentenced to a fine of 250 crowns for denial of the Christian religion. On the 29th Nov. he was imprisoned for three months for the same offence. Has written several pamphlets and has incurred several fresh prosecutions. In company withA. Lindkvist he has founded theFritankarenas the organ of Swedish freethought.Leontium, Athenian Hetæra, disciple and mistress of Epicurus (q.v.) She acquired distinction as a philosopher, and wrote a treatise against Theophrastus, which is praised by Cicero as written in a skilful and elegant manner.Leopardi(Giacomo), count, Italian pessimist poet, b. Recanati (Ancona), 29 June, 1798. In 1818 he won a high place among poets by his lines addressedTo Italy. HisCanti, ’31, are distinguished by eloquence and pathos, while his prose essays,Operette Morali, ’27, are esteemed the finest models of Italian prose of this century. Leopardi’s short life was one long disease, but it was full of work of the highest character. As a poet, philologist, and philosopher, he is among the greatest of modern Italians. Died at Naples, 14 July, 1837.Lequinio(Joseph Marie), French writer and Conventionnel, b. Sarzeau, 1740. Elected Mayor of Rennes, 1790, and Deputy from Morbihar to the Legislative Assembly. He then professed Atheism. He voted the death of Louis XVI. “regretting that the safety of the state did not permit his being condemned to penal servitude for life.” In 1792 he publishedPrejudices Destroyed, signed “Citizen of the World,” in which he considered religion as a political chain. He took part in the Feasts of Reason, and wrotePhilosophy of the People, 1796. Died 1813.Lermina(Jules Hippolyte), French writer, b. 27 March, 1839. Founded theCorsairandSatan, and has published an illustrated biographical dictionary of contemporary France, 1884–5.Lermontov(Mikhail Yur’evich), Russian poet and novelist, b. Moscow, 3 Oct. 1814. Said to have come of a Scotch family, he studied at Moscow University, from which he was expelled. In ’32 he entered the Military Academy at St. Petersburg, and afterwards joined the Hussars. In ’37 some verses on the death of Pushkin occasioned his being sent to the Caucasus, which he describes in a work translated into English, ’53. His poems are much admired.The Demon, exhibiting Satan in love, has been translated into English, and so has his romance entitledA Hero of Our Times. He fell in a duel in the Caucasus, 15 July, 1840.Leroux(Pierre), French Socialist and philosophic writer, b. Bercy, near Paris, 6 April, 1797. At first a mason, then a typographer, he invented an early composing machine which he called the pianotype. In 1824 he became editor of theGlobe. Becoming a Saint Simonian, he made this paper the organ of the sect. He started with ReynaudL’Encyclopédie Nouvelle, and afterwards with L. Viardot and Mme. George Sand theRevue Indépendante(’41), which became noted for its pungent attacks on Catholicism. His principal work isDe l’Humanite(’40). In June ’48 M. Leroux was elected to the Assembly. After thecoup d’étathe returned to London and Jersey. Died at Paris, 12 April, 1871.Leroy(Charles Georges), lieutenant ranger of the park of Versailles, b.1723, one of the writers on theEncyclopédie. He defended the work of Helvetius on the Mind against Voltaire, and wrotePhilosophical Letters on the Intelligence and Perfectibility of Animals(1768), a work translated into English in 1870. Died at Paris 1789.Lespinasse(Adolf Frederik Henri de). Dutch writer, b. Delft, 14 May, 1819. Studied medicine, and established himself first at Deventer and afterwards at Zwartsluis, Vaassen, and Hasselt. In theDageraadhe wrote many interesting studies under the pen-name of “Titus,” and translated the work of Dupuis into Dutch. In 1870 he emigrated to America and became director of a large farm in Iowa. Died in Orange City (Iowa) 1881.L’Espinasse(Julie Jeanne Eléonore de). French beauty and wit, b. Lyons, 9 Nov. 1732. She became the protégé of Madame du Deffand, and gained the favor of D’Alembert. Her letters are models of sensibility and spirit. Died Paris, 23 May, 1776.Lessing(Gotthold Ephraim). German critic and dramatic poet, b. Kamenz, 22 Jan. 1729. He studied at Leipsic, and at Berlin became acquainted with Voltaire and Mendelssohn. Made librarian at Wolfenbüttel he publishedFragments of an Unknown(1777), really theVindication of Rational Worshippers of God, by Reimarus, in which it was contended that Christian evidences are so clad in superstition as to be unworthy credence. Among his writings wereThe FreethinkerandNathan the Wise, hisnoblest play, in which he enforces lessons of toleration and charity to all faiths. The effect of his writings was decidedly sceptical. Heine calls Lessing, after Luther, the greatest German emancipator. Died at Brunswick 15 Feb. 1781.Lessona(Michele). Italian naturalist, b. 20 Sept., 1823; has translated some of the works of Darwin.Leucippus.Greek founder of the atomic philosophy.L’Estrange(Thomas), writer, b. 17 Jan. 1822. With a view to entering the Church he graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, 26 Feb. ’44, but became an attorney. Having read F. A. Paley’s Introduction to the Iliad, he became convinced that the “cooking” process there described, has been undergone by all sacred books now extant. He wrote for Thomas Scott’s series valuable tracts onOur First Century,Primitive Church History,Irenæus,Order,The Eucharist. He also edited Hume’sDialogues on Natural Religion, and wroteThe First Ten Alleged Persecutions.Levallois(Jules), French writer, b. Rouen 18 May, 1829. In ’55 he became secretary to Sainte Beuve. WroteDéismeet Christianisme, 1866.Lewes(George Henry), English man of letters, b. in London, 18 April, 1817, he became a journalist and dramatic critic. In 1845–6 appeared hisBiographical History of Philosophy, which showed higher power. This has been republished asHistory of Philosophy from Thales to Comte. Lewes was one of the first to introduce English readers to Comte in his account ofComte’s Philosophy of the Sciences, ’47. In ’49 he became one of the founders of theLeader, for which he wrote till ’54. In that year he began his association with “George Eliot” (q.v.). HisLife of Goetheappeared in ’55, and from this time he began to give his attention to scientific, especially biological, studies. In ’64 he published an important essay on Aristotle. On the foundation of theFortnightly Review, ’65, Lewes was appointed editor. His last work,Problems of Life and Mind, 5 vols. ’74–79, was never completed owing to his death, 28 Nov. 1878. He bequeathed his books to Dr. Williams’s library.Lichtenberg(Georg Christoph), German satirical writer and scientist, b. Ober-Ramstädt, 1 July, 1742; a friend of G. Forster,he left many thoughts showing his advanced opinions. Died Göttingen, 24 Feb. 1799.Lick(James), American philanthropist, b. Fredericksburg, Pa., 25 Aug. 1796. In 1847 he settled in California and made a large fortune by investing in real estate. He was a Materialist and bequeathed large sums to the Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, and for other philanthropic purposes. Died San Francisco, 1 Oct. 1876.Lilja(Nicolai), Swedish writer, b. Rostanga, 18 Oct. 1808. Studied at Lund and became parish clerk in the Lund diocese. He wrote, onMan; his Life and Destiny. Died Lund 1870.Lincoln(Abraham), sixteenth President of the United States, b. Kentucky, 12 Feb. 1809. An uncompromising opponent of slavery, his election (Nov. ’60) led to the civil war and the emancipation of slaves. Ward H. Lamon, who knew him well, says he “read Volney and Paine and then wrote a deliberate and labored essay, wherein he reached conclusions similar to theirs. The essay was burnt, but he never denied or regretted its composition.” Mrs. Lincoln said, “Mr. Lincoln had no hope and no faith in the usual acceptance of those words.” Assassinated 14 April, 1865, he expired the following morning.Lindet(Robert Thomas), “apostate” French bishop, b. Bernay, 1743. Was elected to the States-General by the clergy of his district. He embraced Republican principles, and in March, 1791, was made Bishop of L’Eure. In Nov. 1792 he publicly married. On 7 Nov. 1793, renounced his bishopric. He proposed that civil festivals should take the place of religious ones. He became member of theConseil des Anciens. Died Bernay, 10 Aug. 1823, and was buried without religious service.Lindh(Theodor Anders), b. Borgo (Finland), 13 Jan. 1833. Studied at Helsingfors University, ’51–57; became lawyer in ’71, and is now a member of theMunicipalCouncil of Borgo. He has written many poems in Swedish, and also translated from the English poets, and has published Freethought essays, which have brought him into controversy with the clergy.Lindkvist(Alfred), Swedish writer, b. Gefle, 21 Oct. 1860,of pious parents. At the University of Upsala he studied European literature, and became acquainted with the works of Mill, Darwin, and Spencer. He has published two volumes of poems,Snow DropsandApril Days, and lost a stipend at the University by translating from the Danish a rationalistic life of Jesus entitledThe Reformer from Galilee. Mr. Lindkvist has visited Paris, and collaborated on a Stockholm daily paper. In ’88 he joined his friend Lennstrand in propagating Freethought, and in Nov. received a month’s imprisonment for having translated one of J. Symes’s anti-Christian pamphlets. He now editsFritankarenin conjunction with Mr. Lennstrand.Lindner(Ernst Otto Timotheus), German physician, b. Breslau, 28 Nov. 1820. A friend of Schopenhauer, whose philosophy he maintained in several works on music. He edited theVossische Zeitungfrom ’63. Died at Berlin, 7 Aug. 1867.Liniere(FrançoisPayotde), French satiric poet, b. Paris, 1628; known as the Atheist of Senlis. Boileau says the only act of piety he ever did was drinking holy water because his mistress dipped her finger in it. Wrote many songs and smart epigrams, and is said to have undertaken a criticism of the New Testament. Died at Paris in 1704.Linton(Eliza, néeLynn) novelist and journalist, daughter of vicar of Crosthwaite, Cumberland, b. Keswick, 1822. Has contributed largely to the leading Radical journals, and has written numerous works of fiction, of which we must mentionUnder which Lord?andThe Rebel of the Family. In ’72 she publishedThe True History of Joshua Davidson,Christian and Communist, and in ’85 theAutobiography of Christopher Kirkland. She has also written on the woman question, and contributed largely to periodical literature.Linton(William James), poet, engraver, and author, b. at London, 1812. A Chartist in early life, he was intimately associated with the chief political refugees. He contributed to the democratic press, and also, we believe, to theOracle of Reason. He wrote theReasonertract on “The Worth of Christianity.” He was one of the founders of theLeader, has edited theTruthseeker, theNationaland theEnglish Republic, and has publishedFamine a Masque, aLife of Paine, and a memoir ofJames Watsonand some volumes of poems. In ’67 he went to America, but has recently returned.Liscow(Christian Ludwig), one of the greatest German satirists, b. Wittenberg, 29 April, 1701. He studied law in Jena, and became acquainted with Hagedorn in Hamburg. In 1745 he was Councillor of War at Dresden. This post he abandoned, occupying himself with literature until his death, 30 Oct. 1760. Liscow’s principal satires areThe Uselessness of Good Works for our SalvationandThe Excellence and Utility of Bad Writers. He has been called the German Swift, and his works show him to have been an outspoken Freethinker.Lisle(Lionel), author ofThe Two Tests: the Supernatural Claims of Christianity Tried by Two of its own Rules(London, 1877).Liszinski(Casimir), Polish martyr of noble birth. Denounced as an Atheist in 1688 by the Bishop of Wilna and Posnovia, he was decapitated and burnt at Grodno 30 March, 1689. His ashes were placed in a cannon and scattered abroad. Among the statements in Liszinski’s papers was that man was the creator of God, whom he had formed out of nothing.Littre(Maximilian Paul Emile), French philologist and philosopher, b. Paris, 1 Feb. 1801. He studied medicine, literature and most of the sciences. An advanced Republican, he was one of the editors of theNational. His edition of the works of Hippocrates (1839–61) proved the thoroughness of his learning. He embraced the doctrines of Comte, and in ’45 published a lucid analysis of the Positive Philosophy. He translated theLife of Jesus, by Strauss, and wrote theLiterary History of France. HisDictionary of the French Language, in which he applied the historical method to philology, is one of the most colossal works ever performed by one man. He wrote onComte and Positive Philosophy,Comte and Mill, etc., but refused to follow Comte in his later vagaries. From ’67 till his death he conductedLa Philosophie Positive. Littré also wroteScience from the Standpoint of Philosophy, ’73;Literature and History, ’75;Fragments of Positive Philosophy and Contemporary Sociology, ’76. He was proposed for the Academy in ’63, but was bitterly opposed by Bishop Dupanloup, and was elected in ’71. In the same year he was elected to the National Assembly, and in ’75was chosen senator. Under the Empire he twice refused the Legion of Honor. After a long life of incessant labor, he died at Paris, 2 June 1881.Lloyd(John William), American poet and writer, b. of Welsh-English stock at Westfield, New Jersey, 4 June, 1857. Is mostly self-educated. After serving apprenticeship as a carpenter, became assistant to Dr. Trall. Brought up as an orthodox Christian he became an Agnostic and Anarchist, and has written much inLibertyandLucifer.Lohmann(Hartwic), a native of Holstein, who in 1616 occupied a good position in Flensburg. He was accused of Atheism. In 1635 he practised medicine at Copenhagen. He wrote a work called theMirror of Faith. Died 1642.Lollard(Walter), heretic and martyr, b. England, towards end of thirteenth century, began to preach in Germany in 1315. He rejected the sacraments and ceremonies of the Church. It is said he chose twelve apostles to propagate his doctrines and that he had many followers. Arrested at Cologne in 1322, he was burnt to death, dying with great courage.Loman(Abraham Dirk), Dutch rationalist, b. The Hague 16 Sep. 1823. He holds the entire New Testament to be unhistorical, and the Pauline Epistles to belong to the second century, and has written many critical works.Lombroso(Cesare). Italian writer and scientist, b. Nov. 1836, has been a soldier and military physician. Introduced Darwinism to Italy. Has written several works, mostly in relation to the physiology of criminals.Longet(François Achille), French physiologist, b. St. Germain-en-Laye, 1811, published aTreatise on Physiologyin 3 vols. and several medical works. Died Bordeaux, 20 April, 1871.Longiano(Sebastiano). SeeFausto.Longue(Louis Pierre de), French Deist, writer in the service of the house of Conti; wroteLes Princesses de Malabares, Adrianople, 1734, in which he satirised religion. It was condemned to be burnt 31 Dec. 1734, and a new edition published in Holland with the imprint Tranquebar, 1735.Lorand(Georges), Belgian journalist, b. Namur, 1851, studiedlaw at Bologna (Italy) and soon became an active propagator of Atheistic doctrines among the youth of the University and in workmen associations. He editsLa Réformeat Brussels, the ablest daily exponent of Freethought and Democratic doctrines in Belgium. He has lately headed an association for the suppression of the standing army.“Lorm(Hieronymus),” the pen name of HeinrichLandesmann. German pessimistic poet, b. Nikolsberg, 9 Aug. 1821. In addition to many philosophical poems, he has written essays entitledNature and Spirit, Vienna, ’84.Lozano(Fernando), Spanish writer inLas Dominicales dal Libre Pensamiento, where he uses the signature “Demofilo.” He has writtenBattles of Freethought,Possessed by the Devil,The Church and Galeote, etc.Lubbock(Sir John), banker, archæologist, scientist and statesman, b. in London, 30 April, 1834. Educated at Eton, he was taken into his father’s bank at the age of fourteen, and became a partner in ’56. By his archæological works he has most distinguished himself. He has writtenPrehistoric Times as Illustrated by Ancient Remains, and the Manners and Customs of Modern Savages(’65), andThe Origin of Civilisation and the Primitive Condition of Man(’70).Lucretius Carus(Titus). Roman philosophical poet, b. aboutB.C.99. Little is known of his life, but his name is immortalised by his atheistic work,De Rerum Natura, in six books, which is the finest didactic poem in any language. Lucretius has been said to have believed in one god, Epicurus, whose system he expounds. Full of animation, dignity, and sublimity, he invests philosophy with the grace of genius. Is said to have died by his own handB.C.55.Luetzelberger(Ernst Karl Julius), German controversialist b. Ditterswind, 19 Oct. 1802. He was a friend of the Feuerbachs. He wrote onThe Church Tradition of the Apostle John. He also wrote a work on Jesus, translated in Ewerbeck’sQu’est ce que la Religion. In ’56 he was appointed town librarian at Nuremberg.Lunn(Edwin), Owenite lecturer. Published pamphletsOn Prayer, its Folly, Inutility, etc.1839, andDivine Revelation Examined, 1841.Luys(Jules Bernard), French alienist, b. Paris, 1828. Is physician at l’Hopital de la Charité, Paris, and author of a work onThe Brain and its Functionsin the “International Scientific Series.”Lyell(Sir Charles), geologist, b. Kinnordy, Forfarshire, 14 Nov. 1797. Was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, and devoted himself to geology. In 1830–33 appeared his great work,The Principles of Geology, which went through numerous editions. His last important work wasGeological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, in which he accepts the Darwinian theory. Died 22 Feb. 1875.Maccall(William), writer, b. Largs. Scotland, 1812. Educated at Glasgow, he found his way to the Unitarian Church which he left as insufficiently broad. He wroteElements of Individualism(’47), translated Spinoza’s Treatise on Politics (’54), wrote to theCriticas “Atticus,” contributed to theNational Reformer,Secular Review, etc., publishedForeign Biographies(’73), and translated Dr. Letourneau’sBiologyand other works. Maccall was an idealistic Pantheist of strong individual character. Died at Bexley, 19 Nov. 1888.Macchi(Mauro), Italian writer, b. Milan, 1 July, 1818. Became professor of rhetoric at the age of twenty-four, when, becoming obnoxious to the Austrians by the liberty of his opinions, he was deprived of his position. He betook himself to radical journalism, foundedl’Italia, a Republican journal, for which he was exiled. He was associated with Ausonio Franchi and Luigi Stefanoni in theLibero Pensieroand theLibero Pensatore, and founded an Italian Association of Freethinkers. In ’61 he was elected deputy to Parliament for Cremona, and in ’79 was elevated to the Senate. Died at Rome, 24 Dec. 1880. One of his principal works is on theCouncil of Ten.Macdonald(Eugene Montague), editor of the New YorkTruthseeker, b. Chelsea, Maine, 4 Feb. 1855. He learned the printer’s trade in New York, where he became foreman to D. M. Bennett, and contributed to the paper, which he has conducted since Mr. Bennett’s death.Macdonald(George), brother of the preceding. Wrote ontheTruthseeker, and now conductsFreethought, of San Francisco, in company with S. P. Putnam. George Macdonald is a genuine humorist and a sound Freethinker.McDonnell(William), American novelist, b. 15 Sept. 1824. Author ofThe Heathens of the HeathandExeter Hall, ’73, both Freethought romances.Mackay(Robert William), author ofThe Progress of the Intellect, 1850,Sketch of the Rise and Progress of Christianity, ’53, andThe Tubingen School, ’63.Mackey(Sampson Arnold), astronomer and shoemaker, of Norwich, who is said to have constructed an orrery out of leather. He wroteThe Mythological Astronomy of the Ancients, Norwich, 1822–24,Pious Frauds, ’26, A Lecture on Astronomy and Geology, edited by W. D. Saull, ’32,Urania’s Keyto the Revelation, ’33, andThe Age of Mental Emancipation, ’36–39. Mackey also wrote theSphinxiad, a rare book. Died 1846.Mackintosh(Thomas Simmons), author ofThe Electrical Theory of the Universe, 1848, andAn Inquiry into the Nature of Responsibility. Died 1850.MacSweeney(Myles), mythologist, b. at Enniskillen 1814. He came to London, and hearing Robert Taylor at the Rotunda in 1830, adopted his views. He held that Jesus never existed, and wrote in theNational Reformer,Secular Chronicle, and other papers. He published a pamphlet onMoses and Bacchusin 1874. Died Jan. 1881.Madach(Imré), Hungarian patriot and poet, b. 21 Jan. 1823,at Sztregova, studied at the University of Buda Pesth, and afterwards lived at Cseszlova. He was in ’52 incarcerated for a year for having given asylum at his castle to a political refugee. He became in ’61 delegate at Pesth. In this year he published his fine poemAz EmberTragédiája(The Human Tragedy), in which mankind is personified as Adam, with Lucifer in his company. Many Freethought views occur in this poem. Died 5 Oct. 1864. His works were published in 3 vols., 1880.Maier(Lodewyk). SeeMeyer.Maillet(Benôit de). French author, b. Saint Michiel, 12 April, 1656. He was successively consul in Egypt and atLeghorn; and died at Marseilles, 30 Jan. 1738. After his death was published “Telliamed” (the anagram of his name), in which he maintained that all land was originally covered with water and that every species of animal, man included, owes its origin to the sea.“Mainlaender” (Philipp), pseudonym of PhilippBatz, German pessimist, author of a profound work entitled thePhilosophy of Redemption, the first part of which was published in 1876. It was said that “Mainländer” committed suicide in that year, but the second part of his work has come out 1882–86. He holds that Polytheism gives place to Monotheism and Pantheism, and these again to Atheism. “God is dead, and his death was the life of the world.”Malherbe(François de). French poet, b. Caen, 1555. He served in the civil wars of the League, and enjoyed the patronage of Henry IV. He was called the prince of poets and the poet of princes. Many stories are told illustrating his sceptical raillery. When told upon his death-bed of paradise and hell he said he had lived like others and would go where others went. Died Paris, 16 Oct. 1628.Mallet(Mme. Josephine). French authoress of a work onThe Bible, its origin, errors and contradictions (1882).Malon(Benoît). French Socialist, b. near St. Etienne, 1841. One of the founders of theInternational; he has written a work on that organisation, its history and principles (Lyons, 1872). He is editor onL’Intransigeant, conducted theRevue Socialiste, and has written on the religion and morality of the Socialists and other works.Malvezin(Pierre). French journalist, b. Junhac, 26 June 1841. Author ofLa Bible Farce(Brussels, 1879.) This work was condemned and suppressed, 1880, and the author sentenced to three month’s imprisonment. He conducts the reviewLa Fraternité.Mandeville(Bernhard), b. Dort. 1670. He studied medicine, was made a doctor in Holland, and emigrated to London. In 1705 he published a poetical satire,The Grumbling Hive, or Knaves Turned Honest. In 1709, he publishedThe Virgin Unmasked, and in 1723,Free Thoughts on Religion the Church andNational Happiness. In the same year appeared hisFables of the Bees or Private Vices, Public Benefits. This work was presented by the grand jury of Middlesex, 1723 and 1728. It was attacked by Law, Berkeley, and others. Mandeville replied to Berkeley inA Letter to Dion, occasioned by a book called Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher, 1732. He also wroteAn Inquiry of Honor, andUsefulness of Christianity in War, 1731. Died, London, 19 Jan. 1733.Mantegazza(Paolo), Italian anthropologist, b. Monza, 31 Oct. 1831. Studied medicine at Milan, Pisa, and Paria, and travelled considerably through Europe, and produced at Paris in 1854 his first bookThe Physiology of Pleasure. He has also written on the physiology of pain, spontaneous generation, anthropological works on Ecstacy, Love and other topics, and a fine romanceIl Dio Ignoto, the unknown god (1876). Mantegazza is one of the most popular and able of Italian writers.Manzoni(Romeo), Dr. Italian physician, b. Arogno, 1847, studied philosophy at Milan, and graduated at Naples. He has written on the doctrine of love of Bruno and SchopenhauerA Life of Jesus, alsoIl Prete, a work translated into German with the title Religion as a Pathological Phenomenon, etc.Marchena(José), Spanish writer, b. Utrera, Andalusia, 1768. Brought up for the church, reading the writings of the French philosophers brought on him the Inquisition. He fled to France where he became a friend of Brissot and the Girondins. He wrote a pronouncedEssai de Théologie, 1797, and translated into Spanish Molière’sTartufe, and some works of Voltaire. He translatedDupuis’Origine de tous les Cultes, became secretary to Murat, and died 10 Jan. 1821.Marechal(Pierre Sylvain), French author, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1750; was brought up to the Bar, which he quitted for the pursuit of literature. He was librarian to the Mazarin College, but lost his place by hisBook Escaped from the Deluge, Psalms, by S. Ar. Lamech (anagram), 1784. This was a parody of the style of the prophets. In 1781 he wroteLe Nouveau Lucrece. In 1788 appeared hisAlmanack of Honest People, in which the name of Jesus Christ was found beside that of Epicurus. The work was denounced to Parliament, burnt at the hands of thehangman, and Maréchal imprisoned for four months. He welcomed the Revolution, and published a republican almanack, 1793. In 1797 and 1798 he published hisCode of a Society of Men without God, andFree Thoughts on the Priests. In 1799 appeared his most learned work,Travels of Pythagorasin Egypt, Chaldea, India, Rome, Carthage, Gaul, etc. 6 vols. Into this fiction Maréchal puts a host of bold philosophical, political, and social doctrines. In 1800 he published his famousDictionary of Atheists, which the Government prohibited and interdicted journals from noticing. In the following year appeared hisFor and Against the Bible. Died at Montrouge, 18 Jan. 1803. His beneficence is highly spoken of by Lalande.Maret(Henry), French journalist and deputy, b. Santerre, 4 March, 1838. He ably combatted against the Empire, and editsLe Radical; was elected deputy in ’81.Marguerite, of Valois, Queen of Navarre, sister to Francis I. b. at Angouleme, 11 April, 1492. Deserves place for her protection to religious reformers. Died 21 Dec. 1549.Marguetel de Saint Denis.SeeSaint Evremond (C.)Mario(Alberto), Italian patriot, b. 3 June, 1825. He edited theTribuneandFree Italy, became aide-de-camp to Garibaldi and married Jessie White, an English lady. In ’60 he wrote a polemic against the papacy entitledSlavery and Thought. Died 2 June, 1883.Marlow(Christopher), English poet and dramatist, b. Canterbury, 8 Feb. 1564. Educated at Benet College, Cambridge, where he took his degree in 1587. He devoted himself to dramatic writing and according to some became an actor. He was killed in a brawl at Deptford, 1 June, 1593, in time to escape being tried on an information laid against him for Atheism and blasphemy. The audacity of his genius is displayed inTamburlaineandDr. Faustus. Of the latter, Goethe said “How greatly is it all planned.” Swinburne says “He is the greatest discoverer, the most daring and inspired pioneer in all our poetic literature.”Marr(Wilhelm), German socialist, author ofReligious Excursions, 1876, and several anti-Semitic tracts.Marsais(Cesar Chesneau du). SeeDu Marsais.Marselli(Niccola), Italian writer, b. Naples, 5 Nov. 1832. Author of advanced works on the Science of History,Nature and Civilisation, theOrigin of Humanity, theGreat Races of Humanity, etc.Marston(Philip Bourke), English poet, b. London, 13 Aug. 1850. He became blind in childhood, and devoted to poetry. A friend of D. G. Rossetti, Swinburne, and Thomson, his poems are sad and sincere. Died 14 Feb. 1887, and was buried in accordance with his own wishes in unconsecrated ground at Highgate, and without religious service.Marsy(François Marie de), b. Paris, 1714, educated as a Jesuit. He brought out an analysis of Bayle, 1755, for which he was confined in the Bastile. Died 16 Dec. 1763.Marten(Henry), regicide, b. Oxford, 1602. Educated at Oxford, where he proceeded B.A., 1619. He was elected to Parliament in 1640, and expelled for his republican sentiments in 1643. He resumed his seat 6 Jan. 1646, took part in the civil war, sat as one of King Charles’s judges, and became one of the Council of State. He proposed the repeal of the statute of banishment against the Jews, and when it was sought to expel all profane persons, proposed to add the words “and all fools.” Tried for regicide 10 Oct. 1660, he was kept in Chepstow Castle till his death, Sep. 1680. Carlyle calls him “sworn foe of Cant in all its figures; an indomitable little Pagan if not better.”Martin(Emma), English writer and lecturess, b. Bristol, 1812. Brought up as a Baptist, she, for a time, edited theBristol Magazine. She wrote theExiles of Piedmontand translated from the Italian the Maxims of Guicciardini. The trials of Holyoake and Southwell for blasphemy led her to inquire and embrace the Freethought cause. While Holyoake and Paterson were in gaol, Mrs. Martin went about committing the “crime” for which they were imprisoned. In ’43 she publishedBaptism A Pagan Rite. This was followed byTracts for the Peopleon the Bible no Revelation, Religion Superseded, Prayer, God’s Gifts and Men’s Duties, a conversation on the being of God, etc. She also lectured and wrote on thePunishment of Death, to which she was earnestly opposed. Died Oct. 1851.Martin(Bon Louis Henri), French historian, b. St. Quentin,20 Feb. 1810. He was sent to Paris to study law, but abandoned it for history. HisHistory of France, in nineteen vols. (1838–53), is a monumental work of erudition.A confirmed Republican, he warmly opposed the Second Empire and after its fall became member of the National Assembly, ’71,and senator, ’76. He was elected member of the Academy, ’78. In addition to his historical works he contributed tole Siecle,laLibertéde penser, andl’Encyclopédie Nouvelle, etc. Died 14 Dec. 1883.Martin(Louis), author ofLes Evangiles Sans Dieu(called by Victor Hugocette noble page), Paris, 1887, describes himself as an Atheist Socialist.Martin(Louis Auguste). French writer, b. Paris, 25 April, 1811, editor of theMorale Independanteand member of the Institute of Geneva. For hisTrue and False Catholics(’58), he was fined three thousand francs and imprisoned for six months. He published theAnnuaire Philosophique. Several of his works are placed on the RomanIndex. Died Paris, 6 April, 1875.Martinaud(M.), an ex-abbé who refused ordination, and wrote Letters of a young priest, who is an Atheist and Materialist, to his bishop, Paris, 1868, in which he says, “Religion is the infancy of peoples, Atheism their maturity.”Martineau(Harriet), b. Norwich 12 June, 1803, descended from a Huguenot family. Brought up as a Unitarian, she began writing Devotional Exercises for Young Persons, and, taking to literature as a means of living, distinguished herself by popularisations of political economy. TheLetters on the Laws of Man’s Nature and Development, which passed between her and H. G. Atkinson, appeared in ’51, and disclosed her advance to the Positivist school of Thought. In ’53 she issued a condensed account of Comte’s philosophy. She wrote aHistory of England during the Thirty Years’ Peace, and numerous other works. Died at Ambleside 27 June, 1876. HerAutobiography, published after her death, shows the full extent of her unbelief.Masquerier(Lewis), American land reformer of Huguenot descent, b. 1 March, 1802. WroteThe Sataniad, establishedGreenpoint Gazette, and contributed to theBoston Investigator. Died 7 Jan. 1888.Massenet(Jules Emile Fréderic), French musical composer, b. Montard, 12 May, 1842. Has written a daring and popular oratorio onMarie Magdeleine, and an opera,Herodiade.Massey(Gerald), poet and archæologist, b. of poor parents at Tring, in Herts, 29 May, 1828. At eight years of age he was sent to a factory to earn a miserable pittance. At the age of fifteen he came to London as an errand boy, read all that came in his way, and became a Freethinker and political reformer. Inspired by the men of ’48, he startedThe Spirit of Freedom, ’49. It cost him five situations in eleven months. In ’53 hisBallad of Babe Christabel, with other Lyrical Poemsat once gave him position as a poet of fine taste and sensibility. Mr. Massey devoted himself to the study of Egyptology, the result of which is seen in hisBook of BeginningsandNatural Genesis, ’81–83, in which he shows the mythical nature of Christianity. Mr. Massey has also lectured widely on such subjects as Why Don’t God Kill the Devil? The Historical Jesus and the Mythical Christ, The Devil of Darkness in the Light of Evolution, The Coming Religion, etc. His poems are being re-published under the titleMy Lyrical Life.Massey(James). SeeTyssot. (S.)Massol(Marie Alexandre), French writer, b. Beziers, 18 March, 1805. He studied under Raspail, went to Paris in ’30 and became a Saint Simonian. In ’48 he wrote on Lamennais’La Réforme, and on theVoix du Peuplewith his friend Proudhon, to whom he became executor. In ’65 he establishedLa Morale Independantewith the object of showing morality had nothing to do with theology. Died at Paris 20 April, 1875.Maubert de Gouvest(Jean Henri), French writer, b. Rouen, 20 Nov. 1721. Brought up as a monk, he fled and took service in the Saxon army. He was thrown into prison by the King of Poland, but the Papal nuncio procured his release on condition of retaking his habit. This he did and went to Rome to be relieved of his vows. Failing this he went to Switzerland and England, where he was well received by LordBolingbroke. He publishedLettres Iroquoises, Irocopolis, 1752, and other anonymous works. At Frankfort in 1764 he was arrested as a fugitive monk and vagabond, and was imprisoned eleven months. Died at Altona, 21 Nov. 1767.Maudsley(Henry), M.D., b. near Giggleswick, Yorkshire, 5 Feb. 1835. Educated at London University, where he graduated M.D. in 1857. Taking mental pathology as his speciality, he soon reached eminence in his profession. From ’69–’79 he was professor of medical jurisprudence at University College, London. His works onThe Physiology and Pathology of the Mind(’67),Body and Mind(’70),Responsibility in Mental Disease(’73), and Body and Will (’83) have attracted much attention. HisNatural Laws and Supernatural Seemings(’80) is a powerful exposure of the essence of all superstition.Mauvillon(Jakob von), b. Leipzig, 8 March, 1743. Though feeble in body, he had a penchant for the army, and joined the engineer corps of Hanover, and afterwards became lieutenant-colonel in the service of the Duke of Brunswick. A friend and admirer of Mirabeau, he defended the French Revolution in Germany. He wrote anonymouslyParadoxes Moraux(Amsterdam, 1768) andThe Only True System of the Christian Religion(Berlin, 1787), at first composed under the title ofFalse Reasonings of the Christian Religion. Died in Brunswick, 11 Jan. 1794.Mazzini(Giuseppe), Italian patriot, b. Genoa, 28 June 1808. In ’26 he graduated LL.D., in the University of Genoa, and plunged into politics, becoming the leader of Young Italy, with the object of uniting the nation. Condemned to death in ’33, he went to Switzerland and was expelled, then came to England in ’37. In ’48 he returned, and in March ’49 was made triumvir of Rome with Saffi and Armellini. Compelled, after a desperate resistance, to retire, he returned to London. He wrote in theWestminster Reviewand other periodicalsandhis works are numerous though mostly of a political character. They are distinguished by highmindedness, love of toleration and eloquence. Carlyle called Mazzini “a man of genius and virtue, a man of sterling veracity, humanity and nobleness of mind.” Died atPisa10 March, 1872. He was a Deist.Meissner(Alfred), German poet, b. Teplitz, 15 Oct. 1822. Has written Ziska, an epic poem,The Son of Atta Troll,Recollections of Heine, etc. Died Teplitz, 20 May, 1885.Meister(Jacques Henri), Swiss writer, b. Bückeburg, 6 Aug. 1744. Intended for a religious career, he went to France, and became acquainted with D’Holbach and Diderot, of whom he wrote a short life, and was secretary to Grimm. He wrote theOrigin of Religious Principles, 1762, andNatural Morality, 1787.Menard(Louis), French author and painter, b. Paris, 1822. In ’48–’49 he wrotePrologue of a Revolution, for which he was obliged to leave France. Has written onMorality before the Philosophers, ’60,Studies on the Origin of Christianity, ’67, andFreethinkers’ Religious Catechism, ’75.Mendoza(Diego Hurtado de), famous and learned Spanish author, b. of distinguished family, Granada, 1503. Intended for the church, he studied Latin, Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew, but on leaving the university he joined the army. At school he wrote his well known comic novel,Lazarillo de Tormes, which was condemned by the Inquisition. Sent on an embassy to Pope Paul III., the latter was greatly shocked at his audacity and vehemence of speech. His chief work is hisHistory of the Moorish Wars, which remained unprinted thirty years, through the intolerant policy of Philip II. Mendoza’s satires and burlesques were also prohibited by the Inquisition. He commented Aristotle and translated his Mechanics. Died at Valladolid, April, 1575.Mendum(Josiah P.), publisher and proprietor of theBoston Investigator, b. Kennebunk, Maine, 7 July, 1811. He became a printer, and in 1833 became acquainted with Abner Kneeland and after his imprisonment engaged to print theInvestigator, and when Kneeland left Boston for the West to recruit his health, he carried on the paper together with Mr. Horace Seaver. Mr. Mendum was one of the founders of the Paine Memorial Hall, Boston, and a chief support of Freethought in that city.Mentelle(Edme), French geographer and historian, b. Paris, 11 Oct. 1730. Studied at the College de Beauvais under Crévier. HisPrécis de l’Histoire des Hébreux(1798), andPrécisde l’Histoire Universelleare thoroughly anti-Christian. He doubted if Jesus ever existed. He was a member of the Institute and Chevalier of the Legion of Honor. Died at Paris, 28 Dec. 1815.Mercier(L. A.), author ofLa LibrePensée, Brussels, 1879.Meredith(Evan Powell), Welsh writer, author ofThe Prophet of Nazareth(1864), an able work exposing the prophecies of Jesus, andAmphilogia, a reply in to the Bishop of Landaff and the Rev. J. F. Francklin, ’67.Meredith(George), philosophical poet and novelist, b. Hampshire, 1828, and educated partly on the Continent. Intended for the law, he adopted literature in preference. He first appeared as a poet withPoems(’51). Of his powerful novels we mention theOrdeal of Richard Feveril(’59),Emilia in England(’64), nowSandra Belloni, with Vittoria (’66) for a sequel.Rhoda Fleming,Beauchamp’s Career(’76),The Egoist(’79),The Tragic Comedians(’81) andDiana of the Crossways(’85). Deep thought and fine grace characterise his writings. As a poet Mr. Meredith is not popular, but his volumes of verse are marked by the highest qualities, and give him a place apart from the throng of contemporary singers.Merimee(Prosper), learned French writer, b. Paris, 28 Sept. 1808, author of numerous essays and romances. Was made Inspector General of Historic Monuments and was admitted to the Academy in ’44. In his anonymous brochure on H(enri) B(eyle), Eleutheropolis (Brussels), ’64, there is an open profession of Atheism. Died at Cannes, 23 Sept. 1870.Merritt(Henry), English painter and writer, b. Oxford, 8 June, 1822. On coming to London he lived with Mr. Holyoake, and contributed to theReasoner, using the signature “Christopher.” He wrote onDirt and PicturesandRobert Dalby and his World of Troubles, etc. Died in London, 10 July, 1877.MeslierorMellier(Jean), curé of Etrepigny, Champagne, b. Mazerny, Rethelois, 15 June, 1664. Died in 1729. After his death a will was discovered of which he had made three copies, in which he repudiated Christianity and requested to be buried in his own garden. His property he left to hisparishioners. Voltaire published it under the title of Extract from the sentiments of Jean Meslier. To Meslier has been attributed thework entitledLe Bon Sens, written by Baron D’Holbach.Le Testament de Jean Meslierhas been published in three volumes at Amsterdam, 1864, preceded by a study by Rudolf Charles (R. C. d’Ablaing van Giessenburg). It calls in question all the dogmas of Christianity. Anacharsis Clootz proposed to the National Convention to erect a statue to this “honest priest.”Metchnikov(Léon), Russian writer in French; author of a work on Japan and of able articles, notably one on Christian Communion in theRevue Internationale des Sciences Biologiques, tome 12.Metrodorusof Lampsacus. Greek philosopher, b. 330B.C., a disciple and intimate friend of Epicurus. He wrote numerous works, the titles of which are preserved by Diogenes Laertius. DiedB.C.277.Mettrie, seeLa Mettrie.Meunier(Amédée Victor), French writer, b. Paris, 2 May, 1817. Has done much to popularise science by hisScientific Essays, 1851–58, theAncestors of Adam, ’75, etc.Meyer(Lodewijk), a Dutch physician, a friend and follower of Spinoza, who publishedExercitatio Paradoxaon the philosophical interpretation of scripture, Eleutheropoli (Amst.), 1666. This has been wrongly attributed to Spinoza. It was translated into Dutch in 1667. He is also credited withLucii Antistic Constantes, de jure ecclesiasticorum. Alethopoli(Amst.), 1665. This work is also attributed to another writer, viz. P. de la Court.Mialhe(Hippolyte), French writer, b. Roquecourbe (Tarn),1834. From ’60–62 he was with the French army of occupation at Rome. He has organised federations of Freethinkers in France, editedL’Union des Libres-Penseurs, and has writtenMémoires d’un libre Penseur(Nevers, 1888).Michelet(Jules), French historian, b. Paris, 21 Aug. 1798. Became a Professor of History in 1821. Has written aHistory of Franceand of theFrench Revolution;The Jesuits, with his friend Quinet, ’43;The Priest, Woman and the Family, ’44;The Sorceress, dealing with witchcraft in the Middle Ages, ’62;The Bible of Humanity, ’64. His lectures were interdicted by the Government of Louis Phillippe, and after thecoup d’étathe wasdeprived of his chair. All Michelet’s works glow with eloquence and imagination. He never forgot that he was a republican and Freethinker of the nineteenth century. Died at Hyères, 9 Feb. 1874.Michelet(Karl Ludwig), German philosopher of French family, b. Berlin, 4 Dec. 1801. In ’29 he became Professor of Philosophy. A disciple of Hegel, he edited his master’s works, ’32. His principle work isA System of Philosophy as an Exact Science, ’76–81.He has also written on the relation of Herbert Spencer to German philosophy.Middleton(Conyers), Freethinking clergyman, b. York 1683. HisLetters from Rome, 1729, showed how much Roman Christianity had borrowed from Paganism, and hisFree Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers supposed to have subsisted in the Christian Church, 1749, was a severe blow to hitherto received “Christian Evidences.” He also wrote a classicLife of Cicero. Died at Hildersham near Cambridge, 28 July, 1750.Mignardi(G.), Italian writer, who in 1884 publishedMemorie di un Nuovo Credente(Memoirs of a New Believer).Milelli(Domenico), Italian poet, b. Catanzaro, Feb. 1841. His family intended to make him a priest, but he turned out a rank Pagan, as may be seen in hisOdi Pagane, ’79,Canzonieri, ’84, and other works.Mill(James), philosopher and historian, b. Northwaterbridge, Montrose, 6 April, 1773. Studied at Edinburgh, and distinguished himself by his attainments in Greek and moral philosophy. He was licensed as preacher in the Scotch Church, but removed to London in 1800, and became editor of theLiterary Review, and contributed to the reviews. He published, ’17–’19, hisHistory of British India. He contributed many articles to the fifth edition of theEncyclopædia Britannica. A friend of Bentham, he wrote largely in theWestminster Review, and did much to forward the views of Philosophic Radicalism. HisAnalysis of the Human Mind, ’39, is a profound work. In religion he was a complete sceptic. Reading Bishop Butler’sAnalogymade him an Atheist. Died 23 June, 1836.Mill(John Stuart), eminent English writer, son of the preceding, b. London, 20 May, 1806. Educated by his fatherwithout religion, he became clerk in the East India House, and early in life contributed to theWestminsterandEdinburgh Reviews. Of the first he became joint editor in ’35. HisSystem of Logic, ’43, first made him generally known. This was followed by hisPrinciples of Political Economy. In ’59 appeared his small but valuable treatiseOn Liberty, in which he defends the unrestricted free discussion of religion. Among subsequent works wereUtilitarianism, ’63;Auguste Comte and Positivism, ’67;Examination of Sir William Hamilton’s Philosophy’65;Dissertations and Discussions, ’59–’75; and theSubjection of Women, ’69. In ’65 he was elected to Parliament for Westminster, but lost his seat in ’68. In ’67 he was chosen Rector of St. Andrews, and delivered the students an able address. Prof. Bain says “in everything characteristic of the creed of Christendom he was a thorough-going negationist. He admitted neither its truth nor its utility.” Died at Avignon, 8 May, 1873, leaving behind his interestingAutobiographyand three essays on “Nature,” “Theism,” and “Religion.”Mille(Constantin), Roumanian writer, b. at Bucharest, educated at Paris. He lectured at Jassy and Bucharest on the History of Philosophy, from a Materialistic point of view. He was also active with Codreano, and after the latter’s death (’77), in spreading Socialism. Millé contributes to the Rivista Sociala and the Vütorul, edited by C. Pilitis.Milliere(Jean Baptiste), Socialist, b. of poor parents, Lamarche (Côte d’Or), 13 Dec. 1817. He became an advocate, and founded theProletaireat Clermont Ferrand. For writingRevolutionary Studieshe was, after thecoup d’état, banished to Algeria until the amnesty of ’59. In ’69 Millière started, with Rochefort, theMarseillaise, of which he became one of the principal directors. At the election for the National Assembly he was elected for Paris by 73,000 votes. Although he took no part in the Commune, but sought to act as an intermediary, he was arrested and summarily shot near the Pantheon, Paris, 26 May, 1871. He died crying “Vive l’Humanité.”Mirabaud(Jean Baptiste de), French writer, b. Paris, 1675. He translated Tasso and Ariosto, and became perpetual secretary to the French Academy. He wroteOpinions of the Ancients on the Jews, aCritical Examination of the New Testament, (publishedunder the name of Fréret),The World: its Origin and Antiquity, 1751,Sentiments of a Philosopher on the Nature of the Soulinserted in the collection entitledNouvelle libertés de Penser, Amst. (Paris) 1743. TheSystem of Nature, attributed to Mirabaud, was written by d’Holbach. Mirabaud died 24 June, 1760.Mirabeau(Honoré GabrielRiquettiComte de), French statesman and orator, b. at the Chateau de Bignon (Loiret) 9 March, 1749. He inherited a passionate nature, a frank strong will, generous temper, and a mind of prodigious activity. He entered the army in 1767, but by an amorous intrigue provoked the ire of his father, by whom he was more than once imprisoned. In 1776 he went to Amsterdam and employed himself in literary work. In 1783 appeared anonymously hisErotika Biblion, dealing with the obscenity of the Bible. In 1786 he was sent to Berlin, where he met Frederick and collected materials for his work onThe Prussian Monarchy. He returned to the opening of the States General and soon became leader of the Revolution, being in Jan. 1791 chosen President of the National Assembly. He advocated the abolition of the double aristocracy of Lords and bishops, the spoliation of the Church and the National Guard. Carlyle calls him “far the strongest, best practical intellect of that time.” He died 2 April, 1791.Among his last words were, “Envelop me with perfumes and crown me with flowers that I may pass away into everlasting sleep.”Miranda(Don Francisco). South American patriot and general, b. Caracas 1750, aided the Americans in their War of Independence, tried to free Guatimalaus from the Spanish, allied himself to the Girondins and became second in command in the army of Dumouriez. He was a friend of Thomas Paine. In 1806–11 he was engaged seeking to free Peru from the Spaniards, by whom he was made prisoner, and died in a dungeon at Cadiz, 16 Jan. 1816. It was said General Miranda made a sceptic of James Mill.Miron.SeeMorin(André Saturnin.)Mitchell(J. Barr), Dr., anonymous author ofDates and Data(1876) andChrestos; a Religious Epithet(1880). Dr. Mitchell has also written in theNational Reformer, using his initials only.Mitchell(Logan), author of Lectures published asThe Christian Mythology Unveiled. This work was also issued under the titleSuperstition Besieged. It is said that Mitchell committed suicide in Nov. 1841. He left by his will a sum of £500 to any bookseller who had the courage to publish his book. It was first published by B. Cousens, and was republished in ’81.Mittermaier(Karl Josef Anton von), German jurisconsult, b. Munich, 5 Aug. 1787. Studied law and medicine at Landshut, where he became professor. His works on Law gained him a high reputation. He obtained a chair at the Heidelberg University. In 1831 he represented Baden in Parliament. He advocated the unity of Germany and took an active part in the Radical movement of ’48. His writings are all in the direction of freedom. Died 28 Aug. 1867.Mittie(Stanilas), in 1789 proposed the taking of church bells to make money and cannon, and during the revolution distinguished himself by other anti-clerical suggestions. Died 1816.Mocenicus(Philippus), Archbishop of Nicosia, Cyprus, a Venetian philosopher, whose hereticalContemplationswere printed at Geneva, 1588, with thePeripatetic Question of Cæsalpinusand the books of Telesio onThe Nature of Thingsin the volume entitledTractationum Philosophicarum.Moleschott(Jacob), scientific Materialist, b. of Dutch parents at’s Hertogenbosch, 9 Aug. 1822; studied at Heidelburg where he graduated M.D. Became Professor of Physiology at Zurich and afterwards at Turin. Becoming a naturalised Italian he was in ’76 made a senator, and in ’78 Professor of Physiology at the University of Rome. He has writtenCirculation of Life,Light and Life,Physiological Sketches, and other medical and scientific works. Lange calls him “the father of the modern Materialistic movement.”Molesworth(Sir William), statesman and man of letters, the eighth baronet of his family, b. Cornwall, 23 May, 1810. In ’32 he was returned M.P. for East Cornwall, and from ’37–41 sat for Leeds. In ’53 he was First Commissioner of Public Works, and in ’55 was Secretary for the Colonies. He was forsome time proprietor and conductor of theWestminster Review, in which he wrote many articles. A noble edition of Hobbes was produced at his expense, ’39–45, and he contributed to the support of Auguste Comte. Died 22 Oct. 1855.Mommsen(Theodor), historian, b. Garding (Schleswig), 30 Nov. 1817. Studied at Kiel, and travelled from ’44 to 47. He became Professor of Law of Leipsic, Zürich and Berlin. Is best known by hisHistory of Rome, ’53–85, a work of great research and suggestiveness in which he expresses the opinion that it is doubtful if the world was improved by Christianity.Monboddo(Lord). SeeBurnett (James).Monge(Gaspard), French scientist, b. at Beaume, 10 May 1746. Taught physics and mathematics at the military school of Mezieres, became a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1780, and through the influence of Condorcet was made Minister of the Marine in 1792. He was one of the founders of the Polytechnic School. Napoleon made him a senator, created him Count ofPelusium, and gave him an estate for his many services to the French nation. On the return of the Bourbons he was deprived of all his emoluments. Died 28 July, 1818. Maréchal and Lalande insert his name in their list of Atheists.Mongez(Antoine), French archæologist, b. Lyons, 30 June 1747. Distinguished by his studies, he became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions and of the Institute, before which he said “he had the honor to be an Atheist.” He was one of the most ardent members of the Convention, and wrote many memoirs. Died at Paris, 30 July, 1835.Monroe(J. R.), Dr., editor and proprietor of theIronclad Age, b. Monmouth, co. New Jersey, about 1825. In ’50 he went to Rochford, where he had a good practice as a doctor. In ’55 he started theRochford Herald, and in July, ’57, theSeymour Times. During the Civil War he was appointed surgeon to the 150th regiment, and after some hard service his own health broke down. In ’75 Dr. Monroe published his dramas and poems in a volume. From this time his paper became more Freethought and less political. In April, ’82, he removed toIndianapolis, Indiana, and changed the name toThe Age, afterwards Monroe’s Ironclad Age. Dr. Monroe is a clever writer and a modest man, with a remarkable fund ofnatural humor. Among his publications are poems onThe Origin of Man, etc.,Genesis Revised, andHoly Bible Stories.Montaigne(Michel de), French philosophic essayist, b. at the family castle in Perigord, 28 Feb. 1533. He studied law and became a judge at Bordeaux about 1554. In 1580 he produced his famous “Essays,” which indicate a sprightly humor allied to a most independent spirit. The Essays, Hallam says, make in several respects an epoch in literature. Emerson says, “Montaigne is the frankest and honestest of all writers.” Montaigne took as his motto: Quesçais-je? [What know I?] and said that all religious opinions are the result of custom. Buckle says, “Under the guise of a mere man of the world, expressing natural thoughts in common language, Montaigne concealed a spirit of lofty and audacious inquiry.” Montaigne seems to have been the first man in Europe who doubted the sense and justice of burning people for a difference of opinion. His denunciation of the conduct of the Christians in America does him infinite honor. Died 13 Sept. 1592.Monteil(Charles François Louis Edgar), French journalist, b. Vire, 26 Jan. 1845. Fought against the Empire, writing inLe Rappel. During the Commune he was secretary to Delescluze. For hisHistoire d’un Frère Ignorantin, ’74, he was prosecuted by the Christian Brothers, and condemned to one year’s imprisonment, 2,000 francs fine, and 10,000 francs damages. In ’77 he wrote aFreethinker’s Catechism, published at Antwerp, and in ’79 an edition ofLa République Française. In ’80 he was made a member of the Municipal Council of Paris, and re-elected in ’84. In ’83 he was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honor. He has compiled an excellent secularManual of Instructionfor schools.

Layton(Henry), educated at Oxford, and studied at Gray’s Inn, being called to the bar. He wrote anonymously observations on Dr. Bentley’sConfutation of Atheism(1693), and aSearch After Souls, and Spiritual Observations in Man(1700).Leblais(Alphonse), French professor of mathematics, b. Mans, 1820. Author of a study in Positivist philosophy entitledMaterialism and Spiritualism(1865), to which Littré contributed a preface.Le Bovier de Fontenelle.SeeFontenelle.Lecky(William Edward Hartpole), historian, b. near Dublin, 26 March, 1838. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin. His works, which are characterised by great boldness and originality of thought, areA History of the Rise and Spirit of Rationalism in Europe(’65),A History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne(’69), andA History of England in the Eighteenth Century(1878–87).Leclerc(Georges Louis). SeeBuffon.Leclerc de Septchenes(N.), b. at Paris. Became secretary to Louis XVI., translated the first three vols. of Gibbon, and wrote an essay on the religion of the ancient Greeks (1787). A friend of Lalande, he prepared an edition of Freret, published after his death. Died at Plombieres, 9 June, 1788.Leconte de Lisle(Charles Marie René), French poet, b. Isle of Bourbon, 23 Oct. 1818. After travelling in India, returned to Paris, and took part in the revolution of ’48, but has since devoted himself mainly to poetry, though he has written alsoA Republican CatechismandA Popular History of Christianity(’71). One of his finest poems isKain. On being elevated to the seat of Victor Hugo at the Academy in ’87, he gave umbrage toJews and Catholics by incidentally speaking of Moses as “the chief of a horde of ferocious nomads.”Lecount(Peter), lieutenant in the French navy. He was engaged in the battle of Navarino. Came to England as a mathematician in the construction of the London and Birmingham Railway, of which he wrote a history (1839). He wrote a curious book in three volumes entitledA Few Hundred Bible Contradictions; A Hunt After the Devil and other Old Matters, by John P. Y., M.D.; published by H. Hetherington (’43). The author’s name occurs on p. 144, vol i., as “the Rev. Peter Lecount.”Leenhof(Frederick van), b. Middelburg (Zealand), Aug. 1647. Became a minister of Zwolle, where he published a work entitledHeaven on Earth(1703), which subjected him to accusations of Atheism. It was translated into German in 1706.Lefevre(André), French writer, b. Provins, 9 Nov. 1834. He became, at the age of twenty-three, one of the editors of theMagasin Pittoresque. He wrote much inLa Libre PenséeandLa Pensée Nouvelle; has translatedLucretiusin verse (’76), and writtenReligions and Mythologies Compared(’77); contributed a sketchyHistory of Philosophyto the Library of Contemporary Science (’78); has writtenMan Across the Ages(’80) and theRenaissance of Materialism(’81). He has also edited theLettres Persanesof Montesquieu, someDialoguesof Voltaire, and Diderot’sLa Religieuse(’86).Lefort(César), disciple of Comte. Has published a work on the method of modern science (Paris, 1864).Lefrancais de Lalande.SeeLalande.Legate(Bartholomew), Antitrinitarian native of Essex, b. about 1572, was thrown into prison on a charge of heresy, 1611. King James had many personal interviews with him. On one occasion the king asked him if he did not pray to Jesus Christ. He replied that he had done so in the days of his ignorance, but not for the last seven years. “Away, base fellow!” said His Majesty, “It shall never be said that one stayeth in my presence who hath never prayed to the Savior for seven years together.” He was burnt at Smithfield by theKing’s writ,De Hæretico Comburendo, 18 March, 1612, being one of the last persons so punished in England.Leguay de Premontval.SeePremontval.Le Hon(Henri) Belgian scientist, b. Ville-Pommerœul (Hainault) 1809, was captain in the Belgian army, professor at the military school of Brussels, and Chevalier of the Order of Leopold. Author ofL’Homme Fossile en Europe, ’66. Translated Professor Omboni’s exposition of Darwinism. Died at San Remo, 1872.Leidy(Joseph), M.D., American naturalist, b. Philadelphia, 9 Sept. 1823. He became professor of biology at the University of Philadelphia, and is eminent for his contributions to American palæontology.Leigh(Henry Stone), English author of a Deistic work on theReligions of the World, 1869.Leland(Theron C.), American journalist, b. 9 April, 1821. He edited with Wakeman the journalMan. Died 2 June, 1885.Lemaire(Charles), member of the Academical Society of Saint Quentin, author of an atheistic philosophical work, in two vols., entitledInitiation to the Philosophy of Liberty, Paris, 1842.Lemonnier(Camille), Belgian writer, b. Ixel les Bruxelles, 1845, author of stories and works on Hysteria, Death, etc., in which he evinces his freethought sentiments.Lenau(Nicolaus),i.e.Nicolaus Franz Niembsch vonStrehlenau, Hungarian poet, b. Czatad, 15 Aug. 1802. His poems, written in German, are pessimistic, and his constitutional melancholy deepened into insanity. Died Ober-Döbling, near Vienna, 22 Aug. 1850.Lennstrand(Viktor E.), Swedish writer and orator, b. Gefle, 30 Jan. 1861. Educated at Upsala University. Founded the Swedish Utilitarian Society, March ’88, and in May was sentenced to a fine of 250 crowns for denial of the Christian religion. On the 29th Nov. he was imprisoned for three months for the same offence. Has written several pamphlets and has incurred several fresh prosecutions. In company withA. Lindkvist he has founded theFritankarenas the organ of Swedish freethought.Leontium, Athenian Hetæra, disciple and mistress of Epicurus (q.v.) She acquired distinction as a philosopher, and wrote a treatise against Theophrastus, which is praised by Cicero as written in a skilful and elegant manner.Leopardi(Giacomo), count, Italian pessimist poet, b. Recanati (Ancona), 29 June, 1798. In 1818 he won a high place among poets by his lines addressedTo Italy. HisCanti, ’31, are distinguished by eloquence and pathos, while his prose essays,Operette Morali, ’27, are esteemed the finest models of Italian prose of this century. Leopardi’s short life was one long disease, but it was full of work of the highest character. As a poet, philologist, and philosopher, he is among the greatest of modern Italians. Died at Naples, 14 July, 1837.Lequinio(Joseph Marie), French writer and Conventionnel, b. Sarzeau, 1740. Elected Mayor of Rennes, 1790, and Deputy from Morbihar to the Legislative Assembly. He then professed Atheism. He voted the death of Louis XVI. “regretting that the safety of the state did not permit his being condemned to penal servitude for life.” In 1792 he publishedPrejudices Destroyed, signed “Citizen of the World,” in which he considered religion as a political chain. He took part in the Feasts of Reason, and wrotePhilosophy of the People, 1796. Died 1813.Lermina(Jules Hippolyte), French writer, b. 27 March, 1839. Founded theCorsairandSatan, and has published an illustrated biographical dictionary of contemporary France, 1884–5.Lermontov(Mikhail Yur’evich), Russian poet and novelist, b. Moscow, 3 Oct. 1814. Said to have come of a Scotch family, he studied at Moscow University, from which he was expelled. In ’32 he entered the Military Academy at St. Petersburg, and afterwards joined the Hussars. In ’37 some verses on the death of Pushkin occasioned his being sent to the Caucasus, which he describes in a work translated into English, ’53. His poems are much admired.The Demon, exhibiting Satan in love, has been translated into English, and so has his romance entitledA Hero of Our Times. He fell in a duel in the Caucasus, 15 July, 1840.Leroux(Pierre), French Socialist and philosophic writer, b. Bercy, near Paris, 6 April, 1797. At first a mason, then a typographer, he invented an early composing machine which he called the pianotype. In 1824 he became editor of theGlobe. Becoming a Saint Simonian, he made this paper the organ of the sect. He started with ReynaudL’Encyclopédie Nouvelle, and afterwards with L. Viardot and Mme. George Sand theRevue Indépendante(’41), which became noted for its pungent attacks on Catholicism. His principal work isDe l’Humanite(’40). In June ’48 M. Leroux was elected to the Assembly. After thecoup d’étathe returned to London and Jersey. Died at Paris, 12 April, 1871.Leroy(Charles Georges), lieutenant ranger of the park of Versailles, b.1723, one of the writers on theEncyclopédie. He defended the work of Helvetius on the Mind against Voltaire, and wrotePhilosophical Letters on the Intelligence and Perfectibility of Animals(1768), a work translated into English in 1870. Died at Paris 1789.Lespinasse(Adolf Frederik Henri de). Dutch writer, b. Delft, 14 May, 1819. Studied medicine, and established himself first at Deventer and afterwards at Zwartsluis, Vaassen, and Hasselt. In theDageraadhe wrote many interesting studies under the pen-name of “Titus,” and translated the work of Dupuis into Dutch. In 1870 he emigrated to America and became director of a large farm in Iowa. Died in Orange City (Iowa) 1881.L’Espinasse(Julie Jeanne Eléonore de). French beauty and wit, b. Lyons, 9 Nov. 1732. She became the protégé of Madame du Deffand, and gained the favor of D’Alembert. Her letters are models of sensibility and spirit. Died Paris, 23 May, 1776.Lessing(Gotthold Ephraim). German critic and dramatic poet, b. Kamenz, 22 Jan. 1729. He studied at Leipsic, and at Berlin became acquainted with Voltaire and Mendelssohn. Made librarian at Wolfenbüttel he publishedFragments of an Unknown(1777), really theVindication of Rational Worshippers of God, by Reimarus, in which it was contended that Christian evidences are so clad in superstition as to be unworthy credence. Among his writings wereThe FreethinkerandNathan the Wise, hisnoblest play, in which he enforces lessons of toleration and charity to all faiths. The effect of his writings was decidedly sceptical. Heine calls Lessing, after Luther, the greatest German emancipator. Died at Brunswick 15 Feb. 1781.Lessona(Michele). Italian naturalist, b. 20 Sept., 1823; has translated some of the works of Darwin.Leucippus.Greek founder of the atomic philosophy.L’Estrange(Thomas), writer, b. 17 Jan. 1822. With a view to entering the Church he graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, 26 Feb. ’44, but became an attorney. Having read F. A. Paley’s Introduction to the Iliad, he became convinced that the “cooking” process there described, has been undergone by all sacred books now extant. He wrote for Thomas Scott’s series valuable tracts onOur First Century,Primitive Church History,Irenæus,Order,The Eucharist. He also edited Hume’sDialogues on Natural Religion, and wroteThe First Ten Alleged Persecutions.Levallois(Jules), French writer, b. Rouen 18 May, 1829. In ’55 he became secretary to Sainte Beuve. WroteDéismeet Christianisme, 1866.Lewes(George Henry), English man of letters, b. in London, 18 April, 1817, he became a journalist and dramatic critic. In 1845–6 appeared hisBiographical History of Philosophy, which showed higher power. This has been republished asHistory of Philosophy from Thales to Comte. Lewes was one of the first to introduce English readers to Comte in his account ofComte’s Philosophy of the Sciences, ’47. In ’49 he became one of the founders of theLeader, for which he wrote till ’54. In that year he began his association with “George Eliot” (q.v.). HisLife of Goetheappeared in ’55, and from this time he began to give his attention to scientific, especially biological, studies. In ’64 he published an important essay on Aristotle. On the foundation of theFortnightly Review, ’65, Lewes was appointed editor. His last work,Problems of Life and Mind, 5 vols. ’74–79, was never completed owing to his death, 28 Nov. 1878. He bequeathed his books to Dr. Williams’s library.Lichtenberg(Georg Christoph), German satirical writer and scientist, b. Ober-Ramstädt, 1 July, 1742; a friend of G. Forster,he left many thoughts showing his advanced opinions. Died Göttingen, 24 Feb. 1799.Lick(James), American philanthropist, b. Fredericksburg, Pa., 25 Aug. 1796. In 1847 he settled in California and made a large fortune by investing in real estate. He was a Materialist and bequeathed large sums to the Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, and for other philanthropic purposes. Died San Francisco, 1 Oct. 1876.Lilja(Nicolai), Swedish writer, b. Rostanga, 18 Oct. 1808. Studied at Lund and became parish clerk in the Lund diocese. He wrote, onMan; his Life and Destiny. Died Lund 1870.Lincoln(Abraham), sixteenth President of the United States, b. Kentucky, 12 Feb. 1809. An uncompromising opponent of slavery, his election (Nov. ’60) led to the civil war and the emancipation of slaves. Ward H. Lamon, who knew him well, says he “read Volney and Paine and then wrote a deliberate and labored essay, wherein he reached conclusions similar to theirs. The essay was burnt, but he never denied or regretted its composition.” Mrs. Lincoln said, “Mr. Lincoln had no hope and no faith in the usual acceptance of those words.” Assassinated 14 April, 1865, he expired the following morning.Lindet(Robert Thomas), “apostate” French bishop, b. Bernay, 1743. Was elected to the States-General by the clergy of his district. He embraced Republican principles, and in March, 1791, was made Bishop of L’Eure. In Nov. 1792 he publicly married. On 7 Nov. 1793, renounced his bishopric. He proposed that civil festivals should take the place of religious ones. He became member of theConseil des Anciens. Died Bernay, 10 Aug. 1823, and was buried without religious service.Lindh(Theodor Anders), b. Borgo (Finland), 13 Jan. 1833. Studied at Helsingfors University, ’51–57; became lawyer in ’71, and is now a member of theMunicipalCouncil of Borgo. He has written many poems in Swedish, and also translated from the English poets, and has published Freethought essays, which have brought him into controversy with the clergy.Lindkvist(Alfred), Swedish writer, b. Gefle, 21 Oct. 1860,of pious parents. At the University of Upsala he studied European literature, and became acquainted with the works of Mill, Darwin, and Spencer. He has published two volumes of poems,Snow DropsandApril Days, and lost a stipend at the University by translating from the Danish a rationalistic life of Jesus entitledThe Reformer from Galilee. Mr. Lindkvist has visited Paris, and collaborated on a Stockholm daily paper. In ’88 he joined his friend Lennstrand in propagating Freethought, and in Nov. received a month’s imprisonment for having translated one of J. Symes’s anti-Christian pamphlets. He now editsFritankarenin conjunction with Mr. Lennstrand.Lindner(Ernst Otto Timotheus), German physician, b. Breslau, 28 Nov. 1820. A friend of Schopenhauer, whose philosophy he maintained in several works on music. He edited theVossische Zeitungfrom ’63. Died at Berlin, 7 Aug. 1867.Liniere(FrançoisPayotde), French satiric poet, b. Paris, 1628; known as the Atheist of Senlis. Boileau says the only act of piety he ever did was drinking holy water because his mistress dipped her finger in it. Wrote many songs and smart epigrams, and is said to have undertaken a criticism of the New Testament. Died at Paris in 1704.Linton(Eliza, néeLynn) novelist and journalist, daughter of vicar of Crosthwaite, Cumberland, b. Keswick, 1822. Has contributed largely to the leading Radical journals, and has written numerous works of fiction, of which we must mentionUnder which Lord?andThe Rebel of the Family. In ’72 she publishedThe True History of Joshua Davidson,Christian and Communist, and in ’85 theAutobiography of Christopher Kirkland. She has also written on the woman question, and contributed largely to periodical literature.Linton(William James), poet, engraver, and author, b. at London, 1812. A Chartist in early life, he was intimately associated with the chief political refugees. He contributed to the democratic press, and also, we believe, to theOracle of Reason. He wrote theReasonertract on “The Worth of Christianity.” He was one of the founders of theLeader, has edited theTruthseeker, theNationaland theEnglish Republic, and has publishedFamine a Masque, aLife of Paine, and a memoir ofJames Watsonand some volumes of poems. In ’67 he went to America, but has recently returned.Liscow(Christian Ludwig), one of the greatest German satirists, b. Wittenberg, 29 April, 1701. He studied law in Jena, and became acquainted with Hagedorn in Hamburg. In 1745 he was Councillor of War at Dresden. This post he abandoned, occupying himself with literature until his death, 30 Oct. 1760. Liscow’s principal satires areThe Uselessness of Good Works for our SalvationandThe Excellence and Utility of Bad Writers. He has been called the German Swift, and his works show him to have been an outspoken Freethinker.Lisle(Lionel), author ofThe Two Tests: the Supernatural Claims of Christianity Tried by Two of its own Rules(London, 1877).Liszinski(Casimir), Polish martyr of noble birth. Denounced as an Atheist in 1688 by the Bishop of Wilna and Posnovia, he was decapitated and burnt at Grodno 30 March, 1689. His ashes were placed in a cannon and scattered abroad. Among the statements in Liszinski’s papers was that man was the creator of God, whom he had formed out of nothing.Littre(Maximilian Paul Emile), French philologist and philosopher, b. Paris, 1 Feb. 1801. He studied medicine, literature and most of the sciences. An advanced Republican, he was one of the editors of theNational. His edition of the works of Hippocrates (1839–61) proved the thoroughness of his learning. He embraced the doctrines of Comte, and in ’45 published a lucid analysis of the Positive Philosophy. He translated theLife of Jesus, by Strauss, and wrote theLiterary History of France. HisDictionary of the French Language, in which he applied the historical method to philology, is one of the most colossal works ever performed by one man. He wrote onComte and Positive Philosophy,Comte and Mill, etc., but refused to follow Comte in his later vagaries. From ’67 till his death he conductedLa Philosophie Positive. Littré also wroteScience from the Standpoint of Philosophy, ’73;Literature and History, ’75;Fragments of Positive Philosophy and Contemporary Sociology, ’76. He was proposed for the Academy in ’63, but was bitterly opposed by Bishop Dupanloup, and was elected in ’71. In the same year he was elected to the National Assembly, and in ’75was chosen senator. Under the Empire he twice refused the Legion of Honor. After a long life of incessant labor, he died at Paris, 2 June 1881.Lloyd(John William), American poet and writer, b. of Welsh-English stock at Westfield, New Jersey, 4 June, 1857. Is mostly self-educated. After serving apprenticeship as a carpenter, became assistant to Dr. Trall. Brought up as an orthodox Christian he became an Agnostic and Anarchist, and has written much inLibertyandLucifer.Lohmann(Hartwic), a native of Holstein, who in 1616 occupied a good position in Flensburg. He was accused of Atheism. In 1635 he practised medicine at Copenhagen. He wrote a work called theMirror of Faith. Died 1642.Lollard(Walter), heretic and martyr, b. England, towards end of thirteenth century, began to preach in Germany in 1315. He rejected the sacraments and ceremonies of the Church. It is said he chose twelve apostles to propagate his doctrines and that he had many followers. Arrested at Cologne in 1322, he was burnt to death, dying with great courage.Loman(Abraham Dirk), Dutch rationalist, b. The Hague 16 Sep. 1823. He holds the entire New Testament to be unhistorical, and the Pauline Epistles to belong to the second century, and has written many critical works.Lombroso(Cesare). Italian writer and scientist, b. Nov. 1836, has been a soldier and military physician. Introduced Darwinism to Italy. Has written several works, mostly in relation to the physiology of criminals.Longet(François Achille), French physiologist, b. St. Germain-en-Laye, 1811, published aTreatise on Physiologyin 3 vols. and several medical works. Died Bordeaux, 20 April, 1871.Longiano(Sebastiano). SeeFausto.Longue(Louis Pierre de), French Deist, writer in the service of the house of Conti; wroteLes Princesses de Malabares, Adrianople, 1734, in which he satirised religion. It was condemned to be burnt 31 Dec. 1734, and a new edition published in Holland with the imprint Tranquebar, 1735.Lorand(Georges), Belgian journalist, b. Namur, 1851, studiedlaw at Bologna (Italy) and soon became an active propagator of Atheistic doctrines among the youth of the University and in workmen associations. He editsLa Réformeat Brussels, the ablest daily exponent of Freethought and Democratic doctrines in Belgium. He has lately headed an association for the suppression of the standing army.“Lorm(Hieronymus),” the pen name of HeinrichLandesmann. German pessimistic poet, b. Nikolsberg, 9 Aug. 1821. In addition to many philosophical poems, he has written essays entitledNature and Spirit, Vienna, ’84.Lozano(Fernando), Spanish writer inLas Dominicales dal Libre Pensamiento, where he uses the signature “Demofilo.” He has writtenBattles of Freethought,Possessed by the Devil,The Church and Galeote, etc.Lubbock(Sir John), banker, archæologist, scientist and statesman, b. in London, 30 April, 1834. Educated at Eton, he was taken into his father’s bank at the age of fourteen, and became a partner in ’56. By his archæological works he has most distinguished himself. He has writtenPrehistoric Times as Illustrated by Ancient Remains, and the Manners and Customs of Modern Savages(’65), andThe Origin of Civilisation and the Primitive Condition of Man(’70).Lucretius Carus(Titus). Roman philosophical poet, b. aboutB.C.99. Little is known of his life, but his name is immortalised by his atheistic work,De Rerum Natura, in six books, which is the finest didactic poem in any language. Lucretius has been said to have believed in one god, Epicurus, whose system he expounds. Full of animation, dignity, and sublimity, he invests philosophy with the grace of genius. Is said to have died by his own handB.C.55.Luetzelberger(Ernst Karl Julius), German controversialist b. Ditterswind, 19 Oct. 1802. He was a friend of the Feuerbachs. He wrote onThe Church Tradition of the Apostle John. He also wrote a work on Jesus, translated in Ewerbeck’sQu’est ce que la Religion. In ’56 he was appointed town librarian at Nuremberg.Lunn(Edwin), Owenite lecturer. Published pamphletsOn Prayer, its Folly, Inutility, etc.1839, andDivine Revelation Examined, 1841.Luys(Jules Bernard), French alienist, b. Paris, 1828. Is physician at l’Hopital de la Charité, Paris, and author of a work onThe Brain and its Functionsin the “International Scientific Series.”Lyell(Sir Charles), geologist, b. Kinnordy, Forfarshire, 14 Nov. 1797. Was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, and devoted himself to geology. In 1830–33 appeared his great work,The Principles of Geology, which went through numerous editions. His last important work wasGeological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, in which he accepts the Darwinian theory. Died 22 Feb. 1875.Maccall(William), writer, b. Largs. Scotland, 1812. Educated at Glasgow, he found his way to the Unitarian Church which he left as insufficiently broad. He wroteElements of Individualism(’47), translated Spinoza’s Treatise on Politics (’54), wrote to theCriticas “Atticus,” contributed to theNational Reformer,Secular Review, etc., publishedForeign Biographies(’73), and translated Dr. Letourneau’sBiologyand other works. Maccall was an idealistic Pantheist of strong individual character. Died at Bexley, 19 Nov. 1888.Macchi(Mauro), Italian writer, b. Milan, 1 July, 1818. Became professor of rhetoric at the age of twenty-four, when, becoming obnoxious to the Austrians by the liberty of his opinions, he was deprived of his position. He betook himself to radical journalism, foundedl’Italia, a Republican journal, for which he was exiled. He was associated with Ausonio Franchi and Luigi Stefanoni in theLibero Pensieroand theLibero Pensatore, and founded an Italian Association of Freethinkers. In ’61 he was elected deputy to Parliament for Cremona, and in ’79 was elevated to the Senate. Died at Rome, 24 Dec. 1880. One of his principal works is on theCouncil of Ten.Macdonald(Eugene Montague), editor of the New YorkTruthseeker, b. Chelsea, Maine, 4 Feb. 1855. He learned the printer’s trade in New York, where he became foreman to D. M. Bennett, and contributed to the paper, which he has conducted since Mr. Bennett’s death.Macdonald(George), brother of the preceding. Wrote ontheTruthseeker, and now conductsFreethought, of San Francisco, in company with S. P. Putnam. George Macdonald is a genuine humorist and a sound Freethinker.McDonnell(William), American novelist, b. 15 Sept. 1824. Author ofThe Heathens of the HeathandExeter Hall, ’73, both Freethought romances.Mackay(Robert William), author ofThe Progress of the Intellect, 1850,Sketch of the Rise and Progress of Christianity, ’53, andThe Tubingen School, ’63.Mackey(Sampson Arnold), astronomer and shoemaker, of Norwich, who is said to have constructed an orrery out of leather. He wroteThe Mythological Astronomy of the Ancients, Norwich, 1822–24,Pious Frauds, ’26, A Lecture on Astronomy and Geology, edited by W. D. Saull, ’32,Urania’s Keyto the Revelation, ’33, andThe Age of Mental Emancipation, ’36–39. Mackey also wrote theSphinxiad, a rare book. Died 1846.Mackintosh(Thomas Simmons), author ofThe Electrical Theory of the Universe, 1848, andAn Inquiry into the Nature of Responsibility. Died 1850.MacSweeney(Myles), mythologist, b. at Enniskillen 1814. He came to London, and hearing Robert Taylor at the Rotunda in 1830, adopted his views. He held that Jesus never existed, and wrote in theNational Reformer,Secular Chronicle, and other papers. He published a pamphlet onMoses and Bacchusin 1874. Died Jan. 1881.Madach(Imré), Hungarian patriot and poet, b. 21 Jan. 1823,at Sztregova, studied at the University of Buda Pesth, and afterwards lived at Cseszlova. He was in ’52 incarcerated for a year for having given asylum at his castle to a political refugee. He became in ’61 delegate at Pesth. In this year he published his fine poemAz EmberTragédiája(The Human Tragedy), in which mankind is personified as Adam, with Lucifer in his company. Many Freethought views occur in this poem. Died 5 Oct. 1864. His works were published in 3 vols., 1880.Maier(Lodewyk). SeeMeyer.Maillet(Benôit de). French author, b. Saint Michiel, 12 April, 1656. He was successively consul in Egypt and atLeghorn; and died at Marseilles, 30 Jan. 1738. After his death was published “Telliamed” (the anagram of his name), in which he maintained that all land was originally covered with water and that every species of animal, man included, owes its origin to the sea.“Mainlaender” (Philipp), pseudonym of PhilippBatz, German pessimist, author of a profound work entitled thePhilosophy of Redemption, the first part of which was published in 1876. It was said that “Mainländer” committed suicide in that year, but the second part of his work has come out 1882–86. He holds that Polytheism gives place to Monotheism and Pantheism, and these again to Atheism. “God is dead, and his death was the life of the world.”Malherbe(François de). French poet, b. Caen, 1555. He served in the civil wars of the League, and enjoyed the patronage of Henry IV. He was called the prince of poets and the poet of princes. Many stories are told illustrating his sceptical raillery. When told upon his death-bed of paradise and hell he said he had lived like others and would go where others went. Died Paris, 16 Oct. 1628.Mallet(Mme. Josephine). French authoress of a work onThe Bible, its origin, errors and contradictions (1882).Malon(Benoît). French Socialist, b. near St. Etienne, 1841. One of the founders of theInternational; he has written a work on that organisation, its history and principles (Lyons, 1872). He is editor onL’Intransigeant, conducted theRevue Socialiste, and has written on the religion and morality of the Socialists and other works.Malvezin(Pierre). French journalist, b. Junhac, 26 June 1841. Author ofLa Bible Farce(Brussels, 1879.) This work was condemned and suppressed, 1880, and the author sentenced to three month’s imprisonment. He conducts the reviewLa Fraternité.Mandeville(Bernhard), b. Dort. 1670. He studied medicine, was made a doctor in Holland, and emigrated to London. In 1705 he published a poetical satire,The Grumbling Hive, or Knaves Turned Honest. In 1709, he publishedThe Virgin Unmasked, and in 1723,Free Thoughts on Religion the Church andNational Happiness. In the same year appeared hisFables of the Bees or Private Vices, Public Benefits. This work was presented by the grand jury of Middlesex, 1723 and 1728. It was attacked by Law, Berkeley, and others. Mandeville replied to Berkeley inA Letter to Dion, occasioned by a book called Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher, 1732. He also wroteAn Inquiry of Honor, andUsefulness of Christianity in War, 1731. Died, London, 19 Jan. 1733.Mantegazza(Paolo), Italian anthropologist, b. Monza, 31 Oct. 1831. Studied medicine at Milan, Pisa, and Paria, and travelled considerably through Europe, and produced at Paris in 1854 his first bookThe Physiology of Pleasure. He has also written on the physiology of pain, spontaneous generation, anthropological works on Ecstacy, Love and other topics, and a fine romanceIl Dio Ignoto, the unknown god (1876). Mantegazza is one of the most popular and able of Italian writers.Manzoni(Romeo), Dr. Italian physician, b. Arogno, 1847, studied philosophy at Milan, and graduated at Naples. He has written on the doctrine of love of Bruno and SchopenhauerA Life of Jesus, alsoIl Prete, a work translated into German with the title Religion as a Pathological Phenomenon, etc.Marchena(José), Spanish writer, b. Utrera, Andalusia, 1768. Brought up for the church, reading the writings of the French philosophers brought on him the Inquisition. He fled to France where he became a friend of Brissot and the Girondins. He wrote a pronouncedEssai de Théologie, 1797, and translated into Spanish Molière’sTartufe, and some works of Voltaire. He translatedDupuis’Origine de tous les Cultes, became secretary to Murat, and died 10 Jan. 1821.Marechal(Pierre Sylvain), French author, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1750; was brought up to the Bar, which he quitted for the pursuit of literature. He was librarian to the Mazarin College, but lost his place by hisBook Escaped from the Deluge, Psalms, by S. Ar. Lamech (anagram), 1784. This was a parody of the style of the prophets. In 1781 he wroteLe Nouveau Lucrece. In 1788 appeared hisAlmanack of Honest People, in which the name of Jesus Christ was found beside that of Epicurus. The work was denounced to Parliament, burnt at the hands of thehangman, and Maréchal imprisoned for four months. He welcomed the Revolution, and published a republican almanack, 1793. In 1797 and 1798 he published hisCode of a Society of Men without God, andFree Thoughts on the Priests. In 1799 appeared his most learned work,Travels of Pythagorasin Egypt, Chaldea, India, Rome, Carthage, Gaul, etc. 6 vols. Into this fiction Maréchal puts a host of bold philosophical, political, and social doctrines. In 1800 he published his famousDictionary of Atheists, which the Government prohibited and interdicted journals from noticing. In the following year appeared hisFor and Against the Bible. Died at Montrouge, 18 Jan. 1803. His beneficence is highly spoken of by Lalande.Maret(Henry), French journalist and deputy, b. Santerre, 4 March, 1838. He ably combatted against the Empire, and editsLe Radical; was elected deputy in ’81.Marguerite, of Valois, Queen of Navarre, sister to Francis I. b. at Angouleme, 11 April, 1492. Deserves place for her protection to religious reformers. Died 21 Dec. 1549.Marguetel de Saint Denis.SeeSaint Evremond (C.)Mario(Alberto), Italian patriot, b. 3 June, 1825. He edited theTribuneandFree Italy, became aide-de-camp to Garibaldi and married Jessie White, an English lady. In ’60 he wrote a polemic against the papacy entitledSlavery and Thought. Died 2 June, 1883.Marlow(Christopher), English poet and dramatist, b. Canterbury, 8 Feb. 1564. Educated at Benet College, Cambridge, where he took his degree in 1587. He devoted himself to dramatic writing and according to some became an actor. He was killed in a brawl at Deptford, 1 June, 1593, in time to escape being tried on an information laid against him for Atheism and blasphemy. The audacity of his genius is displayed inTamburlaineandDr. Faustus. Of the latter, Goethe said “How greatly is it all planned.” Swinburne says “He is the greatest discoverer, the most daring and inspired pioneer in all our poetic literature.”Marr(Wilhelm), German socialist, author ofReligious Excursions, 1876, and several anti-Semitic tracts.Marsais(Cesar Chesneau du). SeeDu Marsais.Marselli(Niccola), Italian writer, b. Naples, 5 Nov. 1832. Author of advanced works on the Science of History,Nature and Civilisation, theOrigin of Humanity, theGreat Races of Humanity, etc.Marston(Philip Bourke), English poet, b. London, 13 Aug. 1850. He became blind in childhood, and devoted to poetry. A friend of D. G. Rossetti, Swinburne, and Thomson, his poems are sad and sincere. Died 14 Feb. 1887, and was buried in accordance with his own wishes in unconsecrated ground at Highgate, and without religious service.Marsy(François Marie de), b. Paris, 1714, educated as a Jesuit. He brought out an analysis of Bayle, 1755, for which he was confined in the Bastile. Died 16 Dec. 1763.Marten(Henry), regicide, b. Oxford, 1602. Educated at Oxford, where he proceeded B.A., 1619. He was elected to Parliament in 1640, and expelled for his republican sentiments in 1643. He resumed his seat 6 Jan. 1646, took part in the civil war, sat as one of King Charles’s judges, and became one of the Council of State. He proposed the repeal of the statute of banishment against the Jews, and when it was sought to expel all profane persons, proposed to add the words “and all fools.” Tried for regicide 10 Oct. 1660, he was kept in Chepstow Castle till his death, Sep. 1680. Carlyle calls him “sworn foe of Cant in all its figures; an indomitable little Pagan if not better.”Martin(Emma), English writer and lecturess, b. Bristol, 1812. Brought up as a Baptist, she, for a time, edited theBristol Magazine. She wrote theExiles of Piedmontand translated from the Italian the Maxims of Guicciardini. The trials of Holyoake and Southwell for blasphemy led her to inquire and embrace the Freethought cause. While Holyoake and Paterson were in gaol, Mrs. Martin went about committing the “crime” for which they were imprisoned. In ’43 she publishedBaptism A Pagan Rite. This was followed byTracts for the Peopleon the Bible no Revelation, Religion Superseded, Prayer, God’s Gifts and Men’s Duties, a conversation on the being of God, etc. She also lectured and wrote on thePunishment of Death, to which she was earnestly opposed. Died Oct. 1851.Martin(Bon Louis Henri), French historian, b. St. Quentin,20 Feb. 1810. He was sent to Paris to study law, but abandoned it for history. HisHistory of France, in nineteen vols. (1838–53), is a monumental work of erudition.A confirmed Republican, he warmly opposed the Second Empire and after its fall became member of the National Assembly, ’71,and senator, ’76. He was elected member of the Academy, ’78. In addition to his historical works he contributed tole Siecle,laLibertéde penser, andl’Encyclopédie Nouvelle, etc. Died 14 Dec. 1883.Martin(Louis), author ofLes Evangiles Sans Dieu(called by Victor Hugocette noble page), Paris, 1887, describes himself as an Atheist Socialist.Martin(Louis Auguste). French writer, b. Paris, 25 April, 1811, editor of theMorale Independanteand member of the Institute of Geneva. For hisTrue and False Catholics(’58), he was fined three thousand francs and imprisoned for six months. He published theAnnuaire Philosophique. Several of his works are placed on the RomanIndex. Died Paris, 6 April, 1875.Martinaud(M.), an ex-abbé who refused ordination, and wrote Letters of a young priest, who is an Atheist and Materialist, to his bishop, Paris, 1868, in which he says, “Religion is the infancy of peoples, Atheism their maturity.”Martineau(Harriet), b. Norwich 12 June, 1803, descended from a Huguenot family. Brought up as a Unitarian, she began writing Devotional Exercises for Young Persons, and, taking to literature as a means of living, distinguished herself by popularisations of political economy. TheLetters on the Laws of Man’s Nature and Development, which passed between her and H. G. Atkinson, appeared in ’51, and disclosed her advance to the Positivist school of Thought. In ’53 she issued a condensed account of Comte’s philosophy. She wrote aHistory of England during the Thirty Years’ Peace, and numerous other works. Died at Ambleside 27 June, 1876. HerAutobiography, published after her death, shows the full extent of her unbelief.Masquerier(Lewis), American land reformer of Huguenot descent, b. 1 March, 1802. WroteThe Sataniad, establishedGreenpoint Gazette, and contributed to theBoston Investigator. Died 7 Jan. 1888.Massenet(Jules Emile Fréderic), French musical composer, b. Montard, 12 May, 1842. Has written a daring and popular oratorio onMarie Magdeleine, and an opera,Herodiade.Massey(Gerald), poet and archæologist, b. of poor parents at Tring, in Herts, 29 May, 1828. At eight years of age he was sent to a factory to earn a miserable pittance. At the age of fifteen he came to London as an errand boy, read all that came in his way, and became a Freethinker and political reformer. Inspired by the men of ’48, he startedThe Spirit of Freedom, ’49. It cost him five situations in eleven months. In ’53 hisBallad of Babe Christabel, with other Lyrical Poemsat once gave him position as a poet of fine taste and sensibility. Mr. Massey devoted himself to the study of Egyptology, the result of which is seen in hisBook of BeginningsandNatural Genesis, ’81–83, in which he shows the mythical nature of Christianity. Mr. Massey has also lectured widely on such subjects as Why Don’t God Kill the Devil? The Historical Jesus and the Mythical Christ, The Devil of Darkness in the Light of Evolution, The Coming Religion, etc. His poems are being re-published under the titleMy Lyrical Life.Massey(James). SeeTyssot. (S.)Massol(Marie Alexandre), French writer, b. Beziers, 18 March, 1805. He studied under Raspail, went to Paris in ’30 and became a Saint Simonian. In ’48 he wrote on Lamennais’La Réforme, and on theVoix du Peuplewith his friend Proudhon, to whom he became executor. In ’65 he establishedLa Morale Independantewith the object of showing morality had nothing to do with theology. Died at Paris 20 April, 1875.Maubert de Gouvest(Jean Henri), French writer, b. Rouen, 20 Nov. 1721. Brought up as a monk, he fled and took service in the Saxon army. He was thrown into prison by the King of Poland, but the Papal nuncio procured his release on condition of retaking his habit. This he did and went to Rome to be relieved of his vows. Failing this he went to Switzerland and England, where he was well received by LordBolingbroke. He publishedLettres Iroquoises, Irocopolis, 1752, and other anonymous works. At Frankfort in 1764 he was arrested as a fugitive monk and vagabond, and was imprisoned eleven months. Died at Altona, 21 Nov. 1767.Maudsley(Henry), M.D., b. near Giggleswick, Yorkshire, 5 Feb. 1835. Educated at London University, where he graduated M.D. in 1857. Taking mental pathology as his speciality, he soon reached eminence in his profession. From ’69–’79 he was professor of medical jurisprudence at University College, London. His works onThe Physiology and Pathology of the Mind(’67),Body and Mind(’70),Responsibility in Mental Disease(’73), and Body and Will (’83) have attracted much attention. HisNatural Laws and Supernatural Seemings(’80) is a powerful exposure of the essence of all superstition.Mauvillon(Jakob von), b. Leipzig, 8 March, 1743. Though feeble in body, he had a penchant for the army, and joined the engineer corps of Hanover, and afterwards became lieutenant-colonel in the service of the Duke of Brunswick. A friend and admirer of Mirabeau, he defended the French Revolution in Germany. He wrote anonymouslyParadoxes Moraux(Amsterdam, 1768) andThe Only True System of the Christian Religion(Berlin, 1787), at first composed under the title ofFalse Reasonings of the Christian Religion. Died in Brunswick, 11 Jan. 1794.Mazzini(Giuseppe), Italian patriot, b. Genoa, 28 June 1808. In ’26 he graduated LL.D., in the University of Genoa, and plunged into politics, becoming the leader of Young Italy, with the object of uniting the nation. Condemned to death in ’33, he went to Switzerland and was expelled, then came to England in ’37. In ’48 he returned, and in March ’49 was made triumvir of Rome with Saffi and Armellini. Compelled, after a desperate resistance, to retire, he returned to London. He wrote in theWestminster Reviewand other periodicalsandhis works are numerous though mostly of a political character. They are distinguished by highmindedness, love of toleration and eloquence. Carlyle called Mazzini “a man of genius and virtue, a man of sterling veracity, humanity and nobleness of mind.” Died atPisa10 March, 1872. He was a Deist.Meissner(Alfred), German poet, b. Teplitz, 15 Oct. 1822. Has written Ziska, an epic poem,The Son of Atta Troll,Recollections of Heine, etc. Died Teplitz, 20 May, 1885.Meister(Jacques Henri), Swiss writer, b. Bückeburg, 6 Aug. 1744. Intended for a religious career, he went to France, and became acquainted with D’Holbach and Diderot, of whom he wrote a short life, and was secretary to Grimm. He wrote theOrigin of Religious Principles, 1762, andNatural Morality, 1787.Menard(Louis), French author and painter, b. Paris, 1822. In ’48–’49 he wrotePrologue of a Revolution, for which he was obliged to leave France. Has written onMorality before the Philosophers, ’60,Studies on the Origin of Christianity, ’67, andFreethinkers’ Religious Catechism, ’75.Mendoza(Diego Hurtado de), famous and learned Spanish author, b. of distinguished family, Granada, 1503. Intended for the church, he studied Latin, Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew, but on leaving the university he joined the army. At school he wrote his well known comic novel,Lazarillo de Tormes, which was condemned by the Inquisition. Sent on an embassy to Pope Paul III., the latter was greatly shocked at his audacity and vehemence of speech. His chief work is hisHistory of the Moorish Wars, which remained unprinted thirty years, through the intolerant policy of Philip II. Mendoza’s satires and burlesques were also prohibited by the Inquisition. He commented Aristotle and translated his Mechanics. Died at Valladolid, April, 1575.Mendum(Josiah P.), publisher and proprietor of theBoston Investigator, b. Kennebunk, Maine, 7 July, 1811. He became a printer, and in 1833 became acquainted with Abner Kneeland and after his imprisonment engaged to print theInvestigator, and when Kneeland left Boston for the West to recruit his health, he carried on the paper together with Mr. Horace Seaver. Mr. Mendum was one of the founders of the Paine Memorial Hall, Boston, and a chief support of Freethought in that city.Mentelle(Edme), French geographer and historian, b. Paris, 11 Oct. 1730. Studied at the College de Beauvais under Crévier. HisPrécis de l’Histoire des Hébreux(1798), andPrécisde l’Histoire Universelleare thoroughly anti-Christian. He doubted if Jesus ever existed. He was a member of the Institute and Chevalier of the Legion of Honor. Died at Paris, 28 Dec. 1815.Mercier(L. A.), author ofLa LibrePensée, Brussels, 1879.Meredith(Evan Powell), Welsh writer, author ofThe Prophet of Nazareth(1864), an able work exposing the prophecies of Jesus, andAmphilogia, a reply in to the Bishop of Landaff and the Rev. J. F. Francklin, ’67.Meredith(George), philosophical poet and novelist, b. Hampshire, 1828, and educated partly on the Continent. Intended for the law, he adopted literature in preference. He first appeared as a poet withPoems(’51). Of his powerful novels we mention theOrdeal of Richard Feveril(’59),Emilia in England(’64), nowSandra Belloni, with Vittoria (’66) for a sequel.Rhoda Fleming,Beauchamp’s Career(’76),The Egoist(’79),The Tragic Comedians(’81) andDiana of the Crossways(’85). Deep thought and fine grace characterise his writings. As a poet Mr. Meredith is not popular, but his volumes of verse are marked by the highest qualities, and give him a place apart from the throng of contemporary singers.Merimee(Prosper), learned French writer, b. Paris, 28 Sept. 1808, author of numerous essays and romances. Was made Inspector General of Historic Monuments and was admitted to the Academy in ’44. In his anonymous brochure on H(enri) B(eyle), Eleutheropolis (Brussels), ’64, there is an open profession of Atheism. Died at Cannes, 23 Sept. 1870.Merritt(Henry), English painter and writer, b. Oxford, 8 June, 1822. On coming to London he lived with Mr. Holyoake, and contributed to theReasoner, using the signature “Christopher.” He wrote onDirt and PicturesandRobert Dalby and his World of Troubles, etc. Died in London, 10 July, 1877.MeslierorMellier(Jean), curé of Etrepigny, Champagne, b. Mazerny, Rethelois, 15 June, 1664. Died in 1729. After his death a will was discovered of which he had made three copies, in which he repudiated Christianity and requested to be buried in his own garden. His property he left to hisparishioners. Voltaire published it under the title of Extract from the sentiments of Jean Meslier. To Meslier has been attributed thework entitledLe Bon Sens, written by Baron D’Holbach.Le Testament de Jean Meslierhas been published in three volumes at Amsterdam, 1864, preceded by a study by Rudolf Charles (R. C. d’Ablaing van Giessenburg). It calls in question all the dogmas of Christianity. Anacharsis Clootz proposed to the National Convention to erect a statue to this “honest priest.”Metchnikov(Léon), Russian writer in French; author of a work on Japan and of able articles, notably one on Christian Communion in theRevue Internationale des Sciences Biologiques, tome 12.Metrodorusof Lampsacus. Greek philosopher, b. 330B.C., a disciple and intimate friend of Epicurus. He wrote numerous works, the titles of which are preserved by Diogenes Laertius. DiedB.C.277.Mettrie, seeLa Mettrie.Meunier(Amédée Victor), French writer, b. Paris, 2 May, 1817. Has done much to popularise science by hisScientific Essays, 1851–58, theAncestors of Adam, ’75, etc.Meyer(Lodewijk), a Dutch physician, a friend and follower of Spinoza, who publishedExercitatio Paradoxaon the philosophical interpretation of scripture, Eleutheropoli (Amst.), 1666. This has been wrongly attributed to Spinoza. It was translated into Dutch in 1667. He is also credited withLucii Antistic Constantes, de jure ecclesiasticorum. Alethopoli(Amst.), 1665. This work is also attributed to another writer, viz. P. de la Court.Mialhe(Hippolyte), French writer, b. Roquecourbe (Tarn),1834. From ’60–62 he was with the French army of occupation at Rome. He has organised federations of Freethinkers in France, editedL’Union des Libres-Penseurs, and has writtenMémoires d’un libre Penseur(Nevers, 1888).Michelet(Jules), French historian, b. Paris, 21 Aug. 1798. Became a Professor of History in 1821. Has written aHistory of Franceand of theFrench Revolution;The Jesuits, with his friend Quinet, ’43;The Priest, Woman and the Family, ’44;The Sorceress, dealing with witchcraft in the Middle Ages, ’62;The Bible of Humanity, ’64. His lectures were interdicted by the Government of Louis Phillippe, and after thecoup d’étathe wasdeprived of his chair. All Michelet’s works glow with eloquence and imagination. He never forgot that he was a republican and Freethinker of the nineteenth century. Died at Hyères, 9 Feb. 1874.Michelet(Karl Ludwig), German philosopher of French family, b. Berlin, 4 Dec. 1801. In ’29 he became Professor of Philosophy. A disciple of Hegel, he edited his master’s works, ’32. His principle work isA System of Philosophy as an Exact Science, ’76–81.He has also written on the relation of Herbert Spencer to German philosophy.Middleton(Conyers), Freethinking clergyman, b. York 1683. HisLetters from Rome, 1729, showed how much Roman Christianity had borrowed from Paganism, and hisFree Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers supposed to have subsisted in the Christian Church, 1749, was a severe blow to hitherto received “Christian Evidences.” He also wrote a classicLife of Cicero. Died at Hildersham near Cambridge, 28 July, 1750.Mignardi(G.), Italian writer, who in 1884 publishedMemorie di un Nuovo Credente(Memoirs of a New Believer).Milelli(Domenico), Italian poet, b. Catanzaro, Feb. 1841. His family intended to make him a priest, but he turned out a rank Pagan, as may be seen in hisOdi Pagane, ’79,Canzonieri, ’84, and other works.Mill(James), philosopher and historian, b. Northwaterbridge, Montrose, 6 April, 1773. Studied at Edinburgh, and distinguished himself by his attainments in Greek and moral philosophy. He was licensed as preacher in the Scotch Church, but removed to London in 1800, and became editor of theLiterary Review, and contributed to the reviews. He published, ’17–’19, hisHistory of British India. He contributed many articles to the fifth edition of theEncyclopædia Britannica. A friend of Bentham, he wrote largely in theWestminster Review, and did much to forward the views of Philosophic Radicalism. HisAnalysis of the Human Mind, ’39, is a profound work. In religion he was a complete sceptic. Reading Bishop Butler’sAnalogymade him an Atheist. Died 23 June, 1836.Mill(John Stuart), eminent English writer, son of the preceding, b. London, 20 May, 1806. Educated by his fatherwithout religion, he became clerk in the East India House, and early in life contributed to theWestminsterandEdinburgh Reviews. Of the first he became joint editor in ’35. HisSystem of Logic, ’43, first made him generally known. This was followed by hisPrinciples of Political Economy. In ’59 appeared his small but valuable treatiseOn Liberty, in which he defends the unrestricted free discussion of religion. Among subsequent works wereUtilitarianism, ’63;Auguste Comte and Positivism, ’67;Examination of Sir William Hamilton’s Philosophy’65;Dissertations and Discussions, ’59–’75; and theSubjection of Women, ’69. In ’65 he was elected to Parliament for Westminster, but lost his seat in ’68. In ’67 he was chosen Rector of St. Andrews, and delivered the students an able address. Prof. Bain says “in everything characteristic of the creed of Christendom he was a thorough-going negationist. He admitted neither its truth nor its utility.” Died at Avignon, 8 May, 1873, leaving behind his interestingAutobiographyand three essays on “Nature,” “Theism,” and “Religion.”Mille(Constantin), Roumanian writer, b. at Bucharest, educated at Paris. He lectured at Jassy and Bucharest on the History of Philosophy, from a Materialistic point of view. He was also active with Codreano, and after the latter’s death (’77), in spreading Socialism. Millé contributes to the Rivista Sociala and the Vütorul, edited by C. Pilitis.Milliere(Jean Baptiste), Socialist, b. of poor parents, Lamarche (Côte d’Or), 13 Dec. 1817. He became an advocate, and founded theProletaireat Clermont Ferrand. For writingRevolutionary Studieshe was, after thecoup d’état, banished to Algeria until the amnesty of ’59. In ’69 Millière started, with Rochefort, theMarseillaise, of which he became one of the principal directors. At the election for the National Assembly he was elected for Paris by 73,000 votes. Although he took no part in the Commune, but sought to act as an intermediary, he was arrested and summarily shot near the Pantheon, Paris, 26 May, 1871. He died crying “Vive l’Humanité.”Mirabaud(Jean Baptiste de), French writer, b. Paris, 1675. He translated Tasso and Ariosto, and became perpetual secretary to the French Academy. He wroteOpinions of the Ancients on the Jews, aCritical Examination of the New Testament, (publishedunder the name of Fréret),The World: its Origin and Antiquity, 1751,Sentiments of a Philosopher on the Nature of the Soulinserted in the collection entitledNouvelle libertés de Penser, Amst. (Paris) 1743. TheSystem of Nature, attributed to Mirabaud, was written by d’Holbach. Mirabaud died 24 June, 1760.Mirabeau(Honoré GabrielRiquettiComte de), French statesman and orator, b. at the Chateau de Bignon (Loiret) 9 March, 1749. He inherited a passionate nature, a frank strong will, generous temper, and a mind of prodigious activity. He entered the army in 1767, but by an amorous intrigue provoked the ire of his father, by whom he was more than once imprisoned. In 1776 he went to Amsterdam and employed himself in literary work. In 1783 appeared anonymously hisErotika Biblion, dealing with the obscenity of the Bible. In 1786 he was sent to Berlin, where he met Frederick and collected materials for his work onThe Prussian Monarchy. He returned to the opening of the States General and soon became leader of the Revolution, being in Jan. 1791 chosen President of the National Assembly. He advocated the abolition of the double aristocracy of Lords and bishops, the spoliation of the Church and the National Guard. Carlyle calls him “far the strongest, best practical intellect of that time.” He died 2 April, 1791.Among his last words were, “Envelop me with perfumes and crown me with flowers that I may pass away into everlasting sleep.”Miranda(Don Francisco). South American patriot and general, b. Caracas 1750, aided the Americans in their War of Independence, tried to free Guatimalaus from the Spanish, allied himself to the Girondins and became second in command in the army of Dumouriez. He was a friend of Thomas Paine. In 1806–11 he was engaged seeking to free Peru from the Spaniards, by whom he was made prisoner, and died in a dungeon at Cadiz, 16 Jan. 1816. It was said General Miranda made a sceptic of James Mill.Miron.SeeMorin(André Saturnin.)Mitchell(J. Barr), Dr., anonymous author ofDates and Data(1876) andChrestos; a Religious Epithet(1880). Dr. Mitchell has also written in theNational Reformer, using his initials only.Mitchell(Logan), author of Lectures published asThe Christian Mythology Unveiled. This work was also issued under the titleSuperstition Besieged. It is said that Mitchell committed suicide in Nov. 1841. He left by his will a sum of £500 to any bookseller who had the courage to publish his book. It was first published by B. Cousens, and was republished in ’81.Mittermaier(Karl Josef Anton von), German jurisconsult, b. Munich, 5 Aug. 1787. Studied law and medicine at Landshut, where he became professor. His works on Law gained him a high reputation. He obtained a chair at the Heidelberg University. In 1831 he represented Baden in Parliament. He advocated the unity of Germany and took an active part in the Radical movement of ’48. His writings are all in the direction of freedom. Died 28 Aug. 1867.Mittie(Stanilas), in 1789 proposed the taking of church bells to make money and cannon, and during the revolution distinguished himself by other anti-clerical suggestions. Died 1816.Mocenicus(Philippus), Archbishop of Nicosia, Cyprus, a Venetian philosopher, whose hereticalContemplationswere printed at Geneva, 1588, with thePeripatetic Question of Cæsalpinusand the books of Telesio onThe Nature of Thingsin the volume entitledTractationum Philosophicarum.Moleschott(Jacob), scientific Materialist, b. of Dutch parents at’s Hertogenbosch, 9 Aug. 1822; studied at Heidelburg where he graduated M.D. Became Professor of Physiology at Zurich and afterwards at Turin. Becoming a naturalised Italian he was in ’76 made a senator, and in ’78 Professor of Physiology at the University of Rome. He has writtenCirculation of Life,Light and Life,Physiological Sketches, and other medical and scientific works. Lange calls him “the father of the modern Materialistic movement.”Molesworth(Sir William), statesman and man of letters, the eighth baronet of his family, b. Cornwall, 23 May, 1810. In ’32 he was returned M.P. for East Cornwall, and from ’37–41 sat for Leeds. In ’53 he was First Commissioner of Public Works, and in ’55 was Secretary for the Colonies. He was forsome time proprietor and conductor of theWestminster Review, in which he wrote many articles. A noble edition of Hobbes was produced at his expense, ’39–45, and he contributed to the support of Auguste Comte. Died 22 Oct. 1855.Mommsen(Theodor), historian, b. Garding (Schleswig), 30 Nov. 1817. Studied at Kiel, and travelled from ’44 to 47. He became Professor of Law of Leipsic, Zürich and Berlin. Is best known by hisHistory of Rome, ’53–85, a work of great research and suggestiveness in which he expresses the opinion that it is doubtful if the world was improved by Christianity.Monboddo(Lord). SeeBurnett (James).Monge(Gaspard), French scientist, b. at Beaume, 10 May 1746. Taught physics and mathematics at the military school of Mezieres, became a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1780, and through the influence of Condorcet was made Minister of the Marine in 1792. He was one of the founders of the Polytechnic School. Napoleon made him a senator, created him Count ofPelusium, and gave him an estate for his many services to the French nation. On the return of the Bourbons he was deprived of all his emoluments. Died 28 July, 1818. Maréchal and Lalande insert his name in their list of Atheists.Mongez(Antoine), French archæologist, b. Lyons, 30 June 1747. Distinguished by his studies, he became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions and of the Institute, before which he said “he had the honor to be an Atheist.” He was one of the most ardent members of the Convention, and wrote many memoirs. Died at Paris, 30 July, 1835.Monroe(J. R.), Dr., editor and proprietor of theIronclad Age, b. Monmouth, co. New Jersey, about 1825. In ’50 he went to Rochford, where he had a good practice as a doctor. In ’55 he started theRochford Herald, and in July, ’57, theSeymour Times. During the Civil War he was appointed surgeon to the 150th regiment, and after some hard service his own health broke down. In ’75 Dr. Monroe published his dramas and poems in a volume. From this time his paper became more Freethought and less political. In April, ’82, he removed toIndianapolis, Indiana, and changed the name toThe Age, afterwards Monroe’s Ironclad Age. Dr. Monroe is a clever writer and a modest man, with a remarkable fund ofnatural humor. Among his publications are poems onThe Origin of Man, etc.,Genesis Revised, andHoly Bible Stories.Montaigne(Michel de), French philosophic essayist, b. at the family castle in Perigord, 28 Feb. 1533. He studied law and became a judge at Bordeaux about 1554. In 1580 he produced his famous “Essays,” which indicate a sprightly humor allied to a most independent spirit. The Essays, Hallam says, make in several respects an epoch in literature. Emerson says, “Montaigne is the frankest and honestest of all writers.” Montaigne took as his motto: Quesçais-je? [What know I?] and said that all religious opinions are the result of custom. Buckle says, “Under the guise of a mere man of the world, expressing natural thoughts in common language, Montaigne concealed a spirit of lofty and audacious inquiry.” Montaigne seems to have been the first man in Europe who doubted the sense and justice of burning people for a difference of opinion. His denunciation of the conduct of the Christians in America does him infinite honor. Died 13 Sept. 1592.Monteil(Charles François Louis Edgar), French journalist, b. Vire, 26 Jan. 1845. Fought against the Empire, writing inLe Rappel. During the Commune he was secretary to Delescluze. For hisHistoire d’un Frère Ignorantin, ’74, he was prosecuted by the Christian Brothers, and condemned to one year’s imprisonment, 2,000 francs fine, and 10,000 francs damages. In ’77 he wrote aFreethinker’s Catechism, published at Antwerp, and in ’79 an edition ofLa République Française. In ’80 he was made a member of the Municipal Council of Paris, and re-elected in ’84. In ’83 he was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honor. He has compiled an excellent secularManual of Instructionfor schools.

Layton(Henry), educated at Oxford, and studied at Gray’s Inn, being called to the bar. He wrote anonymously observations on Dr. Bentley’sConfutation of Atheism(1693), and aSearch After Souls, and Spiritual Observations in Man(1700).

Leblais(Alphonse), French professor of mathematics, b. Mans, 1820. Author of a study in Positivist philosophy entitledMaterialism and Spiritualism(1865), to which Littré contributed a preface.

Le Bovier de Fontenelle.SeeFontenelle.

Lecky(William Edward Hartpole), historian, b. near Dublin, 26 March, 1838. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin. His works, which are characterised by great boldness and originality of thought, areA History of the Rise and Spirit of Rationalism in Europe(’65),A History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne(’69), andA History of England in the Eighteenth Century(1878–87).

Leclerc(Georges Louis). SeeBuffon.

Leclerc de Septchenes(N.), b. at Paris. Became secretary to Louis XVI., translated the first three vols. of Gibbon, and wrote an essay on the religion of the ancient Greeks (1787). A friend of Lalande, he prepared an edition of Freret, published after his death. Died at Plombieres, 9 June, 1788.

Leconte de Lisle(Charles Marie René), French poet, b. Isle of Bourbon, 23 Oct. 1818. After travelling in India, returned to Paris, and took part in the revolution of ’48, but has since devoted himself mainly to poetry, though he has written alsoA Republican CatechismandA Popular History of Christianity(’71). One of his finest poems isKain. On being elevated to the seat of Victor Hugo at the Academy in ’87, he gave umbrage toJews and Catholics by incidentally speaking of Moses as “the chief of a horde of ferocious nomads.”

Lecount(Peter), lieutenant in the French navy. He was engaged in the battle of Navarino. Came to England as a mathematician in the construction of the London and Birmingham Railway, of which he wrote a history (1839). He wrote a curious book in three volumes entitledA Few Hundred Bible Contradictions; A Hunt After the Devil and other Old Matters, by John P. Y., M.D.; published by H. Hetherington (’43). The author’s name occurs on p. 144, vol i., as “the Rev. Peter Lecount.”

Leenhof(Frederick van), b. Middelburg (Zealand), Aug. 1647. Became a minister of Zwolle, where he published a work entitledHeaven on Earth(1703), which subjected him to accusations of Atheism. It was translated into German in 1706.

Lefevre(André), French writer, b. Provins, 9 Nov. 1834. He became, at the age of twenty-three, one of the editors of theMagasin Pittoresque. He wrote much inLa Libre PenséeandLa Pensée Nouvelle; has translatedLucretiusin verse (’76), and writtenReligions and Mythologies Compared(’77); contributed a sketchyHistory of Philosophyto the Library of Contemporary Science (’78); has writtenMan Across the Ages(’80) and theRenaissance of Materialism(’81). He has also edited theLettres Persanesof Montesquieu, someDialoguesof Voltaire, and Diderot’sLa Religieuse(’86).

Lefort(César), disciple of Comte. Has published a work on the method of modern science (Paris, 1864).

Lefrancais de Lalande.SeeLalande.

Legate(Bartholomew), Antitrinitarian native of Essex, b. about 1572, was thrown into prison on a charge of heresy, 1611. King James had many personal interviews with him. On one occasion the king asked him if he did not pray to Jesus Christ. He replied that he had done so in the days of his ignorance, but not for the last seven years. “Away, base fellow!” said His Majesty, “It shall never be said that one stayeth in my presence who hath never prayed to the Savior for seven years together.” He was burnt at Smithfield by theKing’s writ,De Hæretico Comburendo, 18 March, 1612, being one of the last persons so punished in England.

Leguay de Premontval.SeePremontval.

Le Hon(Henri) Belgian scientist, b. Ville-Pommerœul (Hainault) 1809, was captain in the Belgian army, professor at the military school of Brussels, and Chevalier of the Order of Leopold. Author ofL’Homme Fossile en Europe, ’66. Translated Professor Omboni’s exposition of Darwinism. Died at San Remo, 1872.

Leidy(Joseph), M.D., American naturalist, b. Philadelphia, 9 Sept. 1823. He became professor of biology at the University of Philadelphia, and is eminent for his contributions to American palæontology.

Leigh(Henry Stone), English author of a Deistic work on theReligions of the World, 1869.

Leland(Theron C.), American journalist, b. 9 April, 1821. He edited with Wakeman the journalMan. Died 2 June, 1885.

Lemaire(Charles), member of the Academical Society of Saint Quentin, author of an atheistic philosophical work, in two vols., entitledInitiation to the Philosophy of Liberty, Paris, 1842.

Lemonnier(Camille), Belgian writer, b. Ixel les Bruxelles, 1845, author of stories and works on Hysteria, Death, etc., in which he evinces his freethought sentiments.

Lenau(Nicolaus),i.e.Nicolaus Franz Niembsch vonStrehlenau, Hungarian poet, b. Czatad, 15 Aug. 1802. His poems, written in German, are pessimistic, and his constitutional melancholy deepened into insanity. Died Ober-Döbling, near Vienna, 22 Aug. 1850.

Lennstrand(Viktor E.), Swedish writer and orator, b. Gefle, 30 Jan. 1861. Educated at Upsala University. Founded the Swedish Utilitarian Society, March ’88, and in May was sentenced to a fine of 250 crowns for denial of the Christian religion. On the 29th Nov. he was imprisoned for three months for the same offence. Has written several pamphlets and has incurred several fresh prosecutions. In company withA. Lindkvist he has founded theFritankarenas the organ of Swedish freethought.

Leontium, Athenian Hetæra, disciple and mistress of Epicurus (q.v.) She acquired distinction as a philosopher, and wrote a treatise against Theophrastus, which is praised by Cicero as written in a skilful and elegant manner.

Leopardi(Giacomo), count, Italian pessimist poet, b. Recanati (Ancona), 29 June, 1798. In 1818 he won a high place among poets by his lines addressedTo Italy. HisCanti, ’31, are distinguished by eloquence and pathos, while his prose essays,Operette Morali, ’27, are esteemed the finest models of Italian prose of this century. Leopardi’s short life was one long disease, but it was full of work of the highest character. As a poet, philologist, and philosopher, he is among the greatest of modern Italians. Died at Naples, 14 July, 1837.

Lequinio(Joseph Marie), French writer and Conventionnel, b. Sarzeau, 1740. Elected Mayor of Rennes, 1790, and Deputy from Morbihar to the Legislative Assembly. He then professed Atheism. He voted the death of Louis XVI. “regretting that the safety of the state did not permit his being condemned to penal servitude for life.” In 1792 he publishedPrejudices Destroyed, signed “Citizen of the World,” in which he considered religion as a political chain. He took part in the Feasts of Reason, and wrotePhilosophy of the People, 1796. Died 1813.

Lermina(Jules Hippolyte), French writer, b. 27 March, 1839. Founded theCorsairandSatan, and has published an illustrated biographical dictionary of contemporary France, 1884–5.

Lermontov(Mikhail Yur’evich), Russian poet and novelist, b. Moscow, 3 Oct. 1814. Said to have come of a Scotch family, he studied at Moscow University, from which he was expelled. In ’32 he entered the Military Academy at St. Petersburg, and afterwards joined the Hussars. In ’37 some verses on the death of Pushkin occasioned his being sent to the Caucasus, which he describes in a work translated into English, ’53. His poems are much admired.The Demon, exhibiting Satan in love, has been translated into English, and so has his romance entitledA Hero of Our Times. He fell in a duel in the Caucasus, 15 July, 1840.

Leroux(Pierre), French Socialist and philosophic writer, b. Bercy, near Paris, 6 April, 1797. At first a mason, then a typographer, he invented an early composing machine which he called the pianotype. In 1824 he became editor of theGlobe. Becoming a Saint Simonian, he made this paper the organ of the sect. He started with ReynaudL’Encyclopédie Nouvelle, and afterwards with L. Viardot and Mme. George Sand theRevue Indépendante(’41), which became noted for its pungent attacks on Catholicism. His principal work isDe l’Humanite(’40). In June ’48 M. Leroux was elected to the Assembly. After thecoup d’étathe returned to London and Jersey. Died at Paris, 12 April, 1871.

Leroy(Charles Georges), lieutenant ranger of the park of Versailles, b.1723, one of the writers on theEncyclopédie. He defended the work of Helvetius on the Mind against Voltaire, and wrotePhilosophical Letters on the Intelligence and Perfectibility of Animals(1768), a work translated into English in 1870. Died at Paris 1789.

Lespinasse(Adolf Frederik Henri de). Dutch writer, b. Delft, 14 May, 1819. Studied medicine, and established himself first at Deventer and afterwards at Zwartsluis, Vaassen, and Hasselt. In theDageraadhe wrote many interesting studies under the pen-name of “Titus,” and translated the work of Dupuis into Dutch. In 1870 he emigrated to America and became director of a large farm in Iowa. Died in Orange City (Iowa) 1881.

L’Espinasse(Julie Jeanne Eléonore de). French beauty and wit, b. Lyons, 9 Nov. 1732. She became the protégé of Madame du Deffand, and gained the favor of D’Alembert. Her letters are models of sensibility and spirit. Died Paris, 23 May, 1776.

Lessing(Gotthold Ephraim). German critic and dramatic poet, b. Kamenz, 22 Jan. 1729. He studied at Leipsic, and at Berlin became acquainted with Voltaire and Mendelssohn. Made librarian at Wolfenbüttel he publishedFragments of an Unknown(1777), really theVindication of Rational Worshippers of God, by Reimarus, in which it was contended that Christian evidences are so clad in superstition as to be unworthy credence. Among his writings wereThe FreethinkerandNathan the Wise, hisnoblest play, in which he enforces lessons of toleration and charity to all faiths. The effect of his writings was decidedly sceptical. Heine calls Lessing, after Luther, the greatest German emancipator. Died at Brunswick 15 Feb. 1781.

Lessona(Michele). Italian naturalist, b. 20 Sept., 1823; has translated some of the works of Darwin.

Leucippus.Greek founder of the atomic philosophy.

L’Estrange(Thomas), writer, b. 17 Jan. 1822. With a view to entering the Church he graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, 26 Feb. ’44, but became an attorney. Having read F. A. Paley’s Introduction to the Iliad, he became convinced that the “cooking” process there described, has been undergone by all sacred books now extant. He wrote for Thomas Scott’s series valuable tracts onOur First Century,Primitive Church History,Irenæus,Order,The Eucharist. He also edited Hume’sDialogues on Natural Religion, and wroteThe First Ten Alleged Persecutions.

Levallois(Jules), French writer, b. Rouen 18 May, 1829. In ’55 he became secretary to Sainte Beuve. WroteDéismeet Christianisme, 1866.

Lewes(George Henry), English man of letters, b. in London, 18 April, 1817, he became a journalist and dramatic critic. In 1845–6 appeared hisBiographical History of Philosophy, which showed higher power. This has been republished asHistory of Philosophy from Thales to Comte. Lewes was one of the first to introduce English readers to Comte in his account ofComte’s Philosophy of the Sciences, ’47. In ’49 he became one of the founders of theLeader, for which he wrote till ’54. In that year he began his association with “George Eliot” (q.v.). HisLife of Goetheappeared in ’55, and from this time he began to give his attention to scientific, especially biological, studies. In ’64 he published an important essay on Aristotle. On the foundation of theFortnightly Review, ’65, Lewes was appointed editor. His last work,Problems of Life and Mind, 5 vols. ’74–79, was never completed owing to his death, 28 Nov. 1878. He bequeathed his books to Dr. Williams’s library.

Lichtenberg(Georg Christoph), German satirical writer and scientist, b. Ober-Ramstädt, 1 July, 1742; a friend of G. Forster,he left many thoughts showing his advanced opinions. Died Göttingen, 24 Feb. 1799.

Lick(James), American philanthropist, b. Fredericksburg, Pa., 25 Aug. 1796. In 1847 he settled in California and made a large fortune by investing in real estate. He was a Materialist and bequeathed large sums to the Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, and for other philanthropic purposes. Died San Francisco, 1 Oct. 1876.

Lilja(Nicolai), Swedish writer, b. Rostanga, 18 Oct. 1808. Studied at Lund and became parish clerk in the Lund diocese. He wrote, onMan; his Life and Destiny. Died Lund 1870.

Lincoln(Abraham), sixteenth President of the United States, b. Kentucky, 12 Feb. 1809. An uncompromising opponent of slavery, his election (Nov. ’60) led to the civil war and the emancipation of slaves. Ward H. Lamon, who knew him well, says he “read Volney and Paine and then wrote a deliberate and labored essay, wherein he reached conclusions similar to theirs. The essay was burnt, but he never denied or regretted its composition.” Mrs. Lincoln said, “Mr. Lincoln had no hope and no faith in the usual acceptance of those words.” Assassinated 14 April, 1865, he expired the following morning.

Lindet(Robert Thomas), “apostate” French bishop, b. Bernay, 1743. Was elected to the States-General by the clergy of his district. He embraced Republican principles, and in March, 1791, was made Bishop of L’Eure. In Nov. 1792 he publicly married. On 7 Nov. 1793, renounced his bishopric. He proposed that civil festivals should take the place of religious ones. He became member of theConseil des Anciens. Died Bernay, 10 Aug. 1823, and was buried without religious service.

Lindh(Theodor Anders), b. Borgo (Finland), 13 Jan. 1833. Studied at Helsingfors University, ’51–57; became lawyer in ’71, and is now a member of theMunicipalCouncil of Borgo. He has written many poems in Swedish, and also translated from the English poets, and has published Freethought essays, which have brought him into controversy with the clergy.

Lindkvist(Alfred), Swedish writer, b. Gefle, 21 Oct. 1860,of pious parents. At the University of Upsala he studied European literature, and became acquainted with the works of Mill, Darwin, and Spencer. He has published two volumes of poems,Snow DropsandApril Days, and lost a stipend at the University by translating from the Danish a rationalistic life of Jesus entitledThe Reformer from Galilee. Mr. Lindkvist has visited Paris, and collaborated on a Stockholm daily paper. In ’88 he joined his friend Lennstrand in propagating Freethought, and in Nov. received a month’s imprisonment for having translated one of J. Symes’s anti-Christian pamphlets. He now editsFritankarenin conjunction with Mr. Lennstrand.

Lindner(Ernst Otto Timotheus), German physician, b. Breslau, 28 Nov. 1820. A friend of Schopenhauer, whose philosophy he maintained in several works on music. He edited theVossische Zeitungfrom ’63. Died at Berlin, 7 Aug. 1867.

Liniere(FrançoisPayotde), French satiric poet, b. Paris, 1628; known as the Atheist of Senlis. Boileau says the only act of piety he ever did was drinking holy water because his mistress dipped her finger in it. Wrote many songs and smart epigrams, and is said to have undertaken a criticism of the New Testament. Died at Paris in 1704.

Linton(Eliza, néeLynn) novelist and journalist, daughter of vicar of Crosthwaite, Cumberland, b. Keswick, 1822. Has contributed largely to the leading Radical journals, and has written numerous works of fiction, of which we must mentionUnder which Lord?andThe Rebel of the Family. In ’72 she publishedThe True History of Joshua Davidson,Christian and Communist, and in ’85 theAutobiography of Christopher Kirkland. She has also written on the woman question, and contributed largely to periodical literature.

Linton(William James), poet, engraver, and author, b. at London, 1812. A Chartist in early life, he was intimately associated with the chief political refugees. He contributed to the democratic press, and also, we believe, to theOracle of Reason. He wrote theReasonertract on “The Worth of Christianity.” He was one of the founders of theLeader, has edited theTruthseeker, theNationaland theEnglish Republic, and has publishedFamine a Masque, aLife of Paine, and a memoir ofJames Watsonand some volumes of poems. In ’67 he went to America, but has recently returned.

Liscow(Christian Ludwig), one of the greatest German satirists, b. Wittenberg, 29 April, 1701. He studied law in Jena, and became acquainted with Hagedorn in Hamburg. In 1745 he was Councillor of War at Dresden. This post he abandoned, occupying himself with literature until his death, 30 Oct. 1760. Liscow’s principal satires areThe Uselessness of Good Works for our SalvationandThe Excellence and Utility of Bad Writers. He has been called the German Swift, and his works show him to have been an outspoken Freethinker.

Lisle(Lionel), author ofThe Two Tests: the Supernatural Claims of Christianity Tried by Two of its own Rules(London, 1877).

Liszinski(Casimir), Polish martyr of noble birth. Denounced as an Atheist in 1688 by the Bishop of Wilna and Posnovia, he was decapitated and burnt at Grodno 30 March, 1689. His ashes were placed in a cannon and scattered abroad. Among the statements in Liszinski’s papers was that man was the creator of God, whom he had formed out of nothing.

Littre(Maximilian Paul Emile), French philologist and philosopher, b. Paris, 1 Feb. 1801. He studied medicine, literature and most of the sciences. An advanced Republican, he was one of the editors of theNational. His edition of the works of Hippocrates (1839–61) proved the thoroughness of his learning. He embraced the doctrines of Comte, and in ’45 published a lucid analysis of the Positive Philosophy. He translated theLife of Jesus, by Strauss, and wrote theLiterary History of France. HisDictionary of the French Language, in which he applied the historical method to philology, is one of the most colossal works ever performed by one man. He wrote onComte and Positive Philosophy,Comte and Mill, etc., but refused to follow Comte in his later vagaries. From ’67 till his death he conductedLa Philosophie Positive. Littré also wroteScience from the Standpoint of Philosophy, ’73;Literature and History, ’75;Fragments of Positive Philosophy and Contemporary Sociology, ’76. He was proposed for the Academy in ’63, but was bitterly opposed by Bishop Dupanloup, and was elected in ’71. In the same year he was elected to the National Assembly, and in ’75was chosen senator. Under the Empire he twice refused the Legion of Honor. After a long life of incessant labor, he died at Paris, 2 June 1881.

Lloyd(John William), American poet and writer, b. of Welsh-English stock at Westfield, New Jersey, 4 June, 1857. Is mostly self-educated. After serving apprenticeship as a carpenter, became assistant to Dr. Trall. Brought up as an orthodox Christian he became an Agnostic and Anarchist, and has written much inLibertyandLucifer.

Lohmann(Hartwic), a native of Holstein, who in 1616 occupied a good position in Flensburg. He was accused of Atheism. In 1635 he practised medicine at Copenhagen. He wrote a work called theMirror of Faith. Died 1642.

Lollard(Walter), heretic and martyr, b. England, towards end of thirteenth century, began to preach in Germany in 1315. He rejected the sacraments and ceremonies of the Church. It is said he chose twelve apostles to propagate his doctrines and that he had many followers. Arrested at Cologne in 1322, he was burnt to death, dying with great courage.

Loman(Abraham Dirk), Dutch rationalist, b. The Hague 16 Sep. 1823. He holds the entire New Testament to be unhistorical, and the Pauline Epistles to belong to the second century, and has written many critical works.

Lombroso(Cesare). Italian writer and scientist, b. Nov. 1836, has been a soldier and military physician. Introduced Darwinism to Italy. Has written several works, mostly in relation to the physiology of criminals.

Longet(François Achille), French physiologist, b. St. Germain-en-Laye, 1811, published aTreatise on Physiologyin 3 vols. and several medical works. Died Bordeaux, 20 April, 1871.

Longiano(Sebastiano). SeeFausto.

Longue(Louis Pierre de), French Deist, writer in the service of the house of Conti; wroteLes Princesses de Malabares, Adrianople, 1734, in which he satirised religion. It was condemned to be burnt 31 Dec. 1734, and a new edition published in Holland with the imprint Tranquebar, 1735.

Lorand(Georges), Belgian journalist, b. Namur, 1851, studiedlaw at Bologna (Italy) and soon became an active propagator of Atheistic doctrines among the youth of the University and in workmen associations. He editsLa Réformeat Brussels, the ablest daily exponent of Freethought and Democratic doctrines in Belgium. He has lately headed an association for the suppression of the standing army.

“Lorm(Hieronymus),” the pen name of HeinrichLandesmann. German pessimistic poet, b. Nikolsberg, 9 Aug. 1821. In addition to many philosophical poems, he has written essays entitledNature and Spirit, Vienna, ’84.

Lozano(Fernando), Spanish writer inLas Dominicales dal Libre Pensamiento, where he uses the signature “Demofilo.” He has writtenBattles of Freethought,Possessed by the Devil,The Church and Galeote, etc.

Lubbock(Sir John), banker, archæologist, scientist and statesman, b. in London, 30 April, 1834. Educated at Eton, he was taken into his father’s bank at the age of fourteen, and became a partner in ’56. By his archæological works he has most distinguished himself. He has writtenPrehistoric Times as Illustrated by Ancient Remains, and the Manners and Customs of Modern Savages(’65), andThe Origin of Civilisation and the Primitive Condition of Man(’70).

Lucretius Carus(Titus). Roman philosophical poet, b. aboutB.C.99. Little is known of his life, but his name is immortalised by his atheistic work,De Rerum Natura, in six books, which is the finest didactic poem in any language. Lucretius has been said to have believed in one god, Epicurus, whose system he expounds. Full of animation, dignity, and sublimity, he invests philosophy with the grace of genius. Is said to have died by his own handB.C.55.

Luetzelberger(Ernst Karl Julius), German controversialist b. Ditterswind, 19 Oct. 1802. He was a friend of the Feuerbachs. He wrote onThe Church Tradition of the Apostle John. He also wrote a work on Jesus, translated in Ewerbeck’sQu’est ce que la Religion. In ’56 he was appointed town librarian at Nuremberg.

Lunn(Edwin), Owenite lecturer. Published pamphletsOn Prayer, its Folly, Inutility, etc.1839, andDivine Revelation Examined, 1841.

Luys(Jules Bernard), French alienist, b. Paris, 1828. Is physician at l’Hopital de la Charité, Paris, and author of a work onThe Brain and its Functionsin the “International Scientific Series.”

Lyell(Sir Charles), geologist, b. Kinnordy, Forfarshire, 14 Nov. 1797. Was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, and devoted himself to geology. In 1830–33 appeared his great work,The Principles of Geology, which went through numerous editions. His last important work wasGeological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, in which he accepts the Darwinian theory. Died 22 Feb. 1875.

Maccall(William), writer, b. Largs. Scotland, 1812. Educated at Glasgow, he found his way to the Unitarian Church which he left as insufficiently broad. He wroteElements of Individualism(’47), translated Spinoza’s Treatise on Politics (’54), wrote to theCriticas “Atticus,” contributed to theNational Reformer,Secular Review, etc., publishedForeign Biographies(’73), and translated Dr. Letourneau’sBiologyand other works. Maccall was an idealistic Pantheist of strong individual character. Died at Bexley, 19 Nov. 1888.

Macchi(Mauro), Italian writer, b. Milan, 1 July, 1818. Became professor of rhetoric at the age of twenty-four, when, becoming obnoxious to the Austrians by the liberty of his opinions, he was deprived of his position. He betook himself to radical journalism, foundedl’Italia, a Republican journal, for which he was exiled. He was associated with Ausonio Franchi and Luigi Stefanoni in theLibero Pensieroand theLibero Pensatore, and founded an Italian Association of Freethinkers. In ’61 he was elected deputy to Parliament for Cremona, and in ’79 was elevated to the Senate. Died at Rome, 24 Dec. 1880. One of his principal works is on theCouncil of Ten.

Macdonald(Eugene Montague), editor of the New YorkTruthseeker, b. Chelsea, Maine, 4 Feb. 1855. He learned the printer’s trade in New York, where he became foreman to D. M. Bennett, and contributed to the paper, which he has conducted since Mr. Bennett’s death.

Macdonald(George), brother of the preceding. Wrote ontheTruthseeker, and now conductsFreethought, of San Francisco, in company with S. P. Putnam. George Macdonald is a genuine humorist and a sound Freethinker.

McDonnell(William), American novelist, b. 15 Sept. 1824. Author ofThe Heathens of the HeathandExeter Hall, ’73, both Freethought romances.

Mackay(Robert William), author ofThe Progress of the Intellect, 1850,Sketch of the Rise and Progress of Christianity, ’53, andThe Tubingen School, ’63.

Mackey(Sampson Arnold), astronomer and shoemaker, of Norwich, who is said to have constructed an orrery out of leather. He wroteThe Mythological Astronomy of the Ancients, Norwich, 1822–24,Pious Frauds, ’26, A Lecture on Astronomy and Geology, edited by W. D. Saull, ’32,Urania’s Keyto the Revelation, ’33, andThe Age of Mental Emancipation, ’36–39. Mackey also wrote theSphinxiad, a rare book. Died 1846.

Mackintosh(Thomas Simmons), author ofThe Electrical Theory of the Universe, 1848, andAn Inquiry into the Nature of Responsibility. Died 1850.

MacSweeney(Myles), mythologist, b. at Enniskillen 1814. He came to London, and hearing Robert Taylor at the Rotunda in 1830, adopted his views. He held that Jesus never existed, and wrote in theNational Reformer,Secular Chronicle, and other papers. He published a pamphlet onMoses and Bacchusin 1874. Died Jan. 1881.

Madach(Imré), Hungarian patriot and poet, b. 21 Jan. 1823,at Sztregova, studied at the University of Buda Pesth, and afterwards lived at Cseszlova. He was in ’52 incarcerated for a year for having given asylum at his castle to a political refugee. He became in ’61 delegate at Pesth. In this year he published his fine poemAz EmberTragédiája(The Human Tragedy), in which mankind is personified as Adam, with Lucifer in his company. Many Freethought views occur in this poem. Died 5 Oct. 1864. His works were published in 3 vols., 1880.

Maier(Lodewyk). SeeMeyer.

Maillet(Benôit de). French author, b. Saint Michiel, 12 April, 1656. He was successively consul in Egypt and atLeghorn; and died at Marseilles, 30 Jan. 1738. After his death was published “Telliamed” (the anagram of his name), in which he maintained that all land was originally covered with water and that every species of animal, man included, owes its origin to the sea.

“Mainlaender” (Philipp), pseudonym of PhilippBatz, German pessimist, author of a profound work entitled thePhilosophy of Redemption, the first part of which was published in 1876. It was said that “Mainländer” committed suicide in that year, but the second part of his work has come out 1882–86. He holds that Polytheism gives place to Monotheism and Pantheism, and these again to Atheism. “God is dead, and his death was the life of the world.”

Malherbe(François de). French poet, b. Caen, 1555. He served in the civil wars of the League, and enjoyed the patronage of Henry IV. He was called the prince of poets and the poet of princes. Many stories are told illustrating his sceptical raillery. When told upon his death-bed of paradise and hell he said he had lived like others and would go where others went. Died Paris, 16 Oct. 1628.

Mallet(Mme. Josephine). French authoress of a work onThe Bible, its origin, errors and contradictions (1882).

Malon(Benoît). French Socialist, b. near St. Etienne, 1841. One of the founders of theInternational; he has written a work on that organisation, its history and principles (Lyons, 1872). He is editor onL’Intransigeant, conducted theRevue Socialiste, and has written on the religion and morality of the Socialists and other works.

Malvezin(Pierre). French journalist, b. Junhac, 26 June 1841. Author ofLa Bible Farce(Brussels, 1879.) This work was condemned and suppressed, 1880, and the author sentenced to three month’s imprisonment. He conducts the reviewLa Fraternité.

Mandeville(Bernhard), b. Dort. 1670. He studied medicine, was made a doctor in Holland, and emigrated to London. In 1705 he published a poetical satire,The Grumbling Hive, or Knaves Turned Honest. In 1709, he publishedThe Virgin Unmasked, and in 1723,Free Thoughts on Religion the Church andNational Happiness. In the same year appeared hisFables of the Bees or Private Vices, Public Benefits. This work was presented by the grand jury of Middlesex, 1723 and 1728. It was attacked by Law, Berkeley, and others. Mandeville replied to Berkeley inA Letter to Dion, occasioned by a book called Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher, 1732. He also wroteAn Inquiry of Honor, andUsefulness of Christianity in War, 1731. Died, London, 19 Jan. 1733.

Mantegazza(Paolo), Italian anthropologist, b. Monza, 31 Oct. 1831. Studied medicine at Milan, Pisa, and Paria, and travelled considerably through Europe, and produced at Paris in 1854 his first bookThe Physiology of Pleasure. He has also written on the physiology of pain, spontaneous generation, anthropological works on Ecstacy, Love and other topics, and a fine romanceIl Dio Ignoto, the unknown god (1876). Mantegazza is one of the most popular and able of Italian writers.

Manzoni(Romeo), Dr. Italian physician, b. Arogno, 1847, studied philosophy at Milan, and graduated at Naples. He has written on the doctrine of love of Bruno and SchopenhauerA Life of Jesus, alsoIl Prete, a work translated into German with the title Religion as a Pathological Phenomenon, etc.

Marchena(José), Spanish writer, b. Utrera, Andalusia, 1768. Brought up for the church, reading the writings of the French philosophers brought on him the Inquisition. He fled to France where he became a friend of Brissot and the Girondins. He wrote a pronouncedEssai de Théologie, 1797, and translated into Spanish Molière’sTartufe, and some works of Voltaire. He translatedDupuis’Origine de tous les Cultes, became secretary to Murat, and died 10 Jan. 1821.

Marechal(Pierre Sylvain), French author, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1750; was brought up to the Bar, which he quitted for the pursuit of literature. He was librarian to the Mazarin College, but lost his place by hisBook Escaped from the Deluge, Psalms, by S. Ar. Lamech (anagram), 1784. This was a parody of the style of the prophets. In 1781 he wroteLe Nouveau Lucrece. In 1788 appeared hisAlmanack of Honest People, in which the name of Jesus Christ was found beside that of Epicurus. The work was denounced to Parliament, burnt at the hands of thehangman, and Maréchal imprisoned for four months. He welcomed the Revolution, and published a republican almanack, 1793. In 1797 and 1798 he published hisCode of a Society of Men without God, andFree Thoughts on the Priests. In 1799 appeared his most learned work,Travels of Pythagorasin Egypt, Chaldea, India, Rome, Carthage, Gaul, etc. 6 vols. Into this fiction Maréchal puts a host of bold philosophical, political, and social doctrines. In 1800 he published his famousDictionary of Atheists, which the Government prohibited and interdicted journals from noticing. In the following year appeared hisFor and Against the Bible. Died at Montrouge, 18 Jan. 1803. His beneficence is highly spoken of by Lalande.

Maret(Henry), French journalist and deputy, b. Santerre, 4 March, 1838. He ably combatted against the Empire, and editsLe Radical; was elected deputy in ’81.

Marguerite, of Valois, Queen of Navarre, sister to Francis I. b. at Angouleme, 11 April, 1492. Deserves place for her protection to religious reformers. Died 21 Dec. 1549.

Marguetel de Saint Denis.SeeSaint Evremond (C.)

Mario(Alberto), Italian patriot, b. 3 June, 1825. He edited theTribuneandFree Italy, became aide-de-camp to Garibaldi and married Jessie White, an English lady. In ’60 he wrote a polemic against the papacy entitledSlavery and Thought. Died 2 June, 1883.

Marlow(Christopher), English poet and dramatist, b. Canterbury, 8 Feb. 1564. Educated at Benet College, Cambridge, where he took his degree in 1587. He devoted himself to dramatic writing and according to some became an actor. He was killed in a brawl at Deptford, 1 June, 1593, in time to escape being tried on an information laid against him for Atheism and blasphemy. The audacity of his genius is displayed inTamburlaineandDr. Faustus. Of the latter, Goethe said “How greatly is it all planned.” Swinburne says “He is the greatest discoverer, the most daring and inspired pioneer in all our poetic literature.”

Marr(Wilhelm), German socialist, author ofReligious Excursions, 1876, and several anti-Semitic tracts.

Marsais(Cesar Chesneau du). SeeDu Marsais.

Marselli(Niccola), Italian writer, b. Naples, 5 Nov. 1832. Author of advanced works on the Science of History,Nature and Civilisation, theOrigin of Humanity, theGreat Races of Humanity, etc.

Marston(Philip Bourke), English poet, b. London, 13 Aug. 1850. He became blind in childhood, and devoted to poetry. A friend of D. G. Rossetti, Swinburne, and Thomson, his poems are sad and sincere. Died 14 Feb. 1887, and was buried in accordance with his own wishes in unconsecrated ground at Highgate, and without religious service.

Marsy(François Marie de), b. Paris, 1714, educated as a Jesuit. He brought out an analysis of Bayle, 1755, for which he was confined in the Bastile. Died 16 Dec. 1763.

Marten(Henry), regicide, b. Oxford, 1602. Educated at Oxford, where he proceeded B.A., 1619. He was elected to Parliament in 1640, and expelled for his republican sentiments in 1643. He resumed his seat 6 Jan. 1646, took part in the civil war, sat as one of King Charles’s judges, and became one of the Council of State. He proposed the repeal of the statute of banishment against the Jews, and when it was sought to expel all profane persons, proposed to add the words “and all fools.” Tried for regicide 10 Oct. 1660, he was kept in Chepstow Castle till his death, Sep. 1680. Carlyle calls him “sworn foe of Cant in all its figures; an indomitable little Pagan if not better.”

Martin(Emma), English writer and lecturess, b. Bristol, 1812. Brought up as a Baptist, she, for a time, edited theBristol Magazine. She wrote theExiles of Piedmontand translated from the Italian the Maxims of Guicciardini. The trials of Holyoake and Southwell for blasphemy led her to inquire and embrace the Freethought cause. While Holyoake and Paterson were in gaol, Mrs. Martin went about committing the “crime” for which they were imprisoned. In ’43 she publishedBaptism A Pagan Rite. This was followed byTracts for the Peopleon the Bible no Revelation, Religion Superseded, Prayer, God’s Gifts and Men’s Duties, a conversation on the being of God, etc. She also lectured and wrote on thePunishment of Death, to which she was earnestly opposed. Died Oct. 1851.

Martin(Bon Louis Henri), French historian, b. St. Quentin,20 Feb. 1810. He was sent to Paris to study law, but abandoned it for history. HisHistory of France, in nineteen vols. (1838–53), is a monumental work of erudition.A confirmed Republican, he warmly opposed the Second Empire and after its fall became member of the National Assembly, ’71,and senator, ’76. He was elected member of the Academy, ’78. In addition to his historical works he contributed tole Siecle,laLibertéde penser, andl’Encyclopédie Nouvelle, etc. Died 14 Dec. 1883.

Martin(Louis), author ofLes Evangiles Sans Dieu(called by Victor Hugocette noble page), Paris, 1887, describes himself as an Atheist Socialist.

Martin(Louis Auguste). French writer, b. Paris, 25 April, 1811, editor of theMorale Independanteand member of the Institute of Geneva. For hisTrue and False Catholics(’58), he was fined three thousand francs and imprisoned for six months. He published theAnnuaire Philosophique. Several of his works are placed on the RomanIndex. Died Paris, 6 April, 1875.

Martinaud(M.), an ex-abbé who refused ordination, and wrote Letters of a young priest, who is an Atheist and Materialist, to his bishop, Paris, 1868, in which he says, “Religion is the infancy of peoples, Atheism their maturity.”

Martineau(Harriet), b. Norwich 12 June, 1803, descended from a Huguenot family. Brought up as a Unitarian, she began writing Devotional Exercises for Young Persons, and, taking to literature as a means of living, distinguished herself by popularisations of political economy. TheLetters on the Laws of Man’s Nature and Development, which passed between her and H. G. Atkinson, appeared in ’51, and disclosed her advance to the Positivist school of Thought. In ’53 she issued a condensed account of Comte’s philosophy. She wrote aHistory of England during the Thirty Years’ Peace, and numerous other works. Died at Ambleside 27 June, 1876. HerAutobiography, published after her death, shows the full extent of her unbelief.

Masquerier(Lewis), American land reformer of Huguenot descent, b. 1 March, 1802. WroteThe Sataniad, establishedGreenpoint Gazette, and contributed to theBoston Investigator. Died 7 Jan. 1888.

Massenet(Jules Emile Fréderic), French musical composer, b. Montard, 12 May, 1842. Has written a daring and popular oratorio onMarie Magdeleine, and an opera,Herodiade.

Massey(Gerald), poet and archæologist, b. of poor parents at Tring, in Herts, 29 May, 1828. At eight years of age he was sent to a factory to earn a miserable pittance. At the age of fifteen he came to London as an errand boy, read all that came in his way, and became a Freethinker and political reformer. Inspired by the men of ’48, he startedThe Spirit of Freedom, ’49. It cost him five situations in eleven months. In ’53 hisBallad of Babe Christabel, with other Lyrical Poemsat once gave him position as a poet of fine taste and sensibility. Mr. Massey devoted himself to the study of Egyptology, the result of which is seen in hisBook of BeginningsandNatural Genesis, ’81–83, in which he shows the mythical nature of Christianity. Mr. Massey has also lectured widely on such subjects as Why Don’t God Kill the Devil? The Historical Jesus and the Mythical Christ, The Devil of Darkness in the Light of Evolution, The Coming Religion, etc. His poems are being re-published under the titleMy Lyrical Life.

Massey(James). SeeTyssot. (S.)

Massol(Marie Alexandre), French writer, b. Beziers, 18 March, 1805. He studied under Raspail, went to Paris in ’30 and became a Saint Simonian. In ’48 he wrote on Lamennais’La Réforme, and on theVoix du Peuplewith his friend Proudhon, to whom he became executor. In ’65 he establishedLa Morale Independantewith the object of showing morality had nothing to do with theology. Died at Paris 20 April, 1875.

Maubert de Gouvest(Jean Henri), French writer, b. Rouen, 20 Nov. 1721. Brought up as a monk, he fled and took service in the Saxon army. He was thrown into prison by the King of Poland, but the Papal nuncio procured his release on condition of retaking his habit. This he did and went to Rome to be relieved of his vows. Failing this he went to Switzerland and England, where he was well received by LordBolingbroke. He publishedLettres Iroquoises, Irocopolis, 1752, and other anonymous works. At Frankfort in 1764 he was arrested as a fugitive monk and vagabond, and was imprisoned eleven months. Died at Altona, 21 Nov. 1767.

Maudsley(Henry), M.D., b. near Giggleswick, Yorkshire, 5 Feb. 1835. Educated at London University, where he graduated M.D. in 1857. Taking mental pathology as his speciality, he soon reached eminence in his profession. From ’69–’79 he was professor of medical jurisprudence at University College, London. His works onThe Physiology and Pathology of the Mind(’67),Body and Mind(’70),Responsibility in Mental Disease(’73), and Body and Will (’83) have attracted much attention. HisNatural Laws and Supernatural Seemings(’80) is a powerful exposure of the essence of all superstition.

Mauvillon(Jakob von), b. Leipzig, 8 March, 1743. Though feeble in body, he had a penchant for the army, and joined the engineer corps of Hanover, and afterwards became lieutenant-colonel in the service of the Duke of Brunswick. A friend and admirer of Mirabeau, he defended the French Revolution in Germany. He wrote anonymouslyParadoxes Moraux(Amsterdam, 1768) andThe Only True System of the Christian Religion(Berlin, 1787), at first composed under the title ofFalse Reasonings of the Christian Religion. Died in Brunswick, 11 Jan. 1794.

Mazzini(Giuseppe), Italian patriot, b. Genoa, 28 June 1808. In ’26 he graduated LL.D., in the University of Genoa, and plunged into politics, becoming the leader of Young Italy, with the object of uniting the nation. Condemned to death in ’33, he went to Switzerland and was expelled, then came to England in ’37. In ’48 he returned, and in March ’49 was made triumvir of Rome with Saffi and Armellini. Compelled, after a desperate resistance, to retire, he returned to London. He wrote in theWestminster Reviewand other periodicalsandhis works are numerous though mostly of a political character. They are distinguished by highmindedness, love of toleration and eloquence. Carlyle called Mazzini “a man of genius and virtue, a man of sterling veracity, humanity and nobleness of mind.” Died atPisa10 March, 1872. He was a Deist.

Meissner(Alfred), German poet, b. Teplitz, 15 Oct. 1822. Has written Ziska, an epic poem,The Son of Atta Troll,Recollections of Heine, etc. Died Teplitz, 20 May, 1885.

Meister(Jacques Henri), Swiss writer, b. Bückeburg, 6 Aug. 1744. Intended for a religious career, he went to France, and became acquainted with D’Holbach and Diderot, of whom he wrote a short life, and was secretary to Grimm. He wrote theOrigin of Religious Principles, 1762, andNatural Morality, 1787.

Menard(Louis), French author and painter, b. Paris, 1822. In ’48–’49 he wrotePrologue of a Revolution, for which he was obliged to leave France. Has written onMorality before the Philosophers, ’60,Studies on the Origin of Christianity, ’67, andFreethinkers’ Religious Catechism, ’75.

Mendoza(Diego Hurtado de), famous and learned Spanish author, b. of distinguished family, Granada, 1503. Intended for the church, he studied Latin, Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew, but on leaving the university he joined the army. At school he wrote his well known comic novel,Lazarillo de Tormes, which was condemned by the Inquisition. Sent on an embassy to Pope Paul III., the latter was greatly shocked at his audacity and vehemence of speech. His chief work is hisHistory of the Moorish Wars, which remained unprinted thirty years, through the intolerant policy of Philip II. Mendoza’s satires and burlesques were also prohibited by the Inquisition. He commented Aristotle and translated his Mechanics. Died at Valladolid, April, 1575.

Mendum(Josiah P.), publisher and proprietor of theBoston Investigator, b. Kennebunk, Maine, 7 July, 1811. He became a printer, and in 1833 became acquainted with Abner Kneeland and after his imprisonment engaged to print theInvestigator, and when Kneeland left Boston for the West to recruit his health, he carried on the paper together with Mr. Horace Seaver. Mr. Mendum was one of the founders of the Paine Memorial Hall, Boston, and a chief support of Freethought in that city.

Mentelle(Edme), French geographer and historian, b. Paris, 11 Oct. 1730. Studied at the College de Beauvais under Crévier. HisPrécis de l’Histoire des Hébreux(1798), andPrécisde l’Histoire Universelleare thoroughly anti-Christian. He doubted if Jesus ever existed. He was a member of the Institute and Chevalier of the Legion of Honor. Died at Paris, 28 Dec. 1815.

Mercier(L. A.), author ofLa LibrePensée, Brussels, 1879.

Meredith(Evan Powell), Welsh writer, author ofThe Prophet of Nazareth(1864), an able work exposing the prophecies of Jesus, andAmphilogia, a reply in to the Bishop of Landaff and the Rev. J. F. Francklin, ’67.

Meredith(George), philosophical poet and novelist, b. Hampshire, 1828, and educated partly on the Continent. Intended for the law, he adopted literature in preference. He first appeared as a poet withPoems(’51). Of his powerful novels we mention theOrdeal of Richard Feveril(’59),Emilia in England(’64), nowSandra Belloni, with Vittoria (’66) for a sequel.Rhoda Fleming,Beauchamp’s Career(’76),The Egoist(’79),The Tragic Comedians(’81) andDiana of the Crossways(’85). Deep thought and fine grace characterise his writings. As a poet Mr. Meredith is not popular, but his volumes of verse are marked by the highest qualities, and give him a place apart from the throng of contemporary singers.

Merimee(Prosper), learned French writer, b. Paris, 28 Sept. 1808, author of numerous essays and romances. Was made Inspector General of Historic Monuments and was admitted to the Academy in ’44. In his anonymous brochure on H(enri) B(eyle), Eleutheropolis (Brussels), ’64, there is an open profession of Atheism. Died at Cannes, 23 Sept. 1870.

Merritt(Henry), English painter and writer, b. Oxford, 8 June, 1822. On coming to London he lived with Mr. Holyoake, and contributed to theReasoner, using the signature “Christopher.” He wrote onDirt and PicturesandRobert Dalby and his World of Troubles, etc. Died in London, 10 July, 1877.

MeslierorMellier(Jean), curé of Etrepigny, Champagne, b. Mazerny, Rethelois, 15 June, 1664. Died in 1729. After his death a will was discovered of which he had made three copies, in which he repudiated Christianity and requested to be buried in his own garden. His property he left to hisparishioners. Voltaire published it under the title of Extract from the sentiments of Jean Meslier. To Meslier has been attributed thework entitledLe Bon Sens, written by Baron D’Holbach.Le Testament de Jean Meslierhas been published in three volumes at Amsterdam, 1864, preceded by a study by Rudolf Charles (R. C. d’Ablaing van Giessenburg). It calls in question all the dogmas of Christianity. Anacharsis Clootz proposed to the National Convention to erect a statue to this “honest priest.”

Metchnikov(Léon), Russian writer in French; author of a work on Japan and of able articles, notably one on Christian Communion in theRevue Internationale des Sciences Biologiques, tome 12.

Metrodorusof Lampsacus. Greek philosopher, b. 330B.C., a disciple and intimate friend of Epicurus. He wrote numerous works, the titles of which are preserved by Diogenes Laertius. DiedB.C.277.

Mettrie, seeLa Mettrie.

Meunier(Amédée Victor), French writer, b. Paris, 2 May, 1817. Has done much to popularise science by hisScientific Essays, 1851–58, theAncestors of Adam, ’75, etc.

Meyer(Lodewijk), a Dutch physician, a friend and follower of Spinoza, who publishedExercitatio Paradoxaon the philosophical interpretation of scripture, Eleutheropoli (Amst.), 1666. This has been wrongly attributed to Spinoza. It was translated into Dutch in 1667. He is also credited withLucii Antistic Constantes, de jure ecclesiasticorum. Alethopoli(Amst.), 1665. This work is also attributed to another writer, viz. P. de la Court.

Mialhe(Hippolyte), French writer, b. Roquecourbe (Tarn),1834. From ’60–62 he was with the French army of occupation at Rome. He has organised federations of Freethinkers in France, editedL’Union des Libres-Penseurs, and has writtenMémoires d’un libre Penseur(Nevers, 1888).

Michelet(Jules), French historian, b. Paris, 21 Aug. 1798. Became a Professor of History in 1821. Has written aHistory of Franceand of theFrench Revolution;The Jesuits, with his friend Quinet, ’43;The Priest, Woman and the Family, ’44;The Sorceress, dealing with witchcraft in the Middle Ages, ’62;The Bible of Humanity, ’64. His lectures were interdicted by the Government of Louis Phillippe, and after thecoup d’étathe wasdeprived of his chair. All Michelet’s works glow with eloquence and imagination. He never forgot that he was a republican and Freethinker of the nineteenth century. Died at Hyères, 9 Feb. 1874.

Michelet(Karl Ludwig), German philosopher of French family, b. Berlin, 4 Dec. 1801. In ’29 he became Professor of Philosophy. A disciple of Hegel, he edited his master’s works, ’32. His principle work isA System of Philosophy as an Exact Science, ’76–81.He has also written on the relation of Herbert Spencer to German philosophy.

Middleton(Conyers), Freethinking clergyman, b. York 1683. HisLetters from Rome, 1729, showed how much Roman Christianity had borrowed from Paganism, and hisFree Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers supposed to have subsisted in the Christian Church, 1749, was a severe blow to hitherto received “Christian Evidences.” He also wrote a classicLife of Cicero. Died at Hildersham near Cambridge, 28 July, 1750.

Mignardi(G.), Italian writer, who in 1884 publishedMemorie di un Nuovo Credente(Memoirs of a New Believer).

Milelli(Domenico), Italian poet, b. Catanzaro, Feb. 1841. His family intended to make him a priest, but he turned out a rank Pagan, as may be seen in hisOdi Pagane, ’79,Canzonieri, ’84, and other works.

Mill(James), philosopher and historian, b. Northwaterbridge, Montrose, 6 April, 1773. Studied at Edinburgh, and distinguished himself by his attainments in Greek and moral philosophy. He was licensed as preacher in the Scotch Church, but removed to London in 1800, and became editor of theLiterary Review, and contributed to the reviews. He published, ’17–’19, hisHistory of British India. He contributed many articles to the fifth edition of theEncyclopædia Britannica. A friend of Bentham, he wrote largely in theWestminster Review, and did much to forward the views of Philosophic Radicalism. HisAnalysis of the Human Mind, ’39, is a profound work. In religion he was a complete sceptic. Reading Bishop Butler’sAnalogymade him an Atheist. Died 23 June, 1836.

Mill(John Stuart), eminent English writer, son of the preceding, b. London, 20 May, 1806. Educated by his fatherwithout religion, he became clerk in the East India House, and early in life contributed to theWestminsterandEdinburgh Reviews. Of the first he became joint editor in ’35. HisSystem of Logic, ’43, first made him generally known. This was followed by hisPrinciples of Political Economy. In ’59 appeared his small but valuable treatiseOn Liberty, in which he defends the unrestricted free discussion of religion. Among subsequent works wereUtilitarianism, ’63;Auguste Comte and Positivism, ’67;Examination of Sir William Hamilton’s Philosophy’65;Dissertations and Discussions, ’59–’75; and theSubjection of Women, ’69. In ’65 he was elected to Parliament for Westminster, but lost his seat in ’68. In ’67 he was chosen Rector of St. Andrews, and delivered the students an able address. Prof. Bain says “in everything characteristic of the creed of Christendom he was a thorough-going negationist. He admitted neither its truth nor its utility.” Died at Avignon, 8 May, 1873, leaving behind his interestingAutobiographyand three essays on “Nature,” “Theism,” and “Religion.”

Mille(Constantin), Roumanian writer, b. at Bucharest, educated at Paris. He lectured at Jassy and Bucharest on the History of Philosophy, from a Materialistic point of view. He was also active with Codreano, and after the latter’s death (’77), in spreading Socialism. Millé contributes to the Rivista Sociala and the Vütorul, edited by C. Pilitis.

Milliere(Jean Baptiste), Socialist, b. of poor parents, Lamarche (Côte d’Or), 13 Dec. 1817. He became an advocate, and founded theProletaireat Clermont Ferrand. For writingRevolutionary Studieshe was, after thecoup d’état, banished to Algeria until the amnesty of ’59. In ’69 Millière started, with Rochefort, theMarseillaise, of which he became one of the principal directors. At the election for the National Assembly he was elected for Paris by 73,000 votes. Although he took no part in the Commune, but sought to act as an intermediary, he was arrested and summarily shot near the Pantheon, Paris, 26 May, 1871. He died crying “Vive l’Humanité.”

Mirabaud(Jean Baptiste de), French writer, b. Paris, 1675. He translated Tasso and Ariosto, and became perpetual secretary to the French Academy. He wroteOpinions of the Ancients on the Jews, aCritical Examination of the New Testament, (publishedunder the name of Fréret),The World: its Origin and Antiquity, 1751,Sentiments of a Philosopher on the Nature of the Soulinserted in the collection entitledNouvelle libertés de Penser, Amst. (Paris) 1743. TheSystem of Nature, attributed to Mirabaud, was written by d’Holbach. Mirabaud died 24 June, 1760.

Mirabeau(Honoré GabrielRiquettiComte de), French statesman and orator, b. at the Chateau de Bignon (Loiret) 9 March, 1749. He inherited a passionate nature, a frank strong will, generous temper, and a mind of prodigious activity. He entered the army in 1767, but by an amorous intrigue provoked the ire of his father, by whom he was more than once imprisoned. In 1776 he went to Amsterdam and employed himself in literary work. In 1783 appeared anonymously hisErotika Biblion, dealing with the obscenity of the Bible. In 1786 he was sent to Berlin, where he met Frederick and collected materials for his work onThe Prussian Monarchy. He returned to the opening of the States General and soon became leader of the Revolution, being in Jan. 1791 chosen President of the National Assembly. He advocated the abolition of the double aristocracy of Lords and bishops, the spoliation of the Church and the National Guard. Carlyle calls him “far the strongest, best practical intellect of that time.” He died 2 April, 1791.Among his last words were, “Envelop me with perfumes and crown me with flowers that I may pass away into everlasting sleep.”

Miranda(Don Francisco). South American patriot and general, b. Caracas 1750, aided the Americans in their War of Independence, tried to free Guatimalaus from the Spanish, allied himself to the Girondins and became second in command in the army of Dumouriez. He was a friend of Thomas Paine. In 1806–11 he was engaged seeking to free Peru from the Spaniards, by whom he was made prisoner, and died in a dungeon at Cadiz, 16 Jan. 1816. It was said General Miranda made a sceptic of James Mill.

Miron.SeeMorin(André Saturnin.)

Mitchell(J. Barr), Dr., anonymous author ofDates and Data(1876) andChrestos; a Religious Epithet(1880). Dr. Mitchell has also written in theNational Reformer, using his initials only.

Mitchell(Logan), author of Lectures published asThe Christian Mythology Unveiled. This work was also issued under the titleSuperstition Besieged. It is said that Mitchell committed suicide in Nov. 1841. He left by his will a sum of £500 to any bookseller who had the courage to publish his book. It was first published by B. Cousens, and was republished in ’81.

Mittermaier(Karl Josef Anton von), German jurisconsult, b. Munich, 5 Aug. 1787. Studied law and medicine at Landshut, where he became professor. His works on Law gained him a high reputation. He obtained a chair at the Heidelberg University. In 1831 he represented Baden in Parliament. He advocated the unity of Germany and took an active part in the Radical movement of ’48. His writings are all in the direction of freedom. Died 28 Aug. 1867.

Mittie(Stanilas), in 1789 proposed the taking of church bells to make money and cannon, and during the revolution distinguished himself by other anti-clerical suggestions. Died 1816.

Mocenicus(Philippus), Archbishop of Nicosia, Cyprus, a Venetian philosopher, whose hereticalContemplationswere printed at Geneva, 1588, with thePeripatetic Question of Cæsalpinusand the books of Telesio onThe Nature of Thingsin the volume entitledTractationum Philosophicarum.

Moleschott(Jacob), scientific Materialist, b. of Dutch parents at’s Hertogenbosch, 9 Aug. 1822; studied at Heidelburg where he graduated M.D. Became Professor of Physiology at Zurich and afterwards at Turin. Becoming a naturalised Italian he was in ’76 made a senator, and in ’78 Professor of Physiology at the University of Rome. He has writtenCirculation of Life,Light and Life,Physiological Sketches, and other medical and scientific works. Lange calls him “the father of the modern Materialistic movement.”

Molesworth(Sir William), statesman and man of letters, the eighth baronet of his family, b. Cornwall, 23 May, 1810. In ’32 he was returned M.P. for East Cornwall, and from ’37–41 sat for Leeds. In ’53 he was First Commissioner of Public Works, and in ’55 was Secretary for the Colonies. He was forsome time proprietor and conductor of theWestminster Review, in which he wrote many articles. A noble edition of Hobbes was produced at his expense, ’39–45, and he contributed to the support of Auguste Comte. Died 22 Oct. 1855.

Mommsen(Theodor), historian, b. Garding (Schleswig), 30 Nov. 1817. Studied at Kiel, and travelled from ’44 to 47. He became Professor of Law of Leipsic, Zürich and Berlin. Is best known by hisHistory of Rome, ’53–85, a work of great research and suggestiveness in which he expresses the opinion that it is doubtful if the world was improved by Christianity.

Monboddo(Lord). SeeBurnett (James).

Monge(Gaspard), French scientist, b. at Beaume, 10 May 1746. Taught physics and mathematics at the military school of Mezieres, became a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1780, and through the influence of Condorcet was made Minister of the Marine in 1792. He was one of the founders of the Polytechnic School. Napoleon made him a senator, created him Count ofPelusium, and gave him an estate for his many services to the French nation. On the return of the Bourbons he was deprived of all his emoluments. Died 28 July, 1818. Maréchal and Lalande insert his name in their list of Atheists.

Mongez(Antoine), French archæologist, b. Lyons, 30 June 1747. Distinguished by his studies, he became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions and of the Institute, before which he said “he had the honor to be an Atheist.” He was one of the most ardent members of the Convention, and wrote many memoirs. Died at Paris, 30 July, 1835.

Monroe(J. R.), Dr., editor and proprietor of theIronclad Age, b. Monmouth, co. New Jersey, about 1825. In ’50 he went to Rochford, where he had a good practice as a doctor. In ’55 he started theRochford Herald, and in July, ’57, theSeymour Times. During the Civil War he was appointed surgeon to the 150th regiment, and after some hard service his own health broke down. In ’75 Dr. Monroe published his dramas and poems in a volume. From this time his paper became more Freethought and less political. In April, ’82, he removed toIndianapolis, Indiana, and changed the name toThe Age, afterwards Monroe’s Ironclad Age. Dr. Monroe is a clever writer and a modest man, with a remarkable fund ofnatural humor. Among his publications are poems onThe Origin of Man, etc.,Genesis Revised, andHoly Bible Stories.

Montaigne(Michel de), French philosophic essayist, b. at the family castle in Perigord, 28 Feb. 1533. He studied law and became a judge at Bordeaux about 1554. In 1580 he produced his famous “Essays,” which indicate a sprightly humor allied to a most independent spirit. The Essays, Hallam says, make in several respects an epoch in literature. Emerson says, “Montaigne is the frankest and honestest of all writers.” Montaigne took as his motto: Quesçais-je? [What know I?] and said that all religious opinions are the result of custom. Buckle says, “Under the guise of a mere man of the world, expressing natural thoughts in common language, Montaigne concealed a spirit of lofty and audacious inquiry.” Montaigne seems to have been the first man in Europe who doubted the sense and justice of burning people for a difference of opinion. His denunciation of the conduct of the Christians in America does him infinite honor. Died 13 Sept. 1592.

Monteil(Charles François Louis Edgar), French journalist, b. Vire, 26 Jan. 1845. Fought against the Empire, writing inLe Rappel. During the Commune he was secretary to Delescluze. For hisHistoire d’un Frère Ignorantin, ’74, he was prosecuted by the Christian Brothers, and condemned to one year’s imprisonment, 2,000 francs fine, and 10,000 francs damages. In ’77 he wrote aFreethinker’s Catechism, published at Antwerp, and in ’79 an edition ofLa République Française. In ’80 he was made a member of the Municipal Council of Paris, and re-elected in ’84. In ’83 he was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honor. He has compiled an excellent secularManual of Instructionfor schools.

Back to IndexNext