Chapter 20

BORAX. A native saline compound of boracic acid and soda, found abundantly in Thibet and in South America. The crude product from the former locality was imported into Europe under the name oftincal, and was purified from some adhering fatty matter by a process kept a long time secret by the Venetians and the Dutch, and which consisted chiefly in boiling the substance in water with a little quicklime.Gmelin found borax, in prismatic crystals, to contain 46·6 per cent. of water; and Arvredson, in the calcined state, to consist of 68·9 of acid and 31·1 soda, in 100 parts. M. Payen describes an octahedral borax, which contains only 30·64 per cent. of water, and is therefore preferred by the braziers in their soldering processes.Borax has a sweetish, somewhat lixivial taste, and affects vegetable colours like an alkali; it is soluble in 12 parts of cold and 2 of boiling water. It effloresces and becomes opaque in a dry atmosphere, and appears luminous, by friction, in the dark. It melts at a heat a little above that of boiling water, and gives out its water of crystallization, after which it forms a spongy mass, called calcined borax. The octahedral borax, which is prepared by crystallization, in a solution of 1·256 sp. gr., kept up at 145° F., is not efflorescent. When borax is ignited, it fuses into a glassy-looking substance.The following is the improved mode of purifying borax. The crude crystals are to be broken into small lumps, and spread upon a filter lined with a lead grating, under which a piece of cloth is stretched upon a wooden frame. The lumps are piled up to the height of 12 inches, and washed with small quantities of a caustic soda lye of 5° B. (sp. gr. 1·033) until the liquor comes off nearly colourless; they are then drained, and put into a large copper of boiling water, in such quantities that the resulting solution stands 20° B. (sp. gr. 1·160). Carbonate of soda, equivalent to 12 per cent. of the borax must now be added; the mixed solution is allowed to settle, and the clear liquid syphoned off into crystallizing vessels. Whenever the mother waters get foul, they must be evaporated to dryness in cast-iron pots, and roasted, to burn away the viscid colouring matter.Borax is sometimes adulterated with alum and common salt: the former addition may be readily detected by a few drops of water of ammonia, which will throw down its alumina; and the latter by nitrate of silver, which will give with it a precipitate insoluble in nitric acid.The native boracic acid obtained from the lakes of Tuscany, which has been manufactured in France into borax, has greatly lowered the price of this article of commerce. When MM. Payen and Cartier first began the business, they sold the crystals at the same price as the Dutch, viz. 7 francs the kilogramme (21⁄5lbs. avoird.); but, in a fewyears, they could obtain only 2 francs and 60 centimes, in consequence of the market getting overstocked. The annual consumption of France in 1823 was 25,000 kilos., and the quantity produced in M. Payen’s works was 50,000. The mode of making borax from the acid is as follows:—The lake water is evaporated in graduation houses, and then concentrated in boilers till it crystallizes. In that state it is carried to Marseilles. About 500 kilogrammes of water are made to boil in a copper, and 600 kilogrammes of crystallized carbonate of soda are dissolved in it by successive additions of 20 kilogrammes. The solution being maintained at nearly the boiling point, 500 kilogrammes of the crystallized boracic acid of Tuscany are introduced, in successive portions. At each addition of about 10 kilogrammes, a lively effervescence ensues, on which account the copper should be of much greater capacity than is sufficient to contain the liquors. When the whole acid has been added, the fire must be damped by being covered up with moist ashes, and the copper must be covered with a tight lid and blankets, to preserve the temperature uniform. The whole is left in this state during 30 hours; the clear liquor is then drawn off into shallow crystallizing vessels of lead, in which it should stand no higher than 10 or 12 inches, to favour its rapid cooling. At the end of three days in winter, and four in summer, the crystallization is usually finished. The mother water is drawn off, and employed, instead of simple water, for the purpose of dissolving fresh crystals of soda. The above crystals are carefully detached with chisels, redissolved in boiling water, adding for each 100 kilos., 10 kilos. of carbonate of soda. This solution marks 20° B. (sp. gr. 1·160); and, at least, one ton (1000 kilos.) of borax should be dissolved at once, in order to obtain crystals of a marketable size. Whenever this solution has become boiling hot, it must be run off into large crystallizing lead chests of the form of inverted truncated pyramids, furnished with lids, enclosed in wooden frames, and surrounded with mats to confine the heat. For a continuous business there should be at least 18 vessels of this kind; as the solution takes a long time to complete its crystallization, by cooling to 30° C. (86° F.). The borax crystals are taken out with chisels, after the liquor has been drawn off, and the whole has become cold.One hundred parts of the purest acid, usually extracted from the lakes of Tuscany, contain only fifty parts of the real boracic acid, and yield no more, at the utmost, than 140 or 150 of good borax.Dry borax acts on the metallic oxides at a high temperature, in a very remarkable manner, melting and vitrifying them into beautiful coloured glasses. On this account it is a most useful reagent for the blowpipe. Oxide of chrome tinges it of an emerald green; oxide of cobalt, an intense blue; oxide of copper, a pale green; oxide of tin, opal; oxide of iron, bottle green and yellow; oxide of manganese, violet; oxide of nickel, pale emerald green. The white oxides impart no colour to it by themselves. In the fusion of metals borax protects their surface from oxidizement, and even dissolves away any oxides formed upon them; by which twofold agency it becomes an excellent flux, invaluable to the goldsmith in soldering the precious metals, and to the brazier in soldering copper and iron.Borax absorbs muriatic and sulphurous acid gases, but no others, whereby it becomes, in this respect, a useful means of analysis.The strength or purity of borax may be tested by the quantity of sulphuric acid requisite to neutralize a given weight of it, as indicated by tincture of litmus.When mixed with shell-lac in the proportion of one part to five, borax renders that resinous body soluble in water, and forms with it a species of varnish.Boracic acid is a compound of 31·19 of boron and 68·81 oxygen, in 100 parts. Its prime equivalent referred to oxygen 100, is 871·96.The following process for refining the native Indian borax or tincal, has been published by MM. Robiquet and Marchand:—It is put into large tubs, covered with water for 3 or 4 inches above its surface, and stirred through it several times during six hours. For 400 pounds of the tincal there must now be added one pound of quicklime diffused through two quarts of water. Next day the whole is thrown upon a sieve, to drain off the water with the impurities, consisting, in some measure, of the fatty matter combined with the lime, as an insoluble soap. The borax, so far purified, is to be dissolved in 21⁄2times its weight of boiling water, and eight pounds of muriate of lime are to be added for the above quantity of borax. The liquor is now filtered, evaporated to the density of 18° or 20° B. (1·14 to 1·16 sp. grav.), and set to crystallize in vessels shaped like inverted pyramids, and lined with lead. At the end of a few days, the crystallization being completed, the mother waters are drawn off, the crystals are detached and dried. The loss of weight in this operation is about 20 per cent.The quantity of borax imported into the United Kingdom in 1835 was 335,224 pounds; whereof 122,022 pounds were exported. The duty is 10s.upon the refined, and 4s.unrefined.

Gmelin found borax, in prismatic crystals, to contain 46·6 per cent. of water; and Arvredson, in the calcined state, to consist of 68·9 of acid and 31·1 soda, in 100 parts. M. Payen describes an octahedral borax, which contains only 30·64 per cent. of water, and is therefore preferred by the braziers in their soldering processes.

Borax has a sweetish, somewhat lixivial taste, and affects vegetable colours like an alkali; it is soluble in 12 parts of cold and 2 of boiling water. It effloresces and becomes opaque in a dry atmosphere, and appears luminous, by friction, in the dark. It melts at a heat a little above that of boiling water, and gives out its water of crystallization, after which it forms a spongy mass, called calcined borax. The octahedral borax, which is prepared by crystallization, in a solution of 1·256 sp. gr., kept up at 145° F., is not efflorescent. When borax is ignited, it fuses into a glassy-looking substance.

The following is the improved mode of purifying borax. The crude crystals are to be broken into small lumps, and spread upon a filter lined with a lead grating, under which a piece of cloth is stretched upon a wooden frame. The lumps are piled up to the height of 12 inches, and washed with small quantities of a caustic soda lye of 5° B. (sp. gr. 1·033) until the liquor comes off nearly colourless; they are then drained, and put into a large copper of boiling water, in such quantities that the resulting solution stands 20° B. (sp. gr. 1·160). Carbonate of soda, equivalent to 12 per cent. of the borax must now be added; the mixed solution is allowed to settle, and the clear liquid syphoned off into crystallizing vessels. Whenever the mother waters get foul, they must be evaporated to dryness in cast-iron pots, and roasted, to burn away the viscid colouring matter.

Borax is sometimes adulterated with alum and common salt: the former addition may be readily detected by a few drops of water of ammonia, which will throw down its alumina; and the latter by nitrate of silver, which will give with it a precipitate insoluble in nitric acid.

The native boracic acid obtained from the lakes of Tuscany, which has been manufactured in France into borax, has greatly lowered the price of this article of commerce. When MM. Payen and Cartier first began the business, they sold the crystals at the same price as the Dutch, viz. 7 francs the kilogramme (21⁄5lbs. avoird.); but, in a fewyears, they could obtain only 2 francs and 60 centimes, in consequence of the market getting overstocked. The annual consumption of France in 1823 was 25,000 kilos., and the quantity produced in M. Payen’s works was 50,000. The mode of making borax from the acid is as follows:—The lake water is evaporated in graduation houses, and then concentrated in boilers till it crystallizes. In that state it is carried to Marseilles. About 500 kilogrammes of water are made to boil in a copper, and 600 kilogrammes of crystallized carbonate of soda are dissolved in it by successive additions of 20 kilogrammes. The solution being maintained at nearly the boiling point, 500 kilogrammes of the crystallized boracic acid of Tuscany are introduced, in successive portions. At each addition of about 10 kilogrammes, a lively effervescence ensues, on which account the copper should be of much greater capacity than is sufficient to contain the liquors. When the whole acid has been added, the fire must be damped by being covered up with moist ashes, and the copper must be covered with a tight lid and blankets, to preserve the temperature uniform. The whole is left in this state during 30 hours; the clear liquor is then drawn off into shallow crystallizing vessels of lead, in which it should stand no higher than 10 or 12 inches, to favour its rapid cooling. At the end of three days in winter, and four in summer, the crystallization is usually finished. The mother water is drawn off, and employed, instead of simple water, for the purpose of dissolving fresh crystals of soda. The above crystals are carefully detached with chisels, redissolved in boiling water, adding for each 100 kilos., 10 kilos. of carbonate of soda. This solution marks 20° B. (sp. gr. 1·160); and, at least, one ton (1000 kilos.) of borax should be dissolved at once, in order to obtain crystals of a marketable size. Whenever this solution has become boiling hot, it must be run off into large crystallizing lead chests of the form of inverted truncated pyramids, furnished with lids, enclosed in wooden frames, and surrounded with mats to confine the heat. For a continuous business there should be at least 18 vessels of this kind; as the solution takes a long time to complete its crystallization, by cooling to 30° C. (86° F.). The borax crystals are taken out with chisels, after the liquor has been drawn off, and the whole has become cold.

One hundred parts of the purest acid, usually extracted from the lakes of Tuscany, contain only fifty parts of the real boracic acid, and yield no more, at the utmost, than 140 or 150 of good borax.

Dry borax acts on the metallic oxides at a high temperature, in a very remarkable manner, melting and vitrifying them into beautiful coloured glasses. On this account it is a most useful reagent for the blowpipe. Oxide of chrome tinges it of an emerald green; oxide of cobalt, an intense blue; oxide of copper, a pale green; oxide of tin, opal; oxide of iron, bottle green and yellow; oxide of manganese, violet; oxide of nickel, pale emerald green. The white oxides impart no colour to it by themselves. In the fusion of metals borax protects their surface from oxidizement, and even dissolves away any oxides formed upon them; by which twofold agency it becomes an excellent flux, invaluable to the goldsmith in soldering the precious metals, and to the brazier in soldering copper and iron.

Borax absorbs muriatic and sulphurous acid gases, but no others, whereby it becomes, in this respect, a useful means of analysis.

The strength or purity of borax may be tested by the quantity of sulphuric acid requisite to neutralize a given weight of it, as indicated by tincture of litmus.

When mixed with shell-lac in the proportion of one part to five, borax renders that resinous body soluble in water, and forms with it a species of varnish.

Boracic acid is a compound of 31·19 of boron and 68·81 oxygen, in 100 parts. Its prime equivalent referred to oxygen 100, is 871·96.

The following process for refining the native Indian borax or tincal, has been published by MM. Robiquet and Marchand:—

It is put into large tubs, covered with water for 3 or 4 inches above its surface, and stirred through it several times during six hours. For 400 pounds of the tincal there must now be added one pound of quicklime diffused through two quarts of water. Next day the whole is thrown upon a sieve, to drain off the water with the impurities, consisting, in some measure, of the fatty matter combined with the lime, as an insoluble soap. The borax, so far purified, is to be dissolved in 21⁄2times its weight of boiling water, and eight pounds of muriate of lime are to be added for the above quantity of borax. The liquor is now filtered, evaporated to the density of 18° or 20° B. (1·14 to 1·16 sp. grav.), and set to crystallize in vessels shaped like inverted pyramids, and lined with lead. At the end of a few days, the crystallization being completed, the mother waters are drawn off, the crystals are detached and dried. The loss of weight in this operation is about 20 per cent.

The quantity of borax imported into the United Kingdom in 1835 was 335,224 pounds; whereof 122,022 pounds were exported. The duty is 10s.upon the refined, and 4s.unrefined.

BOOKBINDING, is the art of sewing together the sheets of a book; and securing them with a back and side boards. Binding is distinguished from stitching, which is merely sewing the leaves without bands or backs; and from half-binding, which consists in securing the back only with leather, the pasteboard sides being covered with blue or marble paper; whereas in binding, both the back and sides are covered with leather.Bookbinding, according to the present mode, is performed in the following manner:—The sheets are first folded into a certain number of leaves, according to the form in which the book is to appear; viz. two leaves for folios, four for quartos, eight for octavos, twelve for duodecimos, &c. This is done with a slip of ivory or boxwood, called a folding stick; and in the arrangement of the sheets the workmen are directed by the catch-words and signatures at the bottom of the pages. When the leaves are thus folded and arranged in proper order, they are usually beaten upon a stone with a heavy hammer, to make them solid and smooth, and are then condensed in a press. After this preparation they are sewed in a sewing press, upon cords or packthreads called bands, which are kept at a proper distance from each other, by drawing a thread through the middle of each sheet, and turning it round each band, beginning with the first and proceeding to the last. The number of bands is generally six for folios, and five for quartos, or any smaller size. The backs are now glued, and the ends of the bands are opened, and scraped with a knife, that they may be more conveniently fixed to the pasteboard sides; after which the back is turned with a hammer, the book being fixed in a press between boards, called backing boards, in order to make a groove for admitting the pasteboard sides. When these sides are applied, holes are made in them for drawing the bands through, the superfluous ends are cut off, and the parts are hammered smooth. The book is next pressed for cutting; which is done by a particular machine called the plough, to which is attached a knife. See the figures and descriptionsinfra. It is then put into a press called the cutting press, betwixt two boards, one of which lies even with the press, for the knife to run upon; and the other above for the knife to cut against. After this the pasteboards are cut square with a pair of iron shears; and last of all, the colours are sprinkled on the edges of the leaves, with a brush made of hog’s bristles; the brush being held in the one hand, and the hair moved with the other.Different kinds of binding are distinguished by different names, such as law binding, marble binding, French binding, Dutch binding, &c. In Dutch binding, the backs are vellum. In French binding a slip of parchment is applied over the back between each band, and the ends are pasted upon the inside of each pasteboard. This indorsing, as it is called, is peculiar to the French binders; who are enjoined, by specialordonnance, to back their books with parchment. The parchment is applied in the press, after the back has been grated to make the paste take hold. The Italians still bind in a coarse thick paper, and this they call bindingalla rustica. It is extremely inconvenient, as it is liable to wear without particular care.A patent was obtained in 1799 by Messrs. John and Joseph Williams, stationers in London, for an improved method of binding books of every description. The improvement consists of a back, in any curved form, turned a little at the edges, and made of iron, steel, copper, brass, tin, or of ivory, bone, wood, vellum, or, in short, any material of sufficient firmness. This back is put on the book before it is bound, so as just to cover without pressing the edges; and the advantage of it is that it prevents the book, when opened, from spreading on either side, and causes it to rise in any part to nearly a level surface. In this method of binding the sheets are prepared in the usual manner, then sewed on vellum slips, glued, cut, clothed, and boarded, or half boarded; the firm back is then fastened to the sides by vellum drawn through holes, or secured by inclosing it in vellum or ferret wrappers, or other materials pasted down upon the boards, or drawn through them.A patent was likewise obtained in 1800 by Mr. Ebenezer Palmer, a London stationer, for an improved way of binding books, particularly merchants’ account-books. This improvement has been described as follows:—let several small bars of metal be provided about the thickness of a shilling or more, according to the size and thickness of the book; the length of each bar being from half an inch to several inches, in proportion to the strength required in the back of the book. At each end of every bar let a pivot be made of different lengths, to correspond to the thickness of two links which they are to receive. Each link must be made in an oval form, and contain two holes proportioned to the size of the pivots, these links to be the same metal as the hinge, and each of them nearly equal in length to the width of two bars. The links are then to be riveted on the pivots, each pivot receiving two of them, and thus holding the hinge together, on the principle of a link-chain or hinge. There must be two holes or more of different sizes, as may be required, on each bar of the hinge or chain; by means of these holes each section of the book is strongly fastened to the hinge which operates with the backof the book, when bound, in such a manner as to make the different sections parallel with each other, and thus admit writing without inconvenience on the ruled lines, close to the back.The leather used in covering books is prepared and applied as follows: being first moistened in water, it is cut to the size of the book, and the thickness of the edge is paired off on a marble stone. It is next smeared over with paste made of wheat flour, stretched over the pasteboard on the outside, and doubled over the edges within. The book is then corded, that is, bound firmly betwixt two boards, to make the cover stick strongly to the pasteboard and the back; on the exact performance of which the neatness of the book in a great measure depends. The back is then warmed at the fire to soften the glue, and the leather is rubbed down with a bodkin or folding stick, to set and fix it close to the back of the book. It is now set to dry, and when dry the boards are removed; the book is then washed or sprinkled over with a little paste and water, the edges and squares blacked with ink, and then sprinkled fine with a brush, by striking it against the hand or a stick; or with large spots, by being mixed with solution of green vitriol, which is called marbling. Two blank leaves are then pasted down to the cover, and the leaves, when dry, are burnished in the press, and the cover rolled on the edges. The cover is now glazed twice with the white of an egg, filleted, and last of all, polished, by passing a hot iron over the glazed colour.The employment in book binding of a rolling press for smoothing and condensing the leaves, instead of the hammering which books have usually received, is an improvement introduced several years ago into the trade by Mr. W. Burn. His press consists of two iron cylinders about a foot in diameter, adjustable in the usual way, by means of a screw, and put in motion by the power of one man or of two, if need be, applied to one or two winch-handles. In front of the press sits a boy who gathers the sheets into packets, by placing two, three, or four upon a piece of tin plate of the same size, and covering them with another piece of tin plate, and thus proceeding by alternating tin plates and bundles of sheets till a sufficient quantity have been put together, which will depend on the stiffness and thickness of the paper. The packet is then passed between the rollers and received by the man who turns the winch, and who has time to lay the sheets on one side, and to hand over the tin plates by the time that the boy has prepared a second packet. A minion bible may be passed through the press in one minute, whereas the time necessary to beat it would be twenty minutes. It is not, however, merely a saving of time that is gained by the use of the rolling press; the paper is made smoother than it would have been by beating, and the compression is so much greater, that a rolled book will be reduced to about five-sixths of the thickness of the same book if beaten. A shelf, therefore, that will hold fifty books bound in the usual way would hold nearly sixty of those bound in this manner, a circumstance of no small importance, when it is considered how large a space even a moderate library occupies, and that book-cases are an expensive article of furniture. The rolling press is now substituted for the hammer by several considerable bookbinders.Sewing pressFig.141.represents the sewing press, as it stands upon the table, before which the bookbinder sits.Fig.142.is a ground plan without the partsaandnin the former figure.Ais the base-board, supported upon the cross barsm n, marked with dotted lines infig.142.Upon the screw rodsr rfig.141.the nutst dserve to fix the flat upper barn, at any desired distance from the base. That bar has a slit along its middle, through which the hooks belowz zpass down for receiving the ends of the sewing cordsp p, fixed aty y, and stretched by the thumb-screwsz z. The bary yis let into an oblong space cut out of the front edge of the base board and fixed there by a movable pina, and a fixed pin at its other end round which it turns.Cutting pressFig.143.is the bookbinder’s cutting press, which is set upright upon a sort of chest for the reception of the paper parings; and consists of three sides, being open above and to the left hand of the workman. The pressbar, or beama, has two holesn nupon its under surface, for securing it to two pegs standing on the top of the chest. The screw rodst tpass through two tapped holes in the bar, marked withb cat its upper end; their headsr rbeing held by the shoulderso o. The heads are pierced withholes into which lever pins are thrust for screwing the rods hard up. The heavy beamaremains immovable, while the parallel bar with the book is brought home towards it by the two screws. The two rulerss sserve as guides to preserve the motions truly parallel; and the two parallel lath barsb cguide between them the end bare, of the plough, whose knife is shown ati, with its clamping screwz.Paper cutterMr. Oldham, printing engineer of the Bank of England, distinguished for mechanical ingenuity, has contrived a convenient machine for cutting the edges of books, banknotes, &c. either truly square or polygonal, with mathematical precision.Fig.144.represents an end elevation of the machine.Fig.145.a side view of the same, the letters of reference indicating the same parts of the machine in each of the figures.Details of paper cuttera, is the top cross bar with rectangular groovesb b;c c, are side posts;d d, cross feet to the same, with strengthening brackets;e e, a square box, in which the press stands, for holding waste cuttings.Fig.146.is a cross section of the upright posts,c c, taken horizontally. There are rectangular grooves in the upright posts, for the projecting ends of the cast iron cross bracketf, to slide up and down in. In the middle of the under-side of this piecef, there is a boss, within which is a round recess, to receive the top of the screwg, which works in the cast iron cross pieceh, similarly made with the former, but bolted firmly to the postsc c. Upon the screwgthere is a circular handle or ringi, for partially turning the screw, and immediately over it cross holes for tightening the press by means of a lever bar. Upon the cross piecef, is bolted the boardj, and upon each end of this board is made fast the rabbetted piecesk k, for another boardl, to slide in. Across the middle of this board, and parallel to the piecesk k, the tongue piecem, is made fast, which fits into a groove in the bottom of boardl. A horizontal representation of this is seen atfig.147.and immediately under this view is also seen an end view ofl, andf, connected together, and a side view offby itself. In the middle of the boardl,is a pin for a circular boardn, to turn upon, and upon this latter board is placed the “material to be cut,” with a saving piece between it, and the circular piece which is to be divided upon its edge into any number of parts required, with a stationary index on the boardl, to point to each.It will now be understood that the “material to be cut,” may be turned round upon the centre pin of the boardn, and also that both it and the board can be shifted backward and forward under the top cross piecea, and between the side slide slipsk k, the surfaces of which should also be divided into inches and tenths.The plough,fig.148., shown in several positions, is made to receive two knives or cutters as the “material to be cut” may require, and which are situated in the plough as I now describe. The plough is composed of three principal parts, namely, the top, and its two sides. The topo, is made the breadth of the cross piecea, and with a handle made fast thereon. The sidesp p, are bolted thereto, with bolts and nuts through corresponding holes in the top and sides. The figures below give inside views, and cross sections of the details of the manner in which the cutters and adjustments are mounted. A groove is cut down each cheek or side, in which are placed screws that are held at top and bottom from moving up and down, but by turning they cause the nuts upon them to do so; they are shown atq q. These nuts have each a pin projecting inwards, that go into plain holes made in the top ends of cuttersr r. The148th.and following figs. are1⁄4in scale.Plough and related detailsThe cutters, and the work for causing them to go up and down, are sunk into the cheeks, so as to be quite level with their inner surfaces.Fig.149.shows one of those screws apart, how fixed, and with moveable nut and projecting pin. The top of each screw terminates with a round split down, and above it a pinion wheel and boss thereon, also similarly split. This pinion fits upon the split pin.Above, there is cross section of a hollow coupling cap with steel tongue across, that fits into both the cuts of the screw pin and pinion boss, so that when lowered upon each other, they must all turn together. In the middle and on the top of the upper pieceo, the larger wheels, runs loose upon its centre, and works into the two pinion-wheelst t. The wheelshas a fly-nut with wings mounted upon it.It will now be seen, when the plough is in its place as atfig.150., that if it be pushed to and fro by the right hand, and the nut occasionally turned by the left, the knives or cutters will be protruded downwards at the same time, and these either will or will not advance as the coupling capsu uare on or off. The ribsv v, run in the groovesb b,fig.144., and keep the cutters to their duty, working steadily. The top cross bara, is the exact breadth of a bank-note, by which means both knives are made to cut at the same time. The paper is cut uniformly to one length, and accurately square.By the use of this machine, the air-pump paper-wetting apparatus, and appendant press, the paper of 45,000 notes is fully prepared in one hour and a half by one person, and may then be printed. It is not so much injured by this process as by the ordinary method of clipping by hand, soaking it, &c., which more or less opens and weakens the fabric, especially of bank-note paper.One of the greatest improvements ever made in the art of bookbinding is, apparently, that for which Mr. William Hancock has very recently obtained a patent. After folding the sheets in double leaves, he places them vertically, with the edges forming the back of the book downwards in a concave mould, of such rounded or semi-cylindrical shape as the back of the book is intended to have. The mould for this purpose consists of two parallel upright boards, set apart upon a cradle frame, each having a portion or portions cut out vertically, somewhat deeper than the breadth of the book, but of a width nearly equal to its thickness before it is pressed. One of these upright boards may be slidden nearer to or farther from its fellow, by means of a guide bar, attached to the sole of the cradle. Thus the distance between the concave bed of the two vertical slots in which the book rests, may be varied according to the length of the leaves. In all cases about one-fourth of the length of the book at each end projects beyond the board, so that one half rests between the two boards. Two or three packthreads are now bound round the leaves thus arranged, from top to bottom of the page in different lines, in order to preserve the form given to the back of the mould in which it lay. The book is next subjected to the action of the press. The back, which is left projectingvery slightlyin front, is then smeared carefully by the fingers with a solution of caoutchouc, whereby each paper-edge receives a small portion of the cement. In a few hours it is sufficiently dry to take another coat of a somewhat stronger caoutchouc solution. In 48 hours, 4 applications of the caoutchouc may be made and dried. The back and the adjoining part of the sides are next covered with the usual band or fillet of cloth, glued on with caoutchouc; after which the book is ready to have the boards attached, and to be covered with leather or parchment as may be desired.We thus see that Mr. Hancock dispenses entirely with the operations of stitching, sewing, sawing-in, hammering the back, or the use of paste and glue. Instead of leavesattached by thread stitches at 2 or 3 points, we have them agglutinated securely along their whole length. Books bound in this way open so perfectly flat upon a table without strain or resilience, that they are equally comfortable to the student, the musician, and the merchant. The caoutchouc cement moreover being repulsive to insects, and not affected by humidity, gives this mode of binding a great superiority over the old method with paste or glue, which attracted the ravages of the moth, and in damp situations allowed the book to fall to pieces. For engravings, atlasses, and ledgers, this binding is admirably adapted, because it allows the pages to be displayed most freely, without the risk of dislocating the volume; but for security, 3 or 4 stitches should be made. The leaves of music-books bound with caoutchouc, when turned over, lie flat at their whole extent, as if in loose sheets, and do not torment the musician like the leaves of the ordinary books, which are so ready to spring back again. Manuscripts and collections of letters which happen to have little or no margin left at the back for stitching them by, may be bound by Mr. Hancock’s plan without the least encroachment upon the writing. The thickest ledgers thus bound, open as easily as paper in quire, and may be written on up to the innermost margin of the book without the least inconvenience.Having inspected various specimens of Mr. Hancock’s workmanship, I willingly bear testimony to the truth of the preceding statement. SeeCloth Binding.Bottle mould

Bookbinding, according to the present mode, is performed in the following manner:—The sheets are first folded into a certain number of leaves, according to the form in which the book is to appear; viz. two leaves for folios, four for quartos, eight for octavos, twelve for duodecimos, &c. This is done with a slip of ivory or boxwood, called a folding stick; and in the arrangement of the sheets the workmen are directed by the catch-words and signatures at the bottom of the pages. When the leaves are thus folded and arranged in proper order, they are usually beaten upon a stone with a heavy hammer, to make them solid and smooth, and are then condensed in a press. After this preparation they are sewed in a sewing press, upon cords or packthreads called bands, which are kept at a proper distance from each other, by drawing a thread through the middle of each sheet, and turning it round each band, beginning with the first and proceeding to the last. The number of bands is generally six for folios, and five for quartos, or any smaller size. The backs are now glued, and the ends of the bands are opened, and scraped with a knife, that they may be more conveniently fixed to the pasteboard sides; after which the back is turned with a hammer, the book being fixed in a press between boards, called backing boards, in order to make a groove for admitting the pasteboard sides. When these sides are applied, holes are made in them for drawing the bands through, the superfluous ends are cut off, and the parts are hammered smooth. The book is next pressed for cutting; which is done by a particular machine called the plough, to which is attached a knife. See the figures and descriptionsinfra. It is then put into a press called the cutting press, betwixt two boards, one of which lies even with the press, for the knife to run upon; and the other above for the knife to cut against. After this the pasteboards are cut square with a pair of iron shears; and last of all, the colours are sprinkled on the edges of the leaves, with a brush made of hog’s bristles; the brush being held in the one hand, and the hair moved with the other.

Different kinds of binding are distinguished by different names, such as law binding, marble binding, French binding, Dutch binding, &c. In Dutch binding, the backs are vellum. In French binding a slip of parchment is applied over the back between each band, and the ends are pasted upon the inside of each pasteboard. This indorsing, as it is called, is peculiar to the French binders; who are enjoined, by specialordonnance, to back their books with parchment. The parchment is applied in the press, after the back has been grated to make the paste take hold. The Italians still bind in a coarse thick paper, and this they call bindingalla rustica. It is extremely inconvenient, as it is liable to wear without particular care.

A patent was obtained in 1799 by Messrs. John and Joseph Williams, stationers in London, for an improved method of binding books of every description. The improvement consists of a back, in any curved form, turned a little at the edges, and made of iron, steel, copper, brass, tin, or of ivory, bone, wood, vellum, or, in short, any material of sufficient firmness. This back is put on the book before it is bound, so as just to cover without pressing the edges; and the advantage of it is that it prevents the book, when opened, from spreading on either side, and causes it to rise in any part to nearly a level surface. In this method of binding the sheets are prepared in the usual manner, then sewed on vellum slips, glued, cut, clothed, and boarded, or half boarded; the firm back is then fastened to the sides by vellum drawn through holes, or secured by inclosing it in vellum or ferret wrappers, or other materials pasted down upon the boards, or drawn through them.

A patent was likewise obtained in 1800 by Mr. Ebenezer Palmer, a London stationer, for an improved way of binding books, particularly merchants’ account-books. This improvement has been described as follows:—let several small bars of metal be provided about the thickness of a shilling or more, according to the size and thickness of the book; the length of each bar being from half an inch to several inches, in proportion to the strength required in the back of the book. At each end of every bar let a pivot be made of different lengths, to correspond to the thickness of two links which they are to receive. Each link must be made in an oval form, and contain two holes proportioned to the size of the pivots, these links to be the same metal as the hinge, and each of them nearly equal in length to the width of two bars. The links are then to be riveted on the pivots, each pivot receiving two of them, and thus holding the hinge together, on the principle of a link-chain or hinge. There must be two holes or more of different sizes, as may be required, on each bar of the hinge or chain; by means of these holes each section of the book is strongly fastened to the hinge which operates with the backof the book, when bound, in such a manner as to make the different sections parallel with each other, and thus admit writing without inconvenience on the ruled lines, close to the back.

The leather used in covering books is prepared and applied as follows: being first moistened in water, it is cut to the size of the book, and the thickness of the edge is paired off on a marble stone. It is next smeared over with paste made of wheat flour, stretched over the pasteboard on the outside, and doubled over the edges within. The book is then corded, that is, bound firmly betwixt two boards, to make the cover stick strongly to the pasteboard and the back; on the exact performance of which the neatness of the book in a great measure depends. The back is then warmed at the fire to soften the glue, and the leather is rubbed down with a bodkin or folding stick, to set and fix it close to the back of the book. It is now set to dry, and when dry the boards are removed; the book is then washed or sprinkled over with a little paste and water, the edges and squares blacked with ink, and then sprinkled fine with a brush, by striking it against the hand or a stick; or with large spots, by being mixed with solution of green vitriol, which is called marbling. Two blank leaves are then pasted down to the cover, and the leaves, when dry, are burnished in the press, and the cover rolled on the edges. The cover is now glazed twice with the white of an egg, filleted, and last of all, polished, by passing a hot iron over the glazed colour.

The employment in book binding of a rolling press for smoothing and condensing the leaves, instead of the hammering which books have usually received, is an improvement introduced several years ago into the trade by Mr. W. Burn. His press consists of two iron cylinders about a foot in diameter, adjustable in the usual way, by means of a screw, and put in motion by the power of one man or of two, if need be, applied to one or two winch-handles. In front of the press sits a boy who gathers the sheets into packets, by placing two, three, or four upon a piece of tin plate of the same size, and covering them with another piece of tin plate, and thus proceeding by alternating tin plates and bundles of sheets till a sufficient quantity have been put together, which will depend on the stiffness and thickness of the paper. The packet is then passed between the rollers and received by the man who turns the winch, and who has time to lay the sheets on one side, and to hand over the tin plates by the time that the boy has prepared a second packet. A minion bible may be passed through the press in one minute, whereas the time necessary to beat it would be twenty minutes. It is not, however, merely a saving of time that is gained by the use of the rolling press; the paper is made smoother than it would have been by beating, and the compression is so much greater, that a rolled book will be reduced to about five-sixths of the thickness of the same book if beaten. A shelf, therefore, that will hold fifty books bound in the usual way would hold nearly sixty of those bound in this manner, a circumstance of no small importance, when it is considered how large a space even a moderate library occupies, and that book-cases are an expensive article of furniture. The rolling press is now substituted for the hammer by several considerable bookbinders.

Sewing press

Fig.141.represents the sewing press, as it stands upon the table, before which the bookbinder sits.Fig.142.is a ground plan without the partsaandnin the former figure.Ais the base-board, supported upon the cross barsm n, marked with dotted lines infig.142.Upon the screw rodsr rfig.141.the nutst dserve to fix the flat upper barn, at any desired distance from the base. That bar has a slit along its middle, through which the hooks belowz zpass down for receiving the ends of the sewing cordsp p, fixed aty y, and stretched by the thumb-screwsz z. The bary yis let into an oblong space cut out of the front edge of the base board and fixed there by a movable pina, and a fixed pin at its other end round which it turns.

Cutting press

Fig.143.is the bookbinder’s cutting press, which is set upright upon a sort of chest for the reception of the paper parings; and consists of three sides, being open above and to the left hand of the workman. The pressbar, or beama, has two holesn nupon its under surface, for securing it to two pegs standing on the top of the chest. The screw rodst tpass through two tapped holes in the bar, marked withb cat its upper end; their headsr rbeing held by the shoulderso o. The heads are pierced withholes into which lever pins are thrust for screwing the rods hard up. The heavy beamaremains immovable, while the parallel bar with the book is brought home towards it by the two screws. The two rulerss sserve as guides to preserve the motions truly parallel; and the two parallel lath barsb cguide between them the end bare, of the plough, whose knife is shown ati, with its clamping screwz.

Paper cutter

Mr. Oldham, printing engineer of the Bank of England, distinguished for mechanical ingenuity, has contrived a convenient machine for cutting the edges of books, banknotes, &c. either truly square or polygonal, with mathematical precision.Fig.144.represents an end elevation of the machine.Fig.145.a side view of the same, the letters of reference indicating the same parts of the machine in each of the figures.

Details of paper cutter

a, is the top cross bar with rectangular groovesb b;c c, are side posts;d d, cross feet to the same, with strengthening brackets;e e, a square box, in which the press stands, for holding waste cuttings.Fig.146.is a cross section of the upright posts,c c, taken horizontally. There are rectangular grooves in the upright posts, for the projecting ends of the cast iron cross bracketf, to slide up and down in. In the middle of the under-side of this piecef, there is a boss, within which is a round recess, to receive the top of the screwg, which works in the cast iron cross pieceh, similarly made with the former, but bolted firmly to the postsc c. Upon the screwgthere is a circular handle or ringi, for partially turning the screw, and immediately over it cross holes for tightening the press by means of a lever bar. Upon the cross piecef, is bolted the boardj, and upon each end of this board is made fast the rabbetted piecesk k, for another boardl, to slide in. Across the middle of this board, and parallel to the piecesk k, the tongue piecem, is made fast, which fits into a groove in the bottom of boardl. A horizontal representation of this is seen atfig.147.and immediately under this view is also seen an end view ofl, andf, connected together, and a side view offby itself. In the middle of the boardl,is a pin for a circular boardn, to turn upon, and upon this latter board is placed the “material to be cut,” with a saving piece between it, and the circular piece which is to be divided upon its edge into any number of parts required, with a stationary index on the boardl, to point to each.

It will now be understood that the “material to be cut,” may be turned round upon the centre pin of the boardn, and also that both it and the board can be shifted backward and forward under the top cross piecea, and between the side slide slipsk k, the surfaces of which should also be divided into inches and tenths.

The plough,fig.148., shown in several positions, is made to receive two knives or cutters as the “material to be cut” may require, and which are situated in the plough as I now describe. The plough is composed of three principal parts, namely, the top, and its two sides. The topo, is made the breadth of the cross piecea, and with a handle made fast thereon. The sidesp p, are bolted thereto, with bolts and nuts through corresponding holes in the top and sides. The figures below give inside views, and cross sections of the details of the manner in which the cutters and adjustments are mounted. A groove is cut down each cheek or side, in which are placed screws that are held at top and bottom from moving up and down, but by turning they cause the nuts upon them to do so; they are shown atq q. These nuts have each a pin projecting inwards, that go into plain holes made in the top ends of cuttersr r. The148th.and following figs. are1⁄4in scale.

Plough and related details

The cutters, and the work for causing them to go up and down, are sunk into the cheeks, so as to be quite level with their inner surfaces.Fig.149.shows one of those screws apart, how fixed, and with moveable nut and projecting pin. The top of each screw terminates with a round split down, and above it a pinion wheel and boss thereon, also similarly split. This pinion fits upon the split pin.Above, there is cross section of a hollow coupling cap with steel tongue across, that fits into both the cuts of the screw pin and pinion boss, so that when lowered upon each other, they must all turn together. In the middle and on the top of the upper pieceo, the larger wheels, runs loose upon its centre, and works into the two pinion-wheelst t. The wheelshas a fly-nut with wings mounted upon it.

It will now be seen, when the plough is in its place as atfig.150., that if it be pushed to and fro by the right hand, and the nut occasionally turned by the left, the knives or cutters will be protruded downwards at the same time, and these either will or will not advance as the coupling capsu uare on or off. The ribsv v, run in the groovesb b,fig.144., and keep the cutters to their duty, working steadily. The top cross bara, is the exact breadth of a bank-note, by which means both knives are made to cut at the same time. The paper is cut uniformly to one length, and accurately square.

By the use of this machine, the air-pump paper-wetting apparatus, and appendant press, the paper of 45,000 notes is fully prepared in one hour and a half by one person, and may then be printed. It is not so much injured by this process as by the ordinary method of clipping by hand, soaking it, &c., which more or less opens and weakens the fabric, especially of bank-note paper.

One of the greatest improvements ever made in the art of bookbinding is, apparently, that for which Mr. William Hancock has very recently obtained a patent. After folding the sheets in double leaves, he places them vertically, with the edges forming the back of the book downwards in a concave mould, of such rounded or semi-cylindrical shape as the back of the book is intended to have. The mould for this purpose consists of two parallel upright boards, set apart upon a cradle frame, each having a portion or portions cut out vertically, somewhat deeper than the breadth of the book, but of a width nearly equal to its thickness before it is pressed. One of these upright boards may be slidden nearer to or farther from its fellow, by means of a guide bar, attached to the sole of the cradle. Thus the distance between the concave bed of the two vertical slots in which the book rests, may be varied according to the length of the leaves. In all cases about one-fourth of the length of the book at each end projects beyond the board, so that one half rests between the two boards. Two or three packthreads are now bound round the leaves thus arranged, from top to bottom of the page in different lines, in order to preserve the form given to the back of the mould in which it lay. The book is next subjected to the action of the press. The back, which is left projectingvery slightlyin front, is then smeared carefully by the fingers with a solution of caoutchouc, whereby each paper-edge receives a small portion of the cement. In a few hours it is sufficiently dry to take another coat of a somewhat stronger caoutchouc solution. In 48 hours, 4 applications of the caoutchouc may be made and dried. The back and the adjoining part of the sides are next covered with the usual band or fillet of cloth, glued on with caoutchouc; after which the book is ready to have the boards attached, and to be covered with leather or parchment as may be desired.

We thus see that Mr. Hancock dispenses entirely with the operations of stitching, sewing, sawing-in, hammering the back, or the use of paste and glue. Instead of leavesattached by thread stitches at 2 or 3 points, we have them agglutinated securely along their whole length. Books bound in this way open so perfectly flat upon a table without strain or resilience, that they are equally comfortable to the student, the musician, and the merchant. The caoutchouc cement moreover being repulsive to insects, and not affected by humidity, gives this mode of binding a great superiority over the old method with paste or glue, which attracted the ravages of the moth, and in damp situations allowed the book to fall to pieces. For engravings, atlasses, and ledgers, this binding is admirably adapted, because it allows the pages to be displayed most freely, without the risk of dislocating the volume; but for security, 3 or 4 stitches should be made. The leaves of music-books bound with caoutchouc, when turned over, lie flat at their whole extent, as if in loose sheets, and do not torment the musician like the leaves of the ordinary books, which are so ready to spring back again. Manuscripts and collections of letters which happen to have little or no margin left at the back for stitching them by, may be bound by Mr. Hancock’s plan without the least encroachment upon the writing. The thickest ledgers thus bound, open as easily as paper in quire, and may be written on up to the innermost margin of the book without the least inconvenience.

Having inspected various specimens of Mr. Hancock’s workmanship, I willingly bear testimony to the truth of the preceding statement. SeeCloth Binding.

Bottle mould

BOTTLE MANUFACTURE. The following mechanism for moulding bottles, forms the subject of a patent obtained by Henry Rickets of Bristol in 1822.Fig.155.is a section of the apparatus, consisting of a square frame,a a, of iron or wood; this is fixed in a pit formed in the floor;b bis the base of the frame, with an aperture for knocking up the bottom of the bottle;c care four legs secured to the frame-floorb, upon which the mould is supported. The platform or stand of the mouldd dhas an opening in its centre for the introduction of the bottom of the mould, which is raised against the bottom of the bottle by the knocker up;e eare the sides of the mould; andf fis the top of the mould in two pieces, turning over upon the joints atg g, so as to form the neck of the bottle;h hare levers or arms for raising and depressing the top pieces;i iis a horizontal shaft or axle, turning in bearings at each end, from which shaft two levers,k k, extend; these levers are connected by upright rods,l l, to the levers or arms,h h, of the top piecesf f.The weight of the armsh h, and rodsl l, will, by their gravity, cause the top pieces to open, as shown by the dotted lines; in this situation of the mould, the melted glass is to be introduced by a tube as usual. The workman then steps with one foot upon the knobm, which forces down the rodn, and by means of a short levero, extending from the shafti, forces down the top piecesf, and closes the mould, as seen in the figure; the glass is then made to extend itself to the shape of the mould, by blowing as usual, so as to form the bottle, and the workman at this time putting his other foot upon the knobp, depresses the rodq, and hence raises the bottom of the mould by means of the knocker-up,r, so as to form the bottom of the bottle.At the bottom of the mould a ring is introduced of any required thickness, for the purpose of regulating the capacity of the bottle; upon which ring it is proposed to raise letters and figures, as a mould to imprint the maker’s name and the size of the bottle. These moulds can be removed and changed at pleasure. Under the knobp, a collar or washer is to be introduced, of any required thickness, to regulate the knocking up of the bottom, by which a perfect symmetry of form is presented. In order to make bottles of different sizes or forms, the mould is intended to be removed, and its place supplied by another mould of different dimensions and figure; the lower parts of all the moulds being made to fit the same frame. Such a mould ought to be prescribed by legislative enactment, with an excise stamp to define the capacity of every bottle, and thereby put an end to the interminable frauds committed in the measure of wine and all other liquors sold by the bottle.

The weight of the armsh h, and rodsl l, will, by their gravity, cause the top pieces to open, as shown by the dotted lines; in this situation of the mould, the melted glass is to be introduced by a tube as usual. The workman then steps with one foot upon the knobm, which forces down the rodn, and by means of a short levero, extending from the shafti, forces down the top piecesf, and closes the mould, as seen in the figure; the glass is then made to extend itself to the shape of the mould, by blowing as usual, so as to form the bottle, and the workman at this time putting his other foot upon the knobp, depresses the rodq, and hence raises the bottom of the mould by means of the knocker-up,r, so as to form the bottom of the bottle.

At the bottom of the mould a ring is introduced of any required thickness, for the purpose of regulating the capacity of the bottle; upon which ring it is proposed to raise letters and figures, as a mould to imprint the maker’s name and the size of the bottle. These moulds can be removed and changed at pleasure. Under the knobp, a collar or washer is to be introduced, of any required thickness, to regulate the knocking up of the bottom, by which a perfect symmetry of form is presented. In order to make bottles of different sizes or forms, the mould is intended to be removed, and its place supplied by another mould of different dimensions and figure; the lower parts of all the moulds being made to fit the same frame. Such a mould ought to be prescribed by legislative enactment, with an excise stamp to define the capacity of every bottle, and thereby put an end to the interminable frauds committed in the measure of wine and all other liquors sold by the bottle.

BOUGIE. A smooth, flexible, elastic, slender cylinder, introduced into the urethra, rectum, or œsophagus, for opening or dilating it, in cases of stricture and other diseases.The invention of this instrument is claimed by Aldereto, a Portuguese physician, but its form and uses were first described by his pupil Amatus, in the year 1554. Some are solid, and some hollow; some corrosive, and some mollifying. They generally owe their elasticity to linseed oil, inspissated by long boiling, and rendered drying by litharge. This viscid matter is spread upon a very fine cord or tubular web of cotton, flax, or silk, which is rolled upon a slab when it becomes nearly solid by drying, and is finally polished in the same way.Pickel, a French professor of medicine, published the following recipe for the composition of bougies. Take 3 parts of boiled linseed oil, one part of amber, and one of oil of turpentine; melt and mix these ingredients well together, and spread the compound at three successive intervals upon a silk cord or web. Place the pieces so coated in a stove heated to 150° F.; leave them in it for 12 hours, adding 15 or 16 fresh layers in succession, till the instruments have acquired the proper size. Polish them first with pumice-stone, and finally smooth with tripoli and oil. This process is the one still employed in Paris, with some slight modifications; the chief of which is dissolving in the oil one twentieth of its weight of caoutchouc to render the substance more solid. For this purpose the caoutchouc must be cut into slender shreds, and added gradually to the hot oil. The silk tissue must be fine and open, to admit of the composition entering freely among its filaments. Each successive layer ought to be dried first in a stove, and then in the open air, before another is applied. This process takes two months for its completion, in forming the best bougies calledelastic; which ought to bear twisting round the finger without cracking or scaling, and extension without giving way, but retracting when let go. When the bougies are to be hollow, a mandril of iron wire, properly bent with a ring at one end, is introduced into the axis of the silk tissue. Some bougies are made with a hollow axis of tin foil rolled into a slender tube. Bougies are also made entirely of caoutchouc, by the intervention of a solution of this substance in sulphuric ether, a menstruum sufficiently cheap in France, on account of the low duty upon alcohol. There are medicated bougies, the composition of which belongs to surgical pharmacy. The manufacture of these instruments of various kinds forms a separate and not inconsiderable branch of industry at Paris. MM. Feburger and Lamotte are eminent in this line.

Pickel, a French professor of medicine, published the following recipe for the composition of bougies. Take 3 parts of boiled linseed oil, one part of amber, and one of oil of turpentine; melt and mix these ingredients well together, and spread the compound at three successive intervals upon a silk cord or web. Place the pieces so coated in a stove heated to 150° F.; leave them in it for 12 hours, adding 15 or 16 fresh layers in succession, till the instruments have acquired the proper size. Polish them first with pumice-stone, and finally smooth with tripoli and oil. This process is the one still employed in Paris, with some slight modifications; the chief of which is dissolving in the oil one twentieth of its weight of caoutchouc to render the substance more solid. For this purpose the caoutchouc must be cut into slender shreds, and added gradually to the hot oil. The silk tissue must be fine and open, to admit of the composition entering freely among its filaments. Each successive layer ought to be dried first in a stove, and then in the open air, before another is applied. This process takes two months for its completion, in forming the best bougies calledelastic; which ought to bear twisting round the finger without cracking or scaling, and extension without giving way, but retracting when let go. When the bougies are to be hollow, a mandril of iron wire, properly bent with a ring at one end, is introduced into the axis of the silk tissue. Some bougies are made with a hollow axis of tin foil rolled into a slender tube. Bougies are also made entirely of caoutchouc, by the intervention of a solution of this substance in sulphuric ether, a menstruum sufficiently cheap in France, on account of the low duty upon alcohol. There are medicated bougies, the composition of which belongs to surgical pharmacy. The manufacture of these instruments of various kinds forms a separate and not inconsiderable branch of industry at Paris. MM. Feburger and Lamotte are eminent in this line.

BRACES. (Bretelles, Fr.Hosenträger, Germ.) Narrow fillets or bands of leather or textile fabric, which pass over the shoulders, and are attached behind and before to the waistbands of pantaloons and trowsers, in the act of wearing them, for supporting their weight, andbracingthem up to the body. It is a useful modern invention, superseding the necessity of girding the belly with a tight girdle, as in former times.Braiding machineFig. 156 and 157 enlarged(148 kB)

Braiding machineFig. 156 and 157 enlarged(148 kB)

Fig. 156 and 157 enlarged(148 kB)

BRAIDING MACHINE. (Machine à lacets, Fr.;Bortenwerkerstuhl, Germ.) This being employed, not only to manufacture stay-laces, braid, and upholsterer’s cord, but to cover the threads of caoutchouc for weaving brace-bands, deserves a description in this work. Three threads at least are required to make such a knitted lace, but 11, 13, or 17, and even 29 threads are often employed, the first three numbers being preferred. They are made by means of a frame of a very ingenious construction, which moves by a continuous rotation. We shall describe a frame with 13 threads, from which the structure of the others may be readily conceived. The basis of the machine consists of four strong wooden uprights,A,fig.156,157,158., occupying the four angles of a rectangle, of which one side is 14 inches long, the other 18 inches, and the height of the rectangle about 40 inches.Fig.156.is a section in a horizontal plane, passing through the linea boffig.157.which is a vertical section in a plane passing through the centre ofthe machineC, according to the linec d,fig.156.The sideXis supposed to be the front of the frame; and the opposite side,Y, the back.B, six spindles or skewers, numbered, from 1 to 6, placed in a vertical position upon the circumference of a circle, whose centre coincides with that of the machine at the pointC. These six spindles are composed, 1. Of so many iron shafts or axesD, supported in brass colletsE, (fig.157.) and extended downwards within 6 inches of the ground, where they rest in brass steps fixed upon a horizontal beam. 2. Wooden heads, made of horn-beam or nut-tree, placed, the first upon the upper end of each spindle, opposite the cut-out beamF, and the second opposite the second beamG. 3. Wooden-toothed wheels,H, reciprocally working together, placed between the beamG, and the collet-beamE. The toothed wheels and the lower heads for each spindle are in one piece.The heads and shafts of the spindles No. 1. and 6., are one fifth stronger than those of the other spindles; their heads have five semi-circular grooves, and wheels of 60 teeth, while the heads of the others have only four grooves, and wheels of 48 teeth; so that the number of the grooves in the six spindles is 26, one half of which is occupied with the stems of the puppetsI, which carry the 13 threads from No. 1. to 13. The toothed wheels, which give all the spindles a simultaneous movement, but in different directions, are so disposed as to bring their grooves opposite to each other in the course of rotation.K, the middle winglet, triple at bottom and quintuple at top, which serves to guide the puppets in the direction they ought to pursue.L, three winglets, single at top and bottom, placed exteriorly, which serve a like purpose.M, two winglets, triple at bottom and single at top, placed likewise exteriorly, and which serve the same purposes as the preceding;m, are iron pins inserted in the cut-out beamG, which serve as stops or limits to the oscillations of the exterior winglets.Now, if by any moving power (a man can drive a pair) rotation be impressed upon the large spindle No. 1., in the direction of the arrow, all the other spindles will necessarily pursue the rotatory movement indicated by the respective arrows. In this case, the 13 puppets working in the grooves of the heads of the spindles will be carried round simultaneously, and will proceed each in its turn, from one extremity of the machine to the opposite point, crossing those which have a retrograde movement. The 13 threads united at the pointN, situated above the centre of the machine, will form at that point the braid, which after having passed over the pulleyo, comes between the two rollersP Q, and is squeezed together, as in a flatting-mill, where the braid is calendered at the same time that it is delivered. It is obvious that the rollerP, receives its motion from the toothed wheel of the spindle No. 3., and from the intermediate wheelsR,S,T, as well as from the endless screwZ, which drives at proper speed the wheelW, fixed upon the shaft of the rollerP.The braid is denser in proportion as the pointNis less elevated above the tops of the puppets; but in this case, the eccentric motion of these puppets is much more sensible in reference to that point, towards which all the threads converge, than when it is elevated. The threads which must be always kept equally stretched by means of a weight, as we shall presently see, are considerably strained by the traction, occasioned by the constantly eccentric movement of the puppets. From this cause, braiding machines must be worked at a moderate velocity. In general, for fine work, 30 turns of the large spindle per minute are the utmost that can safely be made.Spindle or puppetThe puppet or spindle of this machine, being the most important piece, I have represented it in section, upon a scale one fourth of its actual size,fig.158.It is formed of a tube,a, of strong sheet iron well brazed;bis a disc, likewise of sheet iron, from which a narrow fillet,c, rises vertically as high as the tube, where both are pierced with holes,d e, through which the threadfis passed, as it comes from the bobbin,g, which turns freely upon the tubea. The top of this bobbin is conical and toothed. A small catch or detent,h, moveable in a vertical direction roundi, falls by its own weight into the teeth of the crown of the bobbin, in which case this cannot revolve; but when the detent is raised so far as to disengage the teeth, and at the same time to pull the thread, the bobbin turns, and lets out thread till the detent falls back into these same teeth.A skewer of iron wire,k, is loaded with a small weight,l, melted upon it. The top of this skewer has an eye in it, and the bottom is recurved as is shown infig.158., so that supposing the thread comes to break, this skewer falls into the actualposition in the figure, where we see its lower end extending beyond the tubea, by about1⁄4of an inch; but as long as the thread is unbroken, the skewerk, which serves to keep it always tense, during the eccentric movement of the puppet, does not pass out below the tube.This disposition has naturally furnished the means of causing the machine to stop, whenever one of the threads breaks. This inferior protrusion of the skewer pushes in its progress a detent, which instantly causes the band to slide from the driving pulley to the loose pulley. Thus the machine cannot operate unless all the threads be entire. It is the business of the operative, who has 3 or 4 under her charge, to mend the threads as they break, and to substitute full bobbins for empty ones, whenever the machine is stopped.The braiding frame, though it does not move quickly, makes a great deal of noise, and would make still more, were the toothed wheels made of metal instead of wood. For them to act well, they should be made with the greatest precision, by means of appropriate tools for forming the teeth of the wheels, and the other peculiar parts.

The heads and shafts of the spindles No. 1. and 6., are one fifth stronger than those of the other spindles; their heads have five semi-circular grooves, and wheels of 60 teeth, while the heads of the others have only four grooves, and wheels of 48 teeth; so that the number of the grooves in the six spindles is 26, one half of which is occupied with the stems of the puppetsI, which carry the 13 threads from No. 1. to 13. The toothed wheels, which give all the spindles a simultaneous movement, but in different directions, are so disposed as to bring their grooves opposite to each other in the course of rotation.

K, the middle winglet, triple at bottom and quintuple at top, which serves to guide the puppets in the direction they ought to pursue.

L, three winglets, single at top and bottom, placed exteriorly, which serve a like purpose.

M, two winglets, triple at bottom and single at top, placed likewise exteriorly, and which serve the same purposes as the preceding;m, are iron pins inserted in the cut-out beamG, which serve as stops or limits to the oscillations of the exterior winglets.

Now, if by any moving power (a man can drive a pair) rotation be impressed upon the large spindle No. 1., in the direction of the arrow, all the other spindles will necessarily pursue the rotatory movement indicated by the respective arrows. In this case, the 13 puppets working in the grooves of the heads of the spindles will be carried round simultaneously, and will proceed each in its turn, from one extremity of the machine to the opposite point, crossing those which have a retrograde movement. The 13 threads united at the pointN, situated above the centre of the machine, will form at that point the braid, which after having passed over the pulleyo, comes between the two rollersP Q, and is squeezed together, as in a flatting-mill, where the braid is calendered at the same time that it is delivered. It is obvious that the rollerP, receives its motion from the toothed wheel of the spindle No. 3., and from the intermediate wheelsR,S,T, as well as from the endless screwZ, which drives at proper speed the wheelW, fixed upon the shaft of the rollerP.

The braid is denser in proportion as the pointNis less elevated above the tops of the puppets; but in this case, the eccentric motion of these puppets is much more sensible in reference to that point, towards which all the threads converge, than when it is elevated. The threads which must be always kept equally stretched by means of a weight, as we shall presently see, are considerably strained by the traction, occasioned by the constantly eccentric movement of the puppets. From this cause, braiding machines must be worked at a moderate velocity. In general, for fine work, 30 turns of the large spindle per minute are the utmost that can safely be made.

Spindle or puppet

The puppet or spindle of this machine, being the most important piece, I have represented it in section, upon a scale one fourth of its actual size,fig.158.It is formed of a tube,a, of strong sheet iron well brazed;bis a disc, likewise of sheet iron, from which a narrow fillet,c, rises vertically as high as the tube, where both are pierced with holes,d e, through which the threadfis passed, as it comes from the bobbin,g, which turns freely upon the tubea. The top of this bobbin is conical and toothed. A small catch or detent,h, moveable in a vertical direction roundi, falls by its own weight into the teeth of the crown of the bobbin, in which case this cannot revolve; but when the detent is raised so far as to disengage the teeth, and at the same time to pull the thread, the bobbin turns, and lets out thread till the detent falls back into these same teeth.

A skewer of iron wire,k, is loaded with a small weight,l, melted upon it. The top of this skewer has an eye in it, and the bottom is recurved as is shown infig.158., so that supposing the thread comes to break, this skewer falls into the actualposition in the figure, where we see its lower end extending beyond the tubea, by about1⁄4of an inch; but as long as the thread is unbroken, the skewerk, which serves to keep it always tense, during the eccentric movement of the puppet, does not pass out below the tube.

This disposition has naturally furnished the means of causing the machine to stop, whenever one of the threads breaks. This inferior protrusion of the skewer pushes in its progress a detent, which instantly causes the band to slide from the driving pulley to the loose pulley. Thus the machine cannot operate unless all the threads be entire. It is the business of the operative, who has 3 or 4 under her charge, to mend the threads as they break, and to substitute full bobbins for empty ones, whenever the machine is stopped.

The braiding frame, though it does not move quickly, makes a great deal of noise, and would make still more, were the toothed wheels made of metal instead of wood. For them to act well, they should be made with the greatest precision, by means of appropriate tools for forming the teeth of the wheels, and the other peculiar parts.

BRAN. (Son, Fr.;Kleie, Germ.) The husky portion of ground wheat, separated by the boulter from the flour. It is advantageously employed by the calico printers, in the clearing process, in which, by boiling in bran-water, the colouring matters adhering to the non-mordanted parts of maddered goods, as well as the dun matters which cloud the mordanted portions, are removed. A valuable series of researches concerning the operation of bran in such cases was made a few years ago by that distinguished chemist and calico printer, M. Daniel Kœchlin-Schouch, and published in the ninth number of the Bulletin de la Société Industrielle de Mulhausen. Nine sets of experiments are recorded, which justified the following conclusions.1. The dose of two bushels of bran for 10 pieces of calico is the best, the ebullition being kept up for an hour. A boil for the same time in pure water had no effect in clearing either the grounds or the figures.2. Fifteen minutes boiling are sufficient when the principal object is to clear white grounds, but in certain cases thirty minutes are requisite to brighten the dyed parts. If, by increasing the charge of bran, the time of the ebullition could be shortened, it would be in some places, as Alsace, an economy; because for the passage of ten pieces through a copper or vat heated with steam, 1 cwt. of coal is consumed in fuel which costs from 21⁄2to 3 francs, while two bushels of bran are to be bought for one franc.3. By increasing the quantity of water from 12 to 24 hectolitres with two bushels of bran, the clearing effect upon the ten pieces was impaired. It is therefore advantageous not to use too much water.4. Many experiments concur to prove that flour is altogether useless for the clearing boil, and that finer bran is inferior for this purpose to the coarser.5. The white ground of the calicoes boiled with wheat bran, are distinguishable by their superior brightness from that of those boiled with rye bran, and especially with barley bran; the latter having hardly any effect.6. There is no advantage in adding soap to the bran boil; though a little potash or soda may be properly introduced when the water is calcareous.7. The pellicle of the bran is the most powerful part, the flour and the starch are of no use in clearing goods, but the mucilage which forms one third of the weight of the bran has considerable efficacy, and seems to act in the following way. In proportion as the mucilaginous substance dissolves the colouring and tawny matters upon the cloth, the husky surface attracts and fixes upon itself the greater part of them. Accordingly, when used bran is digested in a weak alkaline bath, it gives up the colour which it had absorbed from the cloth.The following chemical examination of bran is interesting. A pound of it was boiled at successive times with water, the decoctions being filtered, let fall in cooling a greyish deposit, which was separated by decantation. The clear liquor afforded by evaporation to dryness four ounces of a brownish, brittle matter, composed chiefly of mucilage, a little gluten, and starch. The gray deposit of the above filtered liquor amounted to half an ounce. Nine ounces of the cortical portion of the bran were obtained. The loss amounted to 21⁄2ounces, being in some measure the hygrometric water of the bran itself.When boiled with distilled water, goods are cleared pretty well without bran. Certain delicate dyes must be boiled only a few minutes in a strong decoction of bran previously made.

1. The dose of two bushels of bran for 10 pieces of calico is the best, the ebullition being kept up for an hour. A boil for the same time in pure water had no effect in clearing either the grounds or the figures.

2. Fifteen minutes boiling are sufficient when the principal object is to clear white grounds, but in certain cases thirty minutes are requisite to brighten the dyed parts. If, by increasing the charge of bran, the time of the ebullition could be shortened, it would be in some places, as Alsace, an economy; because for the passage of ten pieces through a copper or vat heated with steam, 1 cwt. of coal is consumed in fuel which costs from 21⁄2to 3 francs, while two bushels of bran are to be bought for one franc.

3. By increasing the quantity of water from 12 to 24 hectolitres with two bushels of bran, the clearing effect upon the ten pieces was impaired. It is therefore advantageous not to use too much water.

4. Many experiments concur to prove that flour is altogether useless for the clearing boil, and that finer bran is inferior for this purpose to the coarser.

5. The white ground of the calicoes boiled with wheat bran, are distinguishable by their superior brightness from that of those boiled with rye bran, and especially with barley bran; the latter having hardly any effect.

6. There is no advantage in adding soap to the bran boil; though a little potash or soda may be properly introduced when the water is calcareous.

7. The pellicle of the bran is the most powerful part, the flour and the starch are of no use in clearing goods, but the mucilage which forms one third of the weight of the bran has considerable efficacy, and seems to act in the following way. In proportion as the mucilaginous substance dissolves the colouring and tawny matters upon the cloth, the husky surface attracts and fixes upon itself the greater part of them. Accordingly, when used bran is digested in a weak alkaline bath, it gives up the colour which it had absorbed from the cloth.

The following chemical examination of bran is interesting. A pound of it was boiled at successive times with water, the decoctions being filtered, let fall in cooling a greyish deposit, which was separated by decantation. The clear liquor afforded by evaporation to dryness four ounces of a brownish, brittle matter, composed chiefly of mucilage, a little gluten, and starch. The gray deposit of the above filtered liquor amounted to half an ounce. Nine ounces of the cortical portion of the bran were obtained. The loss amounted to 21⁄2ounces, being in some measure the hygrometric water of the bran itself.

When boiled with distilled water, goods are cleared pretty well without bran. Certain delicate dyes must be boiled only a few minutes in a strong decoction of bran previously made.

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