FULMINIC ACID; (Acide fulminique, Fr.;Knallsäure, Germ.) is the explosive constituent of the fulminating mercury of Howard, and the fulminating silver of Brugnatelli, being generated by the reaction of alcohol and the acid nitrates of these metals. It is a remarkable chemical fact, that fulminic acid has exactly the same composition as cyanic acid; though the salts of the latter possess no detonating property, and afford, in their decomposition by an oxygen acid, ammonia with carbonic acid; while those of the former afford ammonia and prussic acid. All attempts to insulate fulminic acid have proved unsuccessful, as it explodes with the slightest decomposing force. It consists, by weight, of 2 primes of carbon, 1 of azote, and 1 of oxygen; or of two volumes of carbonic acid, and one of azote. When two different bodies, like the above, have the same composition, they are said to beisomeric.
FULMINIC ACID; (Acide fulminique, Fr.;Knallsäure, Germ.) is the explosive constituent of the fulminating mercury of Howard, and the fulminating silver of Brugnatelli, being generated by the reaction of alcohol and the acid nitrates of these metals. It is a remarkable chemical fact, that fulminic acid has exactly the same composition as cyanic acid; though the salts of the latter possess no detonating property, and afford, in their decomposition by an oxygen acid, ammonia with carbonic acid; while those of the former afford ammonia and prussic acid. All attempts to insulate fulminic acid have proved unsuccessful, as it explodes with the slightest decomposing force. It consists, by weight, of 2 primes of carbon, 1 of azote, and 1 of oxygen; or of two volumes of carbonic acid, and one of azote. When two different bodies, like the above, have the same composition, they are said to beisomeric.
FUMIGATION, is the employment of fumes or vapours to purify articles of apparel, and goods or apartments supposed to be imbued with some infectious or contagious poison or fumes. The vapours of vinegar, the fumes of burning sulphur, explosion of gunpowder, have been long prescribed and practised, but they have in all probability little or no efficacy. The diffusion of such powerful agents as chlorine gas, muriatic acid gas, or nitric acid vapour, should alone be trusted to for the destruction of morbific effluvia.
FUMIGATION, is the employment of fumes or vapours to purify articles of apparel, and goods or apartments supposed to be imbued with some infectious or contagious poison or fumes. The vapours of vinegar, the fumes of burning sulphur, explosion of gunpowder, have been long prescribed and practised, but they have in all probability little or no efficacy. The diffusion of such powerful agents as chlorine gas, muriatic acid gas, or nitric acid vapour, should alone be trusted to for the destruction of morbific effluvia.
FUR; seePeltry.
FUR; seePeltry.
Assaying furncaceFURNACE OF ASSAY. UnderAssay, I have referred to a furnace constructed by Messrs. Anfrye and d’Arcet, which gives some peculiar facilities and economy to the ancient process by fire. It had originally a small pair of bellows attached to it, for raising the heat rapidly to the proper vitrifying pitch. The furnace, 171⁄2inches high, and 71⁄2inches wide, made of pottery or fine clay, is representedfig.481., supported upon a table, having a pair of bellows beneath it. The laboratory is atb, the blow-pipe of the bellows atd, with a stop-cock, and the dome is surmounted by a chimneya,c, in whose lower part there is an opening with a sliding door, for the introduction of the charcoal fuel. The furnace is formed in three pieces; a dome, a body, and an ash-pit. A pair of tongs, a stoking hook, and cupel, are seen to the right hand, and the plan of the stone-ware grate, pierced with conical holes, and a poker, are seen to the left. This grate suits the furnace represented underAssay. The following are comparative experiments made by means of this furnace:Numbers.Silveremployed.Leademployed.Time ofAssay.Standards.Charcoalused.11 Grain.4 Grains.12minutes.947millièmes.173Grains.2——11950863——13949934——1094960Each assay was therefore performed at an average in 111⁄2minutes, and not much more than a quarter of a pound of charcoal was used. An experiment of verification in the ordinary assay furnace showed the standard to be 949 thousandths.This furnace becomes a very convenient one for melting small quantities of metals in analyses, by removing the muffle, and closing the several apertures with their appropriate stoppers. A small pedestal may be then set in the middle of the grate, to support a crucible, which may be introduced through the openingh. Coak may also be used as fuel, either by itself or mixed with charcoal. For descriptions of various furnaces, seeAssay;Beer;Copper;Evaporation;Iron;Metallurgy;Ores;Silver;Tin; &c.
Assaying furncace
FURNACE OF ASSAY. UnderAssay, I have referred to a furnace constructed by Messrs. Anfrye and d’Arcet, which gives some peculiar facilities and economy to the ancient process by fire. It had originally a small pair of bellows attached to it, for raising the heat rapidly to the proper vitrifying pitch. The furnace, 171⁄2inches high, and 71⁄2inches wide, made of pottery or fine clay, is representedfig.481., supported upon a table, having a pair of bellows beneath it. The laboratory is atb, the blow-pipe of the bellows atd, with a stop-cock, and the dome is surmounted by a chimneya,c, in whose lower part there is an opening with a sliding door, for the introduction of the charcoal fuel. The furnace is formed in three pieces; a dome, a body, and an ash-pit. A pair of tongs, a stoking hook, and cupel, are seen to the right hand, and the plan of the stone-ware grate, pierced with conical holes, and a poker, are seen to the left. This grate suits the furnace represented underAssay. The following are comparative experiments made by means of this furnace:
Each assay was therefore performed at an average in 111⁄2minutes, and not much more than a quarter of a pound of charcoal was used. An experiment of verification in the ordinary assay furnace showed the standard to be 949 thousandths.
This furnace becomes a very convenient one for melting small quantities of metals in analyses, by removing the muffle, and closing the several apertures with their appropriate stoppers. A small pedestal may be then set in the middle of the grate, to support a crucible, which may be introduced through the openingh. Coak may also be used as fuel, either by itself or mixed with charcoal. For descriptions of various furnaces, seeAssay;Beer;Copper;Evaporation;Iron;Metallurgy;Ores;Silver;Tin; &c.
FUSIBILITY. That property by which solids assume the fluid state.Some chemists have asserted that fusion is simply a solution in caloric; but this opinion includes too many yet undecided questions, to be hastily adopted.Fusibility of Metals, as given by M. Thenard.Centigr.1.Fusible belowa red heat.Mercury-39°Potassium+58°-Gay Lussac and Thenard.Sodium90Tin210-Newton.Bismuth256Lead260Biot.TelluriumA little less fusible than lead.—Klaproth.ArsenicUndetermined.Zinc370°Brongniart.AntimonyA little below a red heat.CadmiumStromeyer.Pyrometer ofWedgewood.2.Infusible belowa red heat.Silver20°Kennedy.Copper27-Wedgewood.Gold32CobaltA little less difficult to melt than iron.Iron-130Wedgewood.158Sir G. M’Kenzie.Manganese160Guyton.NickelAs manganese.—Richter.Palladium-Nearly infusible; and to be obtained at aforge heat only in small buttons.MolybdenumUraniumTungstenChromiumTitanium-Infusible at the forge furnace. Fusible at theoxyhydrogen blowpipe. SeeBlowpipe.CeriumOsmiumIridiumRhodiumPlatinumColumbium
FUSIBILITY. That property by which solids assume the fluid state.
Some chemists have asserted that fusion is simply a solution in caloric; but this opinion includes too many yet undecided questions, to be hastily adopted.
Fusibility of Metals, as given by M. Thenard.
FUSIBLE METAL. SeeAlloy.
FUSIBLE METAL. SeeAlloy.
FUSTET. (Fustec, Fr.) The wood of therhus cotinus, a fugitive yellow dye.
FUSTET. (Fustec, Fr.) The wood of therhus cotinus, a fugitive yellow dye.
FUSTIAN, is a species of coarse thick tweelled cotton, and is generally dyed of an olive, leaden, or other dark colour. Besides the common fustian, which is known by the name of pillow (probably pilaw), the cotton stuffs called corduroy, velverett, velveteen, thicksett, used for men’s wearing apparel, belong to the same fabric. The commonest kind is merely a tweel of four, or sometimes five leaves, of a very close stout texture, and very narrow, seldom exceeding 17 or 18 inches in breadth. It is cut from the loom in half pieces, or ends as they are usually termed, about 35 yards long, and after undergoing the subsequent operations of dyeing, dressing, and folding, is ready for the market.The draught and cording of common fustian is very simple, being generally a regular or unbroken tweel of four or five leaves. Below are specimens of a few different kinds, selected from those most general in Lancashire.The number of leaves of heddles are represented by the lines across the paper, and thecordingby the cyphers in the little squares, those which raise every leaf being distinguished by these marks, and those which sink them left blank, as more particularly explained in the articleTextile Fabric.Of velvet, there are properly only two kinds, that with a plain, and that with a tweeled, or, as it is here called, a Genoa ground, or back. When the material is silk, it is called velvet, when cotton, velveteen; and this is the sole difference. In the same way a common tweeled cloth, when composed of silk is called satin; when of cotton, fustian or jean; of woollen, plaiding, serge, or kerseymere; and in the linen trade is distinguished by a variety of names according to the quality or fineness, or the place where the article is manufactured.No. 1.—Pillow Fustian.No. 2.—Plain Velveret.0451§0310362§050623§000020514§0642431462315Of the above, each contains four leaves of heddles or healds; that represented by No. 1. is wrought by four treddles, and that which is distinguished by No. 2. by five; the succession of inserting the threads of warp into the heddles will be discovered by the figures between the lines, and the order in which the treddles are to be successively pressed down by the figures below.No. 3.—Double Jean.No. 4.—Plain Thicksett.001§08002§00064003§052004§00073142314623157These, like the former, are wrought with leaves. No. 3. requires four, and No. 4. five treddles. The succession of inserting the threads of warp, and of working the treddles, are marked by the respective numbers between and under the lines, as in the former example. Both are fabrics of cloth in very general use and estimation as low priced articles.No. 5.—Best Thicksett.No. 6.—Velvet Tuft.00031§053105§004202§000420064§053164231642315These are further specimens of what may be, and is, executed with four leaves, and in both examples five treddles are used. With two other specimens we shall conclude our examples of this description of work, and shall then add a very few specimens of the more extensive kinds.No. 7.—Cord and Velveret.No. 8.—Thicksett Cord.03131§00053100575§042000682§9704264§00108642315432165In these the succession of drawing and working are marked like the former. The next are examples of patterns wrought with six leaves. No. 9. has eight, and No. 10. five heddles.No. 9.—Double Corduroy.No. 10.—Genoa Thicksett.0001§001002§002000003§0003004§0004005§0005006§006246810123142531758611971191210In both these the warp is inserted into the heddles the same way. The difference is entirely in the application of the cords, and in the succession of pressing down the treddles. We now give four specimens of the flushed and cut work, known by the name of velveteen. They are also upon six leaves, and the difference is solely in the cording and in the treading.No. 11.Queen’s Velveteens.No. 12.0001§001002§0002003§0030004§0004005§0050006§0006121284224315766875911101012119No. 13.—Plain Velveteen.No. 14.—Genoa Velveteen.01§0001002§00203§0003004§00405§0005006§00613248248123157667510119The additional varieties of figure which might be given are almost endless, but the limits of this article will not admit a further detail. Those already given are the articles in most general use. The varieties of fancy may be indulged to great extent, but it is universally found, that the most simple patterns in every department of ornamental weaving, are those which attract attention and command purchasers. We shall therefore only add two examples of king’s cord or corduroy, two of Genoa and common velvet, and two more of jean. These will be found below.No. 15.—King’s Cord.No. 16.—Dutch Cord.001§041002§00520073§00630084§0070005§0008006§0000913864264231575No. 17.—Genoa Velvet.No. 18.—Plain Velvet.001§10002§2003§3004§4005§5006§62481231134286757510119After the fustian cloth is taken from the loom-beam, it is carried to the cutter, who rips up the surface-threads of weft, and produces thereby a hairy-looking stuff.Preparatory to its being cut, the cloth is spread evenly upon a table about six feet long, upon each end of which a roller mounted with a ratchet-wheel is fixed; the one to give off, and the other to wind up the piece, in the above six-feet lengths.The knife is a steel rod about two feet long, and three-eighths of an inch square, having a square handle at the one end; the other end is tapered away to a blade, as thin as paper. To prevent this point from turning downwards and injuring the cloth, its under side is covered by a guide which serves to stiffen it, as well as to prevent its lower edge from cutting the fustian.The operative (male or female) grasps the handle in the right hand, and insinuating the projecting point of the guide under the weft, pushes the knife smartly forward through the whole length of six feet, with a certain dexterous movement of the shoulder and right side, balancing the body meanwhile, like a fencer, upon the left foot. This process is repeated upon every adhesive line of the weft.The next process to which fustians are exposed is steeping in hot water, to take out the dressing paste. They are then dried, reeled, and brushed by a machine, &c. From twenty to thirty pieces, each eighty yards long, may be brushed in an hour. The breadth of the cloth is twenty inches. The maceration is performed by immersing the bundled pieces in tanks of water, heated by waste steam; and the washing by means of a reel or winch, kept revolving rapidly under the action of a stream of cold water, for an hour or longer.After being thus ripped up, it is taken to the brushing or teazling machine, to make it shaggy.This consists of a series of wooden rollers, turning freely upon iron axles, and covered with tin-plate, rough with the burs of punched holes; and blocks of wood, whose concave under surfaces are covered with card-cloth or card-brushes, and which are made to traverse backwards and forwards in the direction of the axes of the revolving rollers, during the passage of the cloth over them.After they are brushed in the machine, the goods are singed by passing their cut surface over a cylinder of iron, laid in a horizontal direction, and kept red hot by a flue. SeeSingeing. They are now brushed again by the machine, and once more passed over the singeing surface. The brushing and singeing are repeated a third or even occasionally a fourth time, till the cord acquires a smooth polished appearance.The goods are next steeped, washed, and bleached, by immersion in solution of chloride of lime. They are then dyed by appropriate chemical means. After which they are padded (imbued by the padding machine of the calico printers) with a solution of glue, and passed over steam cylinders to stiffen them.Smooth fustians, when cropped or shorn before dyeing, are called moleskins; but when shorn after being dyed, are called beaverteen, they are both tweeled fabrics. Cantoon is a fustian with a fine cord visible upon the one side, and a satiny surface of yarns running at right angles to the cords upon the other side. The satiny side is sometimes smoothed by singeing. The stuff is strong, and has a very fine aspect. Its price is one shilling and sixpence a yard.Common plain fustian, of a brown or drab colour, with satin top, is sold as low as sevenpence a yard.A fustian, with a small cord running in an oblique direction, has a very agreeable appearance. It is called diagonal. Moleskin shorn, of a very strong texture, and a drab dyed tint, is sold at 20d. per yard.The weight of 90 yards of the narrow velveteen, in the green or undressed state, is about 24 pounds. The goods made for the German, Italian, and Russian markets are lighter, on account of the peculiarity in the mode of levying the import duty in these countries.Velveteens as they come from the loom, are sold wholesale by weight, and average a price of 20d.per pound. They are usually woven with yarns of Upland and Brazil cotton wool, spun together for the warp; or, sometimes, New Orleans alone. The weft is usually Uplands, sometimes mixed with East India cotton wools.Trowser velveteens are woven 19 inches wide, if they are to be cut up; if not, they are woven 30 inches, and called beaverteen.Cutting or cropping fustians by hand is a very laborious and delicate operation. The invention of an improved apparatus for effecting the same end with automatic precision and despatch, was therefore an object of no little interest to this peculiar manufacture of Manchester. An ingenious machine, apparently well calculated for this purpose, was made the subject of a patent by Messrs. William Wells and George Scholefield, of Salford in November, 1834.
FUSTIAN, is a species of coarse thick tweelled cotton, and is generally dyed of an olive, leaden, or other dark colour. Besides the common fustian, which is known by the name of pillow (probably pilaw), the cotton stuffs called corduroy, velverett, velveteen, thicksett, used for men’s wearing apparel, belong to the same fabric. The commonest kind is merely a tweel of four, or sometimes five leaves, of a very close stout texture, and very narrow, seldom exceeding 17 or 18 inches in breadth. It is cut from the loom in half pieces, or ends as they are usually termed, about 35 yards long, and after undergoing the subsequent operations of dyeing, dressing, and folding, is ready for the market.
The draught and cording of common fustian is very simple, being generally a regular or unbroken tweel of four or five leaves. Below are specimens of a few different kinds, selected from those most general in Lancashire.
The number of leaves of heddles are represented by the lines across the paper, and thecordingby the cyphers in the little squares, those which raise every leaf being distinguished by these marks, and those which sink them left blank, as more particularly explained in the articleTextile Fabric.
Of velvet, there are properly only two kinds, that with a plain, and that with a tweeled, or, as it is here called, a Genoa ground, or back. When the material is silk, it is called velvet, when cotton, velveteen; and this is the sole difference. In the same way a common tweeled cloth, when composed of silk is called satin; when of cotton, fustian or jean; of woollen, plaiding, serge, or kerseymere; and in the linen trade is distinguished by a variety of names according to the quality or fineness, or the place where the article is manufactured.
Of the above, each contains four leaves of heddles or healds; that represented by No. 1. is wrought by four treddles, and that which is distinguished by No. 2. by five; the succession of inserting the threads of warp into the heddles will be discovered by the figures between the lines, and the order in which the treddles are to be successively pressed down by the figures below.
These, like the former, are wrought with leaves. No. 3. requires four, and No. 4. five treddles. The succession of inserting the threads of warp, and of working the treddles, are marked by the respective numbers between and under the lines, as in the former example. Both are fabrics of cloth in very general use and estimation as low priced articles.
These are further specimens of what may be, and is, executed with four leaves, and in both examples five treddles are used. With two other specimens we shall conclude our examples of this description of work, and shall then add a very few specimens of the more extensive kinds.
In these the succession of drawing and working are marked like the former. The next are examples of patterns wrought with six leaves. No. 9. has eight, and No. 10. five heddles.
In both these the warp is inserted into the heddles the same way. The difference is entirely in the application of the cords, and in the succession of pressing down the treddles. We now give four specimens of the flushed and cut work, known by the name of velveteen. They are also upon six leaves, and the difference is solely in the cording and in the treading.
The additional varieties of figure which might be given are almost endless, but the limits of this article will not admit a further detail. Those already given are the articles in most general use. The varieties of fancy may be indulged to great extent, but it is universally found, that the most simple patterns in every department of ornamental weaving, are those which attract attention and command purchasers. We shall therefore only add two examples of king’s cord or corduroy, two of Genoa and common velvet, and two more of jean. These will be found below.
After the fustian cloth is taken from the loom-beam, it is carried to the cutter, who rips up the surface-threads of weft, and produces thereby a hairy-looking stuff.
Preparatory to its being cut, the cloth is spread evenly upon a table about six feet long, upon each end of which a roller mounted with a ratchet-wheel is fixed; the one to give off, and the other to wind up the piece, in the above six-feet lengths.
The knife is a steel rod about two feet long, and three-eighths of an inch square, having a square handle at the one end; the other end is tapered away to a blade, as thin as paper. To prevent this point from turning downwards and injuring the cloth, its under side is covered by a guide which serves to stiffen it, as well as to prevent its lower edge from cutting the fustian.
The operative (male or female) grasps the handle in the right hand, and insinuating the projecting point of the guide under the weft, pushes the knife smartly forward through the whole length of six feet, with a certain dexterous movement of the shoulder and right side, balancing the body meanwhile, like a fencer, upon the left foot. This process is repeated upon every adhesive line of the weft.
The next process to which fustians are exposed is steeping in hot water, to take out the dressing paste. They are then dried, reeled, and brushed by a machine, &c. From twenty to thirty pieces, each eighty yards long, may be brushed in an hour. The breadth of the cloth is twenty inches. The maceration is performed by immersing the bundled pieces in tanks of water, heated by waste steam; and the washing by means of a reel or winch, kept revolving rapidly under the action of a stream of cold water, for an hour or longer.
After being thus ripped up, it is taken to the brushing or teazling machine, to make it shaggy.
This consists of a series of wooden rollers, turning freely upon iron axles, and covered with tin-plate, rough with the burs of punched holes; and blocks of wood, whose concave under surfaces are covered with card-cloth or card-brushes, and which are made to traverse backwards and forwards in the direction of the axes of the revolving rollers, during the passage of the cloth over them.
After they are brushed in the machine, the goods are singed by passing their cut surface over a cylinder of iron, laid in a horizontal direction, and kept red hot by a flue. SeeSingeing. They are now brushed again by the machine, and once more passed over the singeing surface. The brushing and singeing are repeated a third or even occasionally a fourth time, till the cord acquires a smooth polished appearance.
The goods are next steeped, washed, and bleached, by immersion in solution of chloride of lime. They are then dyed by appropriate chemical means. After which they are padded (imbued by the padding machine of the calico printers) with a solution of glue, and passed over steam cylinders to stiffen them.
Smooth fustians, when cropped or shorn before dyeing, are called moleskins; but when shorn after being dyed, are called beaverteen, they are both tweeled fabrics. Cantoon is a fustian with a fine cord visible upon the one side, and a satiny surface of yarns running at right angles to the cords upon the other side. The satiny side is sometimes smoothed by singeing. The stuff is strong, and has a very fine aspect. Its price is one shilling and sixpence a yard.
Common plain fustian, of a brown or drab colour, with satin top, is sold as low as sevenpence a yard.
A fustian, with a small cord running in an oblique direction, has a very agreeable appearance. It is called diagonal. Moleskin shorn, of a very strong texture, and a drab dyed tint, is sold at 20d. per yard.
The weight of 90 yards of the narrow velveteen, in the green or undressed state, is about 24 pounds. The goods made for the German, Italian, and Russian markets are lighter, on account of the peculiarity in the mode of levying the import duty in these countries.
Velveteens as they come from the loom, are sold wholesale by weight, and average a price of 20d.per pound. They are usually woven with yarns of Upland and Brazil cotton wool, spun together for the warp; or, sometimes, New Orleans alone. The weft is usually Uplands, sometimes mixed with East India cotton wools.
Trowser velveteens are woven 19 inches wide, if they are to be cut up; if not, they are woven 30 inches, and called beaverteen.
Cutting or cropping fustians by hand is a very laborious and delicate operation. The invention of an improved apparatus for effecting the same end with automatic precision and despatch, was therefore an object of no little interest to this peculiar manufacture of Manchester. An ingenious machine, apparently well calculated for this purpose, was made the subject of a patent by Messrs. William Wells and George Scholefield, of Salford in November, 1834.