Chapter 76

HEALDS, is the harness for guiding the warp threads in a loom; that is, for lifting a certain number of them alternately to open the shed, and afford passage to the decussating weft threads of the shuttle. SeeWeaving.

HEARTH; (Foyer, Fr.;Heerde, Germ.) is the flat or hollow space in a smelting furnace upon which the ore and fluxes are subjected to the influence of flame. SeeCopper,Iron,Metallurgy, &c.

HEAT, is that power or essence called caloric, the discussion of whose habitudes with the different kinds of matter belongs to the science of chemistry.

HEAT-REGULATOR. The name given by M. Bonnemain to an ingenious apparatus for regulating the temperature of his incubating stove rooms. SeeIncubation, Artificial, for the manner of applying the Heat-Regulator.Heat regulatorThe construction of the regulator is founded upon the unequal dilatation of different metals by the same degree of heat. A rod of ironx,fig.549., is tapped at its lower end into a brass nuty, enclosed in a leaden box or tube, terminated above by a brass colletz. This tube is plunged into the water of the boiler, alongside of the smoke-pipe. (Fig.549*.is a bird’s-eye view of the dial, &c.) The expansion of the lead being more than the iron for a like degree of temperature, and the rod enclosed within the tube being less easily warmed, whenever the heat rises to the desired pitch, the elongation of the tube puts the colletzin contact with the heela, of the bent levera,b,d; thence the slightest increase of heat lengthens the tube anew, and the collet lifting the heel of the lever, depresses its other enddthrough a much greater space, on account of the relative lengths of its legs. This movement operates near the axis of a balance-bare, sinks one end of this, and thereby increases the extent of the movement which is transmitted directly to the iron skewerv. This pushing down a swing register diminishes or cuts off the access of air to the fire-place. The combustion is thereby obstructed, and the temperature falling by degrees, the tube shrinks and disengages the heel of the lever. The counterpoiseg, fixed to the balance-beame, raises the other extremity of this beam, by raising the enddof the lever as much as is necessary to make the heel bear upon the collet of the tube. The swing register acted upon by this means, presents a greater section to the passage of the air; whence the combustion is increased. To counterbalancethe effect of atmospheric changes, the iron stem which supports the regulator is terminated by a dial disc, round the shaft of the needle aboveh,fig.549*.; on turning this needle, the stem below it turns, as well as a screw at its under end, which raises or lowers the leaden tube. In the first case, the heel falls, and opens the swing register, whence a higher temperature is required to shut it, by the expansion of the tube. We may thus obtain a regularly higher temperature. If, on the contrary, we raise the tube by turning the needle in the other direction, the register presents a smaller opening, and shuts at a lower temperature; in this case, we obtain a regularly lower temperature. It is therefore easy, says M. Bonnemain, to determineà priorithe degree of temperature to be given to the water circulating in the stove pipes. In order to facilitate the regulation of the apparatus, he graduated the disc dial, and inscribed upon its top and bottom, the words, Strong and Weak heat. SeeThermostat, for anotherHeat-Regulator.

Heat regulator

The construction of the regulator is founded upon the unequal dilatation of different metals by the same degree of heat. A rod of ironx,fig.549., is tapped at its lower end into a brass nuty, enclosed in a leaden box or tube, terminated above by a brass colletz. This tube is plunged into the water of the boiler, alongside of the smoke-pipe. (Fig.549*.is a bird’s-eye view of the dial, &c.) The expansion of the lead being more than the iron for a like degree of temperature, and the rod enclosed within the tube being less easily warmed, whenever the heat rises to the desired pitch, the elongation of the tube puts the colletzin contact with the heela, of the bent levera,b,d; thence the slightest increase of heat lengthens the tube anew, and the collet lifting the heel of the lever, depresses its other enddthrough a much greater space, on account of the relative lengths of its legs. This movement operates near the axis of a balance-bare, sinks one end of this, and thereby increases the extent of the movement which is transmitted directly to the iron skewerv. This pushing down a swing register diminishes or cuts off the access of air to the fire-place. The combustion is thereby obstructed, and the temperature falling by degrees, the tube shrinks and disengages the heel of the lever. The counterpoiseg, fixed to the balance-beame, raises the other extremity of this beam, by raising the enddof the lever as much as is necessary to make the heel bear upon the collet of the tube. The swing register acted upon by this means, presents a greater section to the passage of the air; whence the combustion is increased. To counterbalancethe effect of atmospheric changes, the iron stem which supports the regulator is terminated by a dial disc, round the shaft of the needle aboveh,fig.549*.; on turning this needle, the stem below it turns, as well as a screw at its under end, which raises or lowers the leaden tube. In the first case, the heel falls, and opens the swing register, whence a higher temperature is required to shut it, by the expansion of the tube. We may thus obtain a regularly higher temperature. If, on the contrary, we raise the tube by turning the needle in the other direction, the register presents a smaller opening, and shuts at a lower temperature; in this case, we obtain a regularly lower temperature. It is therefore easy, says M. Bonnemain, to determineà priorithe degree of temperature to be given to the water circulating in the stove pipes. In order to facilitate the regulation of the apparatus, he graduated the disc dial, and inscribed upon its top and bottom, the words, Strong and Weak heat. SeeThermostat, for anotherHeat-Regulator.

HEAVY SPAR,sulphate of Baryta, or Cawk; (Spath pesant, Fr.;Schwerspath, Germ.) is an abundant mineral, which accompanies veins of lead, silver, mercury, &c. but is often found, also, in large masses. Its colour is usually white, or flesh-coloured. It occurs in many crystalline forms, of which the cleavage is a right rhomboidal prism. It is met with also of a fibrous, radiated, and granular structure. Its spec. grav. varies from 4·1 to 4·6. It has a strong lustre, between the fatty and the vitreous. It melts at 35° Wedgew. into a white opaque enamel. Its constituents are 65·63 baryta, and 34·37 sulphuric acid. It is decomposed by calcination in contact with charcoal at a white heat, into sulphuret of baryta; from which all the baryta salts may be readily formed. Its chief employment in commerce is for adulterating white lead; a purpose which it readily serves on account of its density. Its presence here is easily detected by dilute nitric acid, which dissolves the carbonate of lead, and leaves the heavy spar. It is also a useful ingredient in some kinds of pottery, and glass.

HECKLE; (Seran, Fr.;Hechel, Germ.) is an implement for dissevering the filaments of flax, and laying them in parallel stricks or tresses. SeeFlax.

HELIOTROPE; is a variety of jasper, mixed with chlorite, green earth, and diallage; occasionally marked with blood-red points; whence its vulgar name ofbloodstone.

HEMATINE; is the name given by its discoverer Chevreul to a crystalline substance, of a pale pink colour, and brilliant lustre when viewed in a lens, which he extracted from logwood, thehæmatoxylon Campechianumof botanists. It is, in fact, the characteristic principle of this dye-wood. To procure hematine, digest during a few hours ground logwood in water heated to a temperature of about 130° F.; filter the liquor, evaporate it to dryness by a steam bath, and put the extract in alcohol of 0·835 for a day. Then filter anew, and after having inspissated the alcoholic solution by evaporation, pour into it a little water, evaporate gently again, and then leave it to itself in a cool place. In this way a considerable quantity of crystals of hematine will be obtained, which may be readily purified by washing with alcohol and drying.When subjected to dry distillation in a retort, hematine affords all the usual products of vegetable bodies, along with a little ammonia; which proves the presence of azote. Boiling water dissolves it abundantly, and assumes an orange-red colour, which passes into yellow by cooling, but becomes red again with heat. Sulphurous acid destroys the colour of solution of hematine. Potash and ammonia convert into a dark purple-red tint, the pale solution of hematine; when these alkalis are added in large quantity, they make the colour, violet blue, then brown-red, and lastly brown-yellow. By this time, the hematine has become decomposed, and cannot be restored to its pristine state by neutralizing the alkalis with acids.The waters of baryta, strontia, and lime exercise an analogous power of decomposition; but they eventually precipitate the changed colouring matter.A red solution of hematine subjected to a current of sulphuretted hydrogen becomes yellow; but it resumes its original hue when the sulphuretted hydrogen is removed by a little potash.The protoxide of lead, the protoxide of tin, the hydrate of peroxide of iron, the hydrate of oxides of copper and nickel, oxide of bismuth, combine with hematine, and colour it blue with more or less of a violet cast.Hematine precipitates glue from its solution in reddish flocks. This substance has not hitherto been employed in its pure state; but as it constitutes the active principle of logwood, it enters as an ingredient into all the colours made with that dye stuff.These colours are principally violet and black. Chevreul has proposed hematine as an excellent test of acidity.

When subjected to dry distillation in a retort, hematine affords all the usual products of vegetable bodies, along with a little ammonia; which proves the presence of azote. Boiling water dissolves it abundantly, and assumes an orange-red colour, which passes into yellow by cooling, but becomes red again with heat. Sulphurous acid destroys the colour of solution of hematine. Potash and ammonia convert into a dark purple-red tint, the pale solution of hematine; when these alkalis are added in large quantity, they make the colour, violet blue, then brown-red, and lastly brown-yellow. By this time, the hematine has become decomposed, and cannot be restored to its pristine state by neutralizing the alkalis with acids.

The waters of baryta, strontia, and lime exercise an analogous power of decomposition; but they eventually precipitate the changed colouring matter.

A red solution of hematine subjected to a current of sulphuretted hydrogen becomes yellow; but it resumes its original hue when the sulphuretted hydrogen is removed by a little potash.

The protoxide of lead, the protoxide of tin, the hydrate of peroxide of iron, the hydrate of oxides of copper and nickel, oxide of bismuth, combine with hematine, and colour it blue with more or less of a violet cast.

Hematine precipitates glue from its solution in reddish flocks. This substance has not hitherto been employed in its pure state; but as it constitutes the active principle of logwood, it enters as an ingredient into all the colours made with that dye stuff.

These colours are principally violet and black. Chevreul has proposed hematine as an excellent test of acidity.

HEMATITE; (Fer Oligiste, Fr.;Rotheisenstein, Germ.) is a native reddish-brown peroxide of iron, consisting of oxygen 30·66; iron 60·34. It is the kidney ore of Cumberland, which is smelted at Ulverstone with charcoal, into excellent steel iron.

HEMP; (Chanvre, Fr.;Hanf, Germ.) is the fibrous rind of the bark of thecannabissativa, which is spun into strands or yarn for making ropes, sail-cloth, &c. It is prepared for spinning in the same way asflax, which see.Hemp-seedcontains an oil which is employed for making soft soap, for painting, and for burning in lamps. SeeOils.Importation of undressed hemp for home consumption; and amount of duty, in1837.1838.1837.1838.Cwts.596,994·3667,017£2487£2780

Importation of undressed hemp for home consumption; and amount of duty, in

HEPAR; which signifies liver in Latin, was a name given by the older chemists to some of those compounds of sulphur with the metals which had a liver-brown colour. Thus the sulphuret of potassium was called liver of sulphur.

HEPATIC AIR;sulphuretted hydrogen gas.

HERMETICAL SEAL, is an expression derived from Hermes, the fabulous parent of Egyptian chemistry, to designate the perfect stoppage of a hollow vessel, by the cementing or melting of the lips of its orifice; as in the case of a glass thermometer, or matrass.

HIDE; (Peau, Fr.;Haut, Germ.) the strong skin of an ox, horse, or other large animal. SeeLeather.Importation of untanned hides for home consumption; and amount of duty, in1837.1838.1837.1838.332,877301,890£46,190£36,647

HIDE; (Peau, Fr.;Haut, Germ.) the strong skin of an ox, horse, or other large animal. SeeLeather.

Importation of untanned hides for home consumption; and amount of duty, in

HIRCINE; fromhircus, a ram; is the name given by Chevreul to a liquid fatty substance, which is mixed with the oleine of mutton suet, and gives it its peculiar rank smell. Hircine is much more soluble in alcohol than oleine. It produceshircicacid by saponification.

HOG’s LARD; seeFats.

HONEY; (Mel, Fr.;Honig, Germ.) is a sweet viscid liquor, elaborated by bees from the sweet juices of the nectaries of flowers, and deposited by them in the waxen cells of their combs. Virgin honey is that which spontaneously flows with a very gentle heat from the comb, and common honey is that which is procured by the joint agency of pressure and heat. The former is whitish or pale yellow, of a granular texture, a fragrant smell, and a sweet slightly pungent taste; the latter is darker coloured, thicker, and not so agreeable either in taste or smell. Honey would seem to be merely collected by the bees, for it consists of merely the vegetable products; such as the sugars of grape, gum, and manna; along with mucilage, extractive matter, a little wax, and acid.

HONEY-STONE; (Mellite, Fr.;Honigstein, Germ.) is a mineral of a yellowish or reddish colour, and a resinous aspect, crystallizing in octahedrons with a square base; specific gravity 1·58. It is harder than gypsum, but not so hard as calc-spar; it is deeply scratched by a steel point; very brittle; affords water by calcination; blackens, then burns at the flame of the blowpipe, and leaves a white residuum which becomes blue, when it is calcined after having been moistened with a drop of nitrate of cobalt. It is a mellate of alumina, and consists of:Klaproth.Wöhler.Mellitic acid4644·4Alumina1614·5Water3841·1100100·0The honey-stone, like amber, belongs to the geological formation of lignites. It has been hitherto found clearly in only one locality, at Artern in Thuringia.

The honey-stone, like amber, belongs to the geological formation of lignites. It has been hitherto found clearly in only one locality, at Artern in Thuringia.

HOP; (Houblon, Fr.;Hopfen, Germ.) is the name of a well-known plant of the natural family of Urticeæ, and of the dioecia pentandria of Linnæus. The female flowers, placed upon different plants from the male, grow in ovoid cones formed of oval leafy scales, concave, imbricated, containing each at the base an ovary furnished with two tubular open styles, and sharp pointed stigmata. The fruit of the hop is a small rounded seed, slightly compressed, brownish coloured, enveloped in a scaly calyx, thin but solid, which contains, spread at its base, a granular yellow substance, appearing to the eye like a fine dust, but in the microscope seen to be round, yellow, transparent grains; deeper coloured, the older the fruit. This secretion, which constitutes the useful portion of the hop, has been examined in succession by Ives, Planche, Payen, and Chevallier. I have given a pretty full account of the results of their researches in treating of thehop, under the articleBeer.

HORDEINE, is the name given by Proust to the peculiar starchy matter of barley. It seems to be a mixture of the starch, lignine, and husks, which constitutes barley meal. SeeBeer.

HORN; (Eng. and Germ.;Corne, Fr.) particularly of oxen, cows, goats, and sheep, is a substance soft, tough semi-transparent, and susceptible of being cut and pressed into a variety of forms; it is this property that distinguishes it from bone. Turtle or tortoise shell seems to be of a nature similar to horn, but instead of being of a uniform colour, it is variegated with spots.These valuable properties render horn susceptible of being employed in a variety of works fit for the turner, snuff-box, and comb maker. The means of softening the horn need not be described, as it is well known to be by heat; but those of cutting, polishing, and soldering it, so as to make plates of large dimensions, suitable to form a variety of articles, may be detailed. The kind of horn to be preferred is that of goats and sheep, from its being whiter and more transparent than the horn of any other animals. When horn is wanted in sheets or plates, it must be steeped in water, in order to separate the pith from the kernel, for about fifteen days in summer, and a month in winter; and after it is soaked, it must be taken out by one end, well shaken and rubbed in order to get off the pith; after which it must be put for half an hour into boiling water, then taken out, and the surface sawed even lengthways; it must again be put into the boiling water to soften it, so as to render it capable of separating; then, with the help of a small iron chisel, it can be divided into sheets or leaves. The thick pieces will form three leaves, those which are thin will form only two, whilst young horn, which is only one quarter of an inch thick, will form only one. These plates or leaves must again be put into boiling water, and when they are sufficiently soft, they must be scraped with a sharp cutting instrument, to render those parts that are thick even and uniform; they must be put once more into the boiling water, and finally carried to the press.At the bottom of the press employed, there must be a strong block, in which is formed a cavity, of nine inches square, and of a proportionate depth; the sheets of horn are to be laid within this cavity, in the following manner: at the bottom, first a sheet of hot iron, upon this a sheet of horn, next again a sheet of hot iron, and so on, taking care to place at the top a plate of iron even with the last. The press must then be screwed down tight.There is a more expeditious process, at least in part, for reducing the horn into sheets, when it is wanted very even. After having sawed it with a very fine and sharp saw, the pieces must be put into a copper made on purpose, and there boiled, until sufficiently soft, so as to be able to be split with pincers; the sheets of horn must then be put in the press, where they are to be placed in a strong vice, the chaps of which are of iron and larger than the sheets of horn, and the vice must be screwed as quick and tight as possible; let them cool in the press or vice, or it is as well to plunge the whole into cold water. The last mode is preferable, because the horn does not shrink in cooling. Now draw out the leaves of horn, and introduce other horn to undergo the same process. The horn so enlarged in pressing, is to be submitted to the action of the saw, which ought to be set in an iron frame, if the horn is wanted to be cut with advantage, in sheets of any desired thickness, which cannot be done without adopting this mode. The thin sheets thus produced must be kept constantly very warm between plates of hot iron to preserve their softness; every leaf being loaded with a weight heavy enough to prevent its warping. To join the edges of these pieces of horn together, it is necessary to provide strong iron moulds suited to the shape of the article wanted, and to place the pieces in contact with copper-plates or with polished metal surfaces against them; when this is done, the whole is to be put into a vice and screwed up tight, then plunged into boiling water, and after some time it is to be removed from thence and immersed in cold water. The edges of the horn will be thus made to cement together and become perfectly united.To complete the polish of the horn, the surface must be rubbed with the subnitrate of bismuth by the palm of the hand. The process is short, and has this advantage, that it makes the horn dry promptly.When it is wished to spot the horn in imitation of tortoise-shell, metallic solutions must be employed as follows:—To spot it red, a solution of gold in aqua regia must be employed; to spot it black, a solution of silver in nitric acid must be used; and for brown, a hot solution of mercury in nitric acid. The right side of the horn must be impregnated with these solutions, and they will assume the colours intended. The brown spots can be produced on the horn by means of a paste made of red lead, with a solution of potash, which must be put in patches on the horn, and subjected some time to the action of heat. The deepness of the brown shades depends upon the quantity of potash used in the paste, and the length of time the mixture lies on the horn. A decoction of Brazil wood, or a solution of indigo, in sulphuric acid, or a decoction of saffron,and Berbary wood may also be used. After having employed these materials, the horn may be left for half a day in a strong solution of vinegar and alum.In France, Holland, and Austria, the comb-makers and horn-turners use the clippings of horn, which are of a whitish yellow, and tortoise-shell skins, out of which they make snuff-boxes, powder-horns, and many curious and handsome things. They first soften the horn and shell in boiling water, so as to be able to submit them to the press in iron moulds, and by means of heat form them into one mass. The degree of heat necessary to join the horn clippings must be stronger than that for shell skins, and it can only be found out by experience. The heat must not however be too great, for fear of scorching the horn or shell. Considerable care is required in these operations, not to touch the horn with the fingers, nor with any greasy body, because the grease will prevent the perfect joining. Wooden instruments should be used to move them, while they are at the fire, and for carrying them to the moulds.In making a ring of horn for bell-pulls, &c., the required piece is to be first cut out in the flat of its proper dimensions, and nearly in the shape of a horse-shoe; it is then pressed in a pair of dies to give its surface the desired pattern; but previous to the pressure, both the piece of horn and the dies are to be heated; the piece of horn is to be introduced between the dies, squeezed in a vice, and when cold, the impression or pattern will be fixed upon the horn. One particular condition, however, is to be observed in the construction of the dies, for forming a ring. They are to be so made, that the open ends of the horse-shoe piece of horn, after being pressed, shall have at one end a nib, and at the other a recess of a dovetailed form, corresponding to each other; and the second operation in forming this ring of horn is to heat it, and place it in another pair of dies, which shall bring its open ends together, and cause the dovetailed joints to be locked fast into each other, which completes the ring, and leaves no appearance of the junction.In forming the handles of table knives and forks, or other things which require to be made of two pieces, each of the two pieces or sides of the handle is formed in a separate pair of dies; the one piece is made with a counter-sunk groove along each side, and the other piece with corresponding leaves or projecting edges. When these two pieces are formed, by first being cut out of the flat horn, then pressed in the dies in a heated state, for the purpose of giving the pattern, the two pieces are again heated and put together, the leaves or edges of the one piece dropping into the counter-sunk grooves of the other piece, and being introduced between another pair of heated dies, the joints are pressed together and the two pieces formed into one handle.In making the knobs for drawers which have metal stems or pins to fasten them into the furniture, the face of the knob is to be first made in a die, as above described, and then the back part of the knob with a hole in it; a metal disc of plate-iron is next provided, in which the metal stem or screw pin is fixed, and the stem being passed through the aperture in the back piece, and the two, that is, the back and front pieces of horn put together, they are then heated and pressed in dies as above described; the edge of the back piece falling into the counter-sunk groove of the front piece, while by the heat they are perfectly cemented together.

These valuable properties render horn susceptible of being employed in a variety of works fit for the turner, snuff-box, and comb maker. The means of softening the horn need not be described, as it is well known to be by heat; but those of cutting, polishing, and soldering it, so as to make plates of large dimensions, suitable to form a variety of articles, may be detailed. The kind of horn to be preferred is that of goats and sheep, from its being whiter and more transparent than the horn of any other animals. When horn is wanted in sheets or plates, it must be steeped in water, in order to separate the pith from the kernel, for about fifteen days in summer, and a month in winter; and after it is soaked, it must be taken out by one end, well shaken and rubbed in order to get off the pith; after which it must be put for half an hour into boiling water, then taken out, and the surface sawed even lengthways; it must again be put into the boiling water to soften it, so as to render it capable of separating; then, with the help of a small iron chisel, it can be divided into sheets or leaves. The thick pieces will form three leaves, those which are thin will form only two, whilst young horn, which is only one quarter of an inch thick, will form only one. These plates or leaves must again be put into boiling water, and when they are sufficiently soft, they must be scraped with a sharp cutting instrument, to render those parts that are thick even and uniform; they must be put once more into the boiling water, and finally carried to the press.

At the bottom of the press employed, there must be a strong block, in which is formed a cavity, of nine inches square, and of a proportionate depth; the sheets of horn are to be laid within this cavity, in the following manner: at the bottom, first a sheet of hot iron, upon this a sheet of horn, next again a sheet of hot iron, and so on, taking care to place at the top a plate of iron even with the last. The press must then be screwed down tight.

There is a more expeditious process, at least in part, for reducing the horn into sheets, when it is wanted very even. After having sawed it with a very fine and sharp saw, the pieces must be put into a copper made on purpose, and there boiled, until sufficiently soft, so as to be able to be split with pincers; the sheets of horn must then be put in the press, where they are to be placed in a strong vice, the chaps of which are of iron and larger than the sheets of horn, and the vice must be screwed as quick and tight as possible; let them cool in the press or vice, or it is as well to plunge the whole into cold water. The last mode is preferable, because the horn does not shrink in cooling. Now draw out the leaves of horn, and introduce other horn to undergo the same process. The horn so enlarged in pressing, is to be submitted to the action of the saw, which ought to be set in an iron frame, if the horn is wanted to be cut with advantage, in sheets of any desired thickness, which cannot be done without adopting this mode. The thin sheets thus produced must be kept constantly very warm between plates of hot iron to preserve their softness; every leaf being loaded with a weight heavy enough to prevent its warping. To join the edges of these pieces of horn together, it is necessary to provide strong iron moulds suited to the shape of the article wanted, and to place the pieces in contact with copper-plates or with polished metal surfaces against them; when this is done, the whole is to be put into a vice and screwed up tight, then plunged into boiling water, and after some time it is to be removed from thence and immersed in cold water. The edges of the horn will be thus made to cement together and become perfectly united.

To complete the polish of the horn, the surface must be rubbed with the subnitrate of bismuth by the palm of the hand. The process is short, and has this advantage, that it makes the horn dry promptly.

When it is wished to spot the horn in imitation of tortoise-shell, metallic solutions must be employed as follows:—To spot it red, a solution of gold in aqua regia must be employed; to spot it black, a solution of silver in nitric acid must be used; and for brown, a hot solution of mercury in nitric acid. The right side of the horn must be impregnated with these solutions, and they will assume the colours intended. The brown spots can be produced on the horn by means of a paste made of red lead, with a solution of potash, which must be put in patches on the horn, and subjected some time to the action of heat. The deepness of the brown shades depends upon the quantity of potash used in the paste, and the length of time the mixture lies on the horn. A decoction of Brazil wood, or a solution of indigo, in sulphuric acid, or a decoction of saffron,and Berbary wood may also be used. After having employed these materials, the horn may be left for half a day in a strong solution of vinegar and alum.

In France, Holland, and Austria, the comb-makers and horn-turners use the clippings of horn, which are of a whitish yellow, and tortoise-shell skins, out of which they make snuff-boxes, powder-horns, and many curious and handsome things. They first soften the horn and shell in boiling water, so as to be able to submit them to the press in iron moulds, and by means of heat form them into one mass. The degree of heat necessary to join the horn clippings must be stronger than that for shell skins, and it can only be found out by experience. The heat must not however be too great, for fear of scorching the horn or shell. Considerable care is required in these operations, not to touch the horn with the fingers, nor with any greasy body, because the grease will prevent the perfect joining. Wooden instruments should be used to move them, while they are at the fire, and for carrying them to the moulds.

In making a ring of horn for bell-pulls, &c., the required piece is to be first cut out in the flat of its proper dimensions, and nearly in the shape of a horse-shoe; it is then pressed in a pair of dies to give its surface the desired pattern; but previous to the pressure, both the piece of horn and the dies are to be heated; the piece of horn is to be introduced between the dies, squeezed in a vice, and when cold, the impression or pattern will be fixed upon the horn. One particular condition, however, is to be observed in the construction of the dies, for forming a ring. They are to be so made, that the open ends of the horse-shoe piece of horn, after being pressed, shall have at one end a nib, and at the other a recess of a dovetailed form, corresponding to each other; and the second operation in forming this ring of horn is to heat it, and place it in another pair of dies, which shall bring its open ends together, and cause the dovetailed joints to be locked fast into each other, which completes the ring, and leaves no appearance of the junction.

In forming the handles of table knives and forks, or other things which require to be made of two pieces, each of the two pieces or sides of the handle is formed in a separate pair of dies; the one piece is made with a counter-sunk groove along each side, and the other piece with corresponding leaves or projecting edges. When these two pieces are formed, by first being cut out of the flat horn, then pressed in the dies in a heated state, for the purpose of giving the pattern, the two pieces are again heated and put together, the leaves or edges of the one piece dropping into the counter-sunk grooves of the other piece, and being introduced between another pair of heated dies, the joints are pressed together and the two pieces formed into one handle.

In making the knobs for drawers which have metal stems or pins to fasten them into the furniture, the face of the knob is to be first made in a die, as above described, and then the back part of the knob with a hole in it; a metal disc of plate-iron is next provided, in which the metal stem or screw pin is fixed, and the stem being passed through the aperture in the back piece, and the two, that is, the back and front pieces of horn put together, they are then heated and pressed in dies as above described; the edge of the back piece falling into the counter-sunk groove of the front piece, while by the heat they are perfectly cemented together.

HORNSILVER; (Argent Corné, orKerargyre, Fr;Hornsilber, Germ.) is a white or brownish mineral, sectile like wax or horn; and crystallizing in the cubic system. Its specific gravity varies from 4·75 to 5·55. Insoluble in water; not volatile; fusible at the blowpipe, but difficult of reduction by it. It deposits metallic silver when rubbed with water upon a piece of clean copper or iron. It consists of 24·67 chlorine, and 75·32 silver.Hornsilver is rare in the European mines, but it occurs in great quantity in the districts of Zacatecas, Fresnillo, and Catarce, in Mexico; and in Huantajaya, Yauricocha, &c., in Peru; where it is abundantly mixed with the ores of hydrate of iron, called Pacos and Colorados, interspersed with veins of metallic silver, which form considerable deposits in thepenæanlimestones. There it is profitably mined as an ore of silver.

Hornsilver is rare in the European mines, but it occurs in great quantity in the districts of Zacatecas, Fresnillo, and Catarce, in Mexico; and in Huantajaya, Yauricocha, &c., in Peru; where it is abundantly mixed with the ores of hydrate of iron, called Pacos and Colorados, interspersed with veins of metallic silver, which form considerable deposits in thepenæanlimestones. There it is profitably mined as an ore of silver.

HORNSTONE; is a variety of rhomboidal quartz. Being both hard and tough, it is well adapted to form the stones of pottery mills for grinding flints; it is called chert in Derbyshire, where it abounds.Hornstoneoccurs under three modifications; splintery hornstone, conchoidal hornstone, and woodstone. The colours of the first two are gray, white, and red; they are all massive; dull, or of a glimmering lustre. Translucent only on the thin edges. Difficult to break. Hornstone is less brittle than flint; and by its infusibility before the blowpipe it may be distinguished from petrosilex, which it resembles in external appearance. The geological locality of hornstone is remarkable; for it occurs in both ancient and recent formations. It is found frequently in the veins that traverse primitive crystalline rocks, filling up the interstices, and enveloping their metallic ores. In the lead mine of Huelgoët in Brittany it is whitish; but its prevailing colour is gray. It occurs likewise in the middle beds of the coarse limestone (calcaire grossier) in the Paris basin, which is acomparatively modern formation, as well as in the sand beds of the upper parts of this district, near Saint Cloud, Neuilly, &c. The hornstone which occurs in secondary limestone is calledchertby the English miners. It is valuable for forming the grinding blocks of flint mills in the pottery manufacture.

Hornstoneoccurs under three modifications; splintery hornstone, conchoidal hornstone, and woodstone. The colours of the first two are gray, white, and red; they are all massive; dull, or of a glimmering lustre. Translucent only on the thin edges. Difficult to break. Hornstone is less brittle than flint; and by its infusibility before the blowpipe it may be distinguished from petrosilex, which it resembles in external appearance. The geological locality of hornstone is remarkable; for it occurs in both ancient and recent formations. It is found frequently in the veins that traverse primitive crystalline rocks, filling up the interstices, and enveloping their metallic ores. In the lead mine of Huelgoët in Brittany it is whitish; but its prevailing colour is gray. It occurs likewise in the middle beds of the coarse limestone (calcaire grossier) in the Paris basin, which is acomparatively modern formation, as well as in the sand beds of the upper parts of this district, near Saint Cloud, Neuilly, &c. The hornstone which occurs in secondary limestone is calledchertby the English miners. It is valuable for forming the grinding blocks of flint mills in the pottery manufacture.

HORSE POWER, in steam engines, is estimated by Mr. Watt at 32,000 pounds avoirdupois lifted one foot high per minute, for one horse. M. D’Aubuisson, from an examination of the work done by horses in the whims, or gigs (machines à molettes) for raising ore from the mines at Freyberg, the horses being of average size and strength, has concluded that the useful effect of a horse yoked during eight hours, by two relays of four hours each, in a manege or mill course, may be estimated at 40 kilogrammes raised 1 mètre per second; which is nearly 16,440 pounds raised one foot per minute; being very nearly one half of Mr. Watt’s liberal estimate for the work of his steam engines.

HOSIERY; (Bonnèterie, Fr.;Strumpfweberei, Germ.) Thestocking frame, which is the great implement of this business, though it appears at first sight to be a complicated machine, consists merely of a repetition of parts easily understood, with a moderate degree of attention, provided an accurate conception is first formed of the nature of the hosiery fabric. This texture is totally different from the rectangular decussation which constitutes cloth, as the slightest inspection of a stocking will show; for this, instead of having two distinct systems of thread, like the warp and the weft, which are woven together, by crossing each other at right angles, the whole piece is composed of a single thread united or looped together in a peculiar manner, which is called stocking-stitch, and sometimes chain-work.Common stocking-frameThis is best explained by the view infig.550.A single thread is formed into a number of loops or waves, by arranging it over a number of parallel needles, as shewn atR: these are retained or kept in the form of loops or waves, by being drawn or looped through similar loops or waves formed by the thread of the preceding course of the work,S. The fabric thus formed by the union of a number of loops is easily unravelled, because the stability of the whole piece depends upon the ultimate fastening of the first end of the thread; and if this is undone, the loops formed by that end will open, and release the subsequent loops one at a time, until the whole is unravelled, and drawn out into the single thread from which it was made. In the same manner, if a thread in a stocking piece fails, or breaks at any part, or drops a stitch, as it is called, it immediately produces a hole, and the extension of the rest can only be prevented by fastening the end. It should be observed that there are many different fabrics of stocking-stitch for various kinds of ornamental hosiery, and as each requires a different kind of frame or machine to produce it, we should greatly exceed our limits to enter into a detailed description of them all. That species which we have represented infig.550.is the common stocking-stitch used for plain hosiery, and is formed by the machine called the common stocking-frame, which is the groundwork of all the others. The operation, as we see, consists in drawing the loop of a thread successively through a series of other loops, so long as the work is continued, as is very plainly shown for one stitch infig.551.There is a great variety of different frames in use for producing various ornamental kinds of hosiery. The first, which forms the foundation of the whole, is that for knitting plain hosiery, or the common stocking-frame.Lee's common stocking-frameOf this valuable machine, the invention of Mr. Lee of Cambridge, a side elevation is given infig.552., with the essential parts. The framing is supported by four upright posts, generally of oak, ash, or other hard wood. Two of these posts appear atA A, and the connecting cross rails are atC C. AtBis a small additional piece of framing, which supports the hosier’s seat. The iron-work of the machine is bolted or screwed to the upper rails of the frame-work, and consists of two parts. The first rests upon a sole of polished iron, which appears atD, and to which a great part of the machinery is attached. The other part, which is generally called the carriage, runs upon the iron sole atD, and is supported by four small wheels, or trucks, as they are called by the workmen. At the upper part of the back standard of iron are joints, one of which appears atQ; and to these is fitted a frame, one side of which is seen extending toH. By means of these joints, the end atHmay be depressed by the hosier’s hand, and it returns, when relieved, by the operation of a strong spring of tempered steel, acting between a cross bar in the frame, and another below. The action of this spring is very apparent infig.553.In the front of the frame, immediately opposite to where the hosier sits, are placed the needles which form the loops. These needles, or ratherhooks, are more or less numerous, according to the coarseness or fineness of the stocking; and this, although unavoidable, proves a very considerable abatement of the value of a stocking-frame. In almost every other machine (for example those employed in spinning or weaving), it is easy to adapt any one either to work coarser or finer work, as it may be wanted. But in the manufacture of hosiery, a frame once finished, is limited for ever in its operation to the same quality of work, with this exception, that by changing the stuff, the work may be made a little more dense or flimsy; but no alteration in the size or quantity of loops can take place. Hence where the manufacture is extensively prosecuted, many frames may be thrown idle by every vicissitude of demand; and where a poor mechanic does purchase his own frame, he is for ever limited to the same kind of work. The gauge, as it is called, of a stocking-frame is regulated by the number of loops contained in three inches of breadth, and varies very much; the coarsest frames in common use being about what are termed Fourteens, and the finest employed in great extent about Forties. The needles are of iron wire, the manufacture of which is very simple; but long practice in the art is found necessary before a needle-maker acquires the dexterity which will enable him both to execute his work well, and in sufficient quantity to render his labour productive.Needle punchThe process of making the needles is as follows:—Good sound iron wire, of a proper fineness, is to be selected; that which is liable to split or splinter, either in filing, punching, or bending, being totally unfit for the purpose. The wire is first to be cut into proper lengths, according to the fineness of the frame for which the needles are designed, coarse needles being considerably longer than fine ones. When a sufficient number (generally some thousands) have been cut, the wire must be softened as much as possible. This is done by laying them in rows in a flat iron box, about an inch deep, with a close cover; the box being filled with charcoal between the strata of wires. This box, being placed upon a moderate fire, is gradually heated until both the wires and charcoal have received a moderate red heat, because, were the heat increased to what smiths term the white heat, the wire would be rendered totally unfit for the subsequent processes which it has to undergo, both in finishing and working. When the box has been sufficiently heated, it may be taken from the fire, and placed among hot ashes, until both ashes and box have gradually cooled; for the slower the wires cool, the softer and easier wrought they will be. When perfectly cool, the next process is to punch a longitudinal groove in the stem of every needle, which receives the point or barb, when depressed. This is done by means of a small engine worked by the power of a screw and lever. The construction of these engines is various; but a profile elevation of one of the most simple and commonly used will be found infig.553.It consists of two very strong pieces of malleable iron, represented atAandC, and these two pieces are connected by a strong well-fitted joint atB. The lower piece, or sole of the engine atC, is screwed down by bolts to a strong board or table, and the upper pieceAwill then rise or sink at pleasure, upon the jointB. In order thatAmay be very steady in rising and sinking, which is indispensable to its correct operation, a strong bridle of iron, which is shewn in sectionE, is added to confine it, and direct its motion. In the upper part of this bridle is a female screw, through which the forcing screw passes, which is turned by the handle or leverD. To the sole of the engineCis fixed a bolsterof tempered steel, with a small groove to receive the wire, which is to be punched; and in the upper or moving partA, is a sharp chisel, which descends exactly into the groove, whenAis depressed by the screw. These are represented atF, and aboveH. AtGis a strong spring, which forces up the chisel when the pressure of the screw is removed. The appearance of the groove, when the punching is finished, will be rendered familiar by inspectingfig.554., p. 651. When the punching is finished, the wires are to be brought to a fine smooth point by filing and burnishing, the latter of which should be very completely done, as, besides polishing the wire, it tends greatly to restore that spring and elasticity which had been removed by the previous operation of softening. The wire is next to be bent, in order to form the hook or barb; and this is done with a small piece of tin plate bent double, which receives the point of the wire, and by its breadth regulates the length of the barb. The stem of the needle is now flattened with a small hammer, to prevent it from turning in the tin socket in which it is afterwards to be cast; and the point of the barb being a little curved by a pair of small plyers, the needle is completed.Fitted needleFitted needleIn order to fit the needles for the frame, they are now cast into the tin sockets, or leads as they are called by the workmen; and this is done by placing the needles in an iron mould, which opens and shuts by means of a joint, and pouring in the tin while in a state of fusion. In common operations, two needles are cast into the same socket. The form of the needle, when complete and fitted to its place in the frame, will be seen infig.555., which is a profile section of the needle-bar exhibiting one needle. In this figure a section of the presser is represented atF; the needle appears atG, and the socket or level atK. AtH, is a section of the needle-bar, on the fore part of which is a small plate of iron called a verge, to regulate the position of the needles. When placed upon the bar resting against the verge, another plate of iron, generally lined with soft leather, is screwed down upon the sockets or leads, in order to keep them all fast. This plate and the screw appear atI. When the presser atF, is forced down upon the barb, this sinks into the groove of the stem, and the needle is shut; when the presser rises, the barb opens again by its own elasticity.Needle mechanismThe needles or hooks being all properly fitted, the next part of the stocking-frame to which attention ought to be paid, is the machinery for forming the loops; and this consists of two parts. The first of these, which sinks between every second or alternate needle, is represented atO,fig.552., and is one of the most important parts of the whole machine. It consists of two moving parts; the first being a succession of horizontal levers moving upon a common centre, and called jacks, a term applied to vibrating levers in various kinds of machinery as well as the stocking-frame. One only of these jacks can be represented in the profilefig.552.; but the whole are distinctly shown in a horizontal position infig.556.; and a profile upon a very enlarged scale is given infig.557.The jack shewn infig.552., extends horizontally fromOtoI, and the centre of motion is atR. On the front, or right hand part of the jack atO, is a joint suspending a very thin plate of polished iron, which is termed a sinker. One of these jacks and sinkers is allotted for every second or alternate needle. The form of the sinker will appear atS,fig.557.; and in order that all may be exactly uniform in shape, they are cut out and finished between two stout pieces of iron, which serve as moulds or gauges to direct the frame-smith. The other end of the jack atI, is tapered to a point; and when the jacks are in their horizontal position, they are secured by small iron springs, one of which is represented atI,fig.552., each spring having a small obtuse angled notch to receive the point of the jack, against which it presses by its own elasticity. Infig.557.the centre is atR; the pointed tail is omitted for want of room, the joint is atO, and the throat of the sinker, which forms the loop, is atS. The standards atR, upon which the jack moves, are called combs, and consist of pieces of flat smooth brass, parallel to, and equidistant from each other. The cross-barR, which contains the whole, is of iron, with a perpendicular edge or rim on each side, leaving a vacancy between them, or a space to receive the bottom part or tails of the combs. The combs are then placed in the bar, with a flat piece of brass called a countercomb, between each, to ascertain and preserve their distances from each other. These countercombs are exactly of the same shape as the combs, but have no tails. When both combs and countercombs are placed in the bar, it is luted with clay so as to form a mould, into which is poured a sufficient quantity of melted tin. When the tin has had time to cool, the countercombs having no tails are easily taken out, and the combs remain well fastened and secured by the tin, which has been fused entirely round them. Thus they form a succession of standards for the jacks; and a hole being drilled through each jack and each comb, one polished wire put through, serves as a common centre for the whole.Stocking-frameThe jack sinkers being only used for every alternate or second needle, in order to complete this part of the apparatus, a second set of sinkers is employed. These are, in form and shape, every way the same as the jack sinkers, but they are jointed at the top into pieces of tin, all of which are screwed to the sinker barH,fig.552.; and thus a sinker of each kind descends between the needles alternately. By these sinkers the loops are formed upon all the needles, and the reason of two sets different in operation being employed, will be assigned in describing the mode of working the frame. The presser of the operation, of which something has already been said, appears atF; and of the two arms which support and give motion to it, one appears very plainly atE, its centre of motion being atC. The circular bend given to these arms, besides having an ornamental effect, is very useful, in order to prevent any part from interfering with the other parts which are behind, by elevating them entirely above them. The extremity of these arms at the termination of the bends behind, are connected by a cross bar, which has also a circular bend in the middle, projecting downwards, for a reason similar to that already assigned. This bend is concealed infig.552., but visible in the front elevation,fig.558.From the middle of the bend, the presser is connected with the middle treadle by a depending wire appearing atM,fig.552., and thus, by the pressure of that treadle, the presser is forced down to close the barbs of the needle. The re-ascent of the presser is sometimes effected by means of a counterpoising weight passing over a pulley behind; and sometimes by the reaction of a wooden spring, formed of a strong hoop like that represented atK. The latter of these is preferred, especially by the Nottingham hosiers, because, as they assert, it makes the presser spring up with greaterrapidity, and consequently saves time in working. How far this may be practically the case, it would be superfluous here to investigate; but it is obvious that the wooden spring, if very stiff, must add much to the hosier’s exertion of his foot, already exercised against the united spring of all his barbs; and this inconvenience is much complained of by those who have been accustomed to work with the counterpoise.Working of jacks and sinkersAtLare two pulleys or wheels, of different diameters, moving upon a common centre, by which the jack sinkers are relieved from the back springs, and thrown downwards to form the loops upon the needles. About the larger wheel is a band of whipcord, passing twice round, the extremities of which are attached to what is called the slur, which disengages the jacks from the back springs. The smaller pulley, by another band, communicates with the right and left treadle; so that these treadles, when pressed alternately, turn the pulleys about in an inverted order. The directions of these bands also appear more plainly in the front elevation,fig.558.The construction of the slur, and its effect upon the jacks, will also be rendered apparent byfig.559.In this figure, eight jacks are represented in section, the tail part of three of which, 1, 2, 3, are thrown up by the slur in its progress from left to right; the fourth is in the act of rising, and the remaining four, 5, 6, 7, and 8, are still unacted upon, the slur not yet having reached them. As the slur acts in the direction of the dotted lineX,X,fig.556., behind the centres of the jacks, it is hardly necessary to remark, that this forcing up of the tails must of course depress the joints by which the sinkers in front are suspended. The jack sinkers falling successively from the loops on every alternate needle, in the way represented atfig.560., where both kinds of sinkers appear in section, the light part expressing what is above the point at which the throat of the sinker operates upon the thread, and the dark part what is below. The second set, or, as they are called, the lead sinkers, from the manner of jointing them, and suspending them from the bar above, appear still elevated; the position of the bar being represented by the lineA,B. But when these are pulled down to the level of the former by the operator’s hands, the whole looping will be completed, and the threadC,D, which is still slack, will be brought to its full and proper degree of tension, which is regulated by stop screws, so as to be tempered or altered at pleasure. The sinking of this second set of sinkers, may be easily explained byfig.561.The direction of the sinkers is expressed by the lineE; the bar from which they are suspended will be atA; the top frame is in the direction fromAtoB; the back standards atD, and the joint atB, is the centre of motion. IfEis pulled perpendicularly downwards, the springC, will be contracted, and its upper extreme pointG, will be brought nearer to its lower extreme pointF, which is fixed. Again, when the force which has depressedEis removed, the springCwill revert to its former state, and the sinkers will rise. The raising of the jack sinkers and jacks takes place at the same time, by the hosier raising his hands; and for the cause of this we must revert tofig.556.The lead sinkers in rising, lay hold of notches, which raise the extreme parts of the set of jacksZ,Z, which are called half-jacks. Between the extremities of these atZ,Z, is a cross bar, which, in descending, presses all the intermediate jacks behind the common centre, and restores them to their original posture, where they are secured by the back springs, until they are again relieved by the operation of the slur recrossing at the next course.Working of the frame.—In order to work a frame, the whole apparatus being previously put into complete order, the hosier places himself on the seatBin front, and provides himself with a bobbin of yarn or stuff. This bobbin he places loosely on a vertical pin of wire, driven into one side of the frame contiguous to the needles, so that it may turn freely as the stuff is unwound from it. Taking the thread in his hand, he draws it loosely along the needles, behind the barbs, and under the throats of the sinkers. He then presses down one of the treadles to pass the slur along, and unlock the jacks from the back springs, that they may fall in succession. When this is done, the number of loops thus formed is doubled by bringing down the lead sinkers, and the new formed loops are lodged under the barbs of the needles by bringing forward the sinkers. The preceding course, and former fabric, being then again pushed back, the barbs are shut by depressing the middle treadle, and forcing down the presser upon the needles. The former work is now easily brought over the shut needles, after which, by raising thehands, both sets of sinkers are raised; the jacks are locked by the back springs, and the hosier goes on to another course.From this it will be apparent, that the remark made in the outset is well founded, that there are in reality, no complicated or difficult movements in the stocking-frame. Almost the whole are merely those of levers moving upon their respective fulcra, excepting that of the carriage which gives the horizontal motion to the sinkers, and that is merely an alternate motion on four wheels. Yet the frame is a machine which requires considerable experience and care, both to work it to advantage, and also to keep it in good order. This circumstance arises greatly from the small compass in which a number of moving parts must be included. Owing to this, the needles, unless cautiously and delicately handled, are easily bent or injured. The same circumstance applies with equal or greater force to the sinkers, which must be so very thin as to be easily injured. But as these must work freely, both in a perpendicular and horizontal direction between the needles, in a very confined and limited space, the slightest variation in either, from being truly and squarely placed, unavoidably injures the others. When a hosier, either ignorant of the mechanical laws, of their relation to each other, or too impatient to wait for the assistance of another, attempts to rectify defects, he in most cases increases them tenfold, and renders the machine incapable of working at all, until repaired by some more experienced person. This circumstance has given rise to a set of men employed in this trade, and distinguished by the name of upsetters; and these people, beside setting new frames to work, have frequently more employment in repairing old ones injured by want of care or skill, than many country apothecaries, who live in unhealthy parishes, find in tampering with the disorders of mankind.It seems unnecessary to go further into detail respecting a machine so well known, and which requires practical attention even more than most others. It may, therefore, be sufficient to describe shortly some of its varieties, the most simple and common of which is the rib stocking-frame.Rib stocking-frame.—This frame, which, next to the common frame, is most extensively in use, is employed for working those striped or ribbed stockings, which are very common in all the different materials of which hosiery is formed. In principle it does not differ from the common frame, and not greatly in construction. The preceding general description will nearly apply to this machine with equal propriety as to the former: that part, however, by which the ribs or stripes are formed, is entirely an addition, and to the application of this additional machinery it may be proper to pay the chief attention, referring chiefly tofig.558., which is a front elevation.Position of barsThis figure has been already referred to for the illustration of those parts of the machinery which are common to both, and those parts therefore require no recapitulation. The principle of weaving ribbed hosiery possesses considerable affinity to that which subsists in the weaving of that kind of cloth which is distinguished by the name of tweeling, for the formation of stripes, with some variation arising merely from the different nature of the fabric. In cloth weaving, two different kinds of yarn intersecting each other at right angles, are employed; in hosiery only one is used. In the tweeling of cloth, striped as dimity, in the cotton or kerseymere, and in the woollen manufacture, the stripes are produced by reversing these yarns. In hosiery, where only one kind of yarn is used, a similar effect is produced by reversing the loops. To effect this reversing of the loops, a second set of needles is placed upon a vertical frame, so that the bends of the hooks may be nearly under those of the common needles. These needles are cast into tin moulds, pretty similar to the former, but more oblique or bevelled towards the point, so as to prevent obstructions in working them. They are also screwed to a bar of iron, generally lighter than the other, and secured by means of plates: this bar is not fixed, but has a pivot in each end, by means of which the bar may have a kind of oscillatory motion on these pivots. Two frames of iron support this bar; that in which it oscillates being nearly vertical, but inclined a little towards the other needles.Fig.562., which is a profile elevation, will serve to illustrate the relative position of each bar to the other. The lower or horizontal frame, the ends only of which can be seen infig.558.undera a, appears in profile infig.562., where it is distinguished byd. The vertical frame atais attached to this by two centre screws, which serve as joints for it to move in. On the top of this frame is the rib-needle bar atf, infigs.552.and562., and one needle is represented infig.562.atf. Atgis a small presser, to shut the barbs of the rib-needles, in the same manner as the large one does those of the frame. Athis one of the frame needles, to show the relative position of the one set to the other. The whole of the rib-bar is not fitted with needles like the other; for here needles are only placed where ribs or stripes are to be formed, the intervals being filled up with blank leads, that isto say, with sockets of the same shape as the others, but without needles; being merely designed to fill the bar and preserve the intervals. Two small handles depend from the needle bar, by which the oscillatory motion upon the upper centres is given. The rising and sinking motion is communicated to this machine by chains which are attached to iron sliders below, and which are wrought by the hosier’s heel when necessary. The pressure takes place partly by the action of the small presser, and partly by the motion of the needles in descending, A small iron slider is placed behind the rib-needles, which rises as they descend, and serves to free the loops perfectly from each other.In the weaving of ribbed hosiery, the plain and rib courses are wrought alternately. When the plain are finished, the rib-needles are raised between the others, but no additional stuff is supplied. The rib-needles intersecting the plain ones, merely lay hold of the last thread, and, by again bringing it through that which was on the rib-needle before, give it an additional looping, which reverses the line of chaining, and raises the rib above the plain intervals, which have only received a single knitting.

Common stocking-frame

This is best explained by the view infig.550.A single thread is formed into a number of loops or waves, by arranging it over a number of parallel needles, as shewn atR: these are retained or kept in the form of loops or waves, by being drawn or looped through similar loops or waves formed by the thread of the preceding course of the work,S. The fabric thus formed by the union of a number of loops is easily unravelled, because the stability of the whole piece depends upon the ultimate fastening of the first end of the thread; and if this is undone, the loops formed by that end will open, and release the subsequent loops one at a time, until the whole is unravelled, and drawn out into the single thread from which it was made. In the same manner, if a thread in a stocking piece fails, or breaks at any part, or drops a stitch, as it is called, it immediately produces a hole, and the extension of the rest can only be prevented by fastening the end. It should be observed that there are many different fabrics of stocking-stitch for various kinds of ornamental hosiery, and as each requires a different kind of frame or machine to produce it, we should greatly exceed our limits to enter into a detailed description of them all. That species which we have represented infig.550.is the common stocking-stitch used for plain hosiery, and is formed by the machine called the common stocking-frame, which is the groundwork of all the others. The operation, as we see, consists in drawing the loop of a thread successively through a series of other loops, so long as the work is continued, as is very plainly shown for one stitch infig.551.

There is a great variety of different frames in use for producing various ornamental kinds of hosiery. The first, which forms the foundation of the whole, is that for knitting plain hosiery, or the common stocking-frame.

Lee's common stocking-frame

Of this valuable machine, the invention of Mr. Lee of Cambridge, a side elevation is given infig.552., with the essential parts. The framing is supported by four upright posts, generally of oak, ash, or other hard wood. Two of these posts appear atA A, and the connecting cross rails are atC C. AtBis a small additional piece of framing, which supports the hosier’s seat. The iron-work of the machine is bolted or screwed to the upper rails of the frame-work, and consists of two parts. The first rests upon a sole of polished iron, which appears atD, and to which a great part of the machinery is attached. The other part, which is generally called the carriage, runs upon the iron sole atD, and is supported by four small wheels, or trucks, as they are called by the workmen. At the upper part of the back standard of iron are joints, one of which appears atQ; and to these is fitted a frame, one side of which is seen extending toH. By means of these joints, the end atHmay be depressed by the hosier’s hand, and it returns, when relieved, by the operation of a strong spring of tempered steel, acting between a cross bar in the frame, and another below. The action of this spring is very apparent infig.553.In the front of the frame, immediately opposite to where the hosier sits, are placed the needles which form the loops. These needles, or ratherhooks, are more or less numerous, according to the coarseness or fineness of the stocking; and this, although unavoidable, proves a very considerable abatement of the value of a stocking-frame. In almost every other machine (for example those employed in spinning or weaving), it is easy to adapt any one either to work coarser or finer work, as it may be wanted. But in the manufacture of hosiery, a frame once finished, is limited for ever in its operation to the same quality of work, with this exception, that by changing the stuff, the work may be made a little more dense or flimsy; but no alteration in the size or quantity of loops can take place. Hence where the manufacture is extensively prosecuted, many frames may be thrown idle by every vicissitude of demand; and where a poor mechanic does purchase his own frame, he is for ever limited to the same kind of work. The gauge, as it is called, of a stocking-frame is regulated by the number of loops contained in three inches of breadth, and varies very much; the coarsest frames in common use being about what are termed Fourteens, and the finest employed in great extent about Forties. The needles are of iron wire, the manufacture of which is very simple; but long practice in the art is found necessary before a needle-maker acquires the dexterity which will enable him both to execute his work well, and in sufficient quantity to render his labour productive.

Needle punch

The process of making the needles is as follows:—Good sound iron wire, of a proper fineness, is to be selected; that which is liable to split or splinter, either in filing, punching, or bending, being totally unfit for the purpose. The wire is first to be cut into proper lengths, according to the fineness of the frame for which the needles are designed, coarse needles being considerably longer than fine ones. When a sufficient number (generally some thousands) have been cut, the wire must be softened as much as possible. This is done by laying them in rows in a flat iron box, about an inch deep, with a close cover; the box being filled with charcoal between the strata of wires. This box, being placed upon a moderate fire, is gradually heated until both the wires and charcoal have received a moderate red heat, because, were the heat increased to what smiths term the white heat, the wire would be rendered totally unfit for the subsequent processes which it has to undergo, both in finishing and working. When the box has been sufficiently heated, it may be taken from the fire, and placed among hot ashes, until both ashes and box have gradually cooled; for the slower the wires cool, the softer and easier wrought they will be. When perfectly cool, the next process is to punch a longitudinal groove in the stem of every needle, which receives the point or barb, when depressed. This is done by means of a small engine worked by the power of a screw and lever. The construction of these engines is various; but a profile elevation of one of the most simple and commonly used will be found infig.553.It consists of two very strong pieces of malleable iron, represented atAandC, and these two pieces are connected by a strong well-fitted joint atB. The lower piece, or sole of the engine atC, is screwed down by bolts to a strong board or table, and the upper pieceAwill then rise or sink at pleasure, upon the jointB. In order thatAmay be very steady in rising and sinking, which is indispensable to its correct operation, a strong bridle of iron, which is shewn in sectionE, is added to confine it, and direct its motion. In the upper part of this bridle is a female screw, through which the forcing screw passes, which is turned by the handle or leverD. To the sole of the engineCis fixed a bolsterof tempered steel, with a small groove to receive the wire, which is to be punched; and in the upper or moving partA, is a sharp chisel, which descends exactly into the groove, whenAis depressed by the screw. These are represented atF, and aboveH. AtGis a strong spring, which forces up the chisel when the pressure of the screw is removed. The appearance of the groove, when the punching is finished, will be rendered familiar by inspectingfig.554., p. 651. When the punching is finished, the wires are to be brought to a fine smooth point by filing and burnishing, the latter of which should be very completely done, as, besides polishing the wire, it tends greatly to restore that spring and elasticity which had been removed by the previous operation of softening. The wire is next to be bent, in order to form the hook or barb; and this is done with a small piece of tin plate bent double, which receives the point of the wire, and by its breadth regulates the length of the barb. The stem of the needle is now flattened with a small hammer, to prevent it from turning in the tin socket in which it is afterwards to be cast; and the point of the barb being a little curved by a pair of small plyers, the needle is completed.

Fitted needle

In order to fit the needles for the frame, they are now cast into the tin sockets, or leads as they are called by the workmen; and this is done by placing the needles in an iron mould, which opens and shuts by means of a joint, and pouring in the tin while in a state of fusion. In common operations, two needles are cast into the same socket. The form of the needle, when complete and fitted to its place in the frame, will be seen infig.555., which is a profile section of the needle-bar exhibiting one needle. In this figure a section of the presser is represented atF; the needle appears atG, and the socket or level atK. AtH, is a section of the needle-bar, on the fore part of which is a small plate of iron called a verge, to regulate the position of the needles. When placed upon the bar resting against the verge, another plate of iron, generally lined with soft leather, is screwed down upon the sockets or leads, in order to keep them all fast. This plate and the screw appear atI. When the presser atF, is forced down upon the barb, this sinks into the groove of the stem, and the needle is shut; when the presser rises, the barb opens again by its own elasticity.

Needle mechanism

The needles or hooks being all properly fitted, the next part of the stocking-frame to which attention ought to be paid, is the machinery for forming the loops; and this consists of two parts. The first of these, which sinks between every second or alternate needle, is represented atO,fig.552., and is one of the most important parts of the whole machine. It consists of two moving parts; the first being a succession of horizontal levers moving upon a common centre, and called jacks, a term applied to vibrating levers in various kinds of machinery as well as the stocking-frame. One only of these jacks can be represented in the profilefig.552.; but the whole are distinctly shown in a horizontal position infig.556.; and a profile upon a very enlarged scale is given infig.557.The jack shewn infig.552., extends horizontally fromOtoI, and the centre of motion is atR. On the front, or right hand part of the jack atO, is a joint suspending a very thin plate of polished iron, which is termed a sinker. One of these jacks and sinkers is allotted for every second or alternate needle. The form of the sinker will appear atS,fig.557.; and in order that all may be exactly uniform in shape, they are cut out and finished between two stout pieces of iron, which serve as moulds or gauges to direct the frame-smith. The other end of the jack atI, is tapered to a point; and when the jacks are in their horizontal position, they are secured by small iron springs, one of which is represented atI,fig.552., each spring having a small obtuse angled notch to receive the point of the jack, against which it presses by its own elasticity. Infig.557.the centre is atR; the pointed tail is omitted for want of room, the joint is atO, and the throat of the sinker, which forms the loop, is atS. The standards atR, upon which the jack moves, are called combs, and consist of pieces of flat smooth brass, parallel to, and equidistant from each other. The cross-barR, which contains the whole, is of iron, with a perpendicular edge or rim on each side, leaving a vacancy between them, or a space to receive the bottom part or tails of the combs. The combs are then placed in the bar, with a flat piece of brass called a countercomb, between each, to ascertain and preserve their distances from each other. These countercombs are exactly of the same shape as the combs, but have no tails. When both combs and countercombs are placed in the bar, it is luted with clay so as to form a mould, into which is poured a sufficient quantity of melted tin. When the tin has had time to cool, the countercombs having no tails are easily taken out, and the combs remain well fastened and secured by the tin, which has been fused entirely round them. Thus they form a succession of standards for the jacks; and a hole being drilled through each jack and each comb, one polished wire put through, serves as a common centre for the whole.

Stocking-frame

The jack sinkers being only used for every alternate or second needle, in order to complete this part of the apparatus, a second set of sinkers is employed. These are, in form and shape, every way the same as the jack sinkers, but they are jointed at the top into pieces of tin, all of which are screwed to the sinker barH,fig.552.; and thus a sinker of each kind descends between the needles alternately. By these sinkers the loops are formed upon all the needles, and the reason of two sets different in operation being employed, will be assigned in describing the mode of working the frame. The presser of the operation, of which something has already been said, appears atF; and of the two arms which support and give motion to it, one appears very plainly atE, its centre of motion being atC. The circular bend given to these arms, besides having an ornamental effect, is very useful, in order to prevent any part from interfering with the other parts which are behind, by elevating them entirely above them. The extremity of these arms at the termination of the bends behind, are connected by a cross bar, which has also a circular bend in the middle, projecting downwards, for a reason similar to that already assigned. This bend is concealed infig.552., but visible in the front elevation,fig.558.From the middle of the bend, the presser is connected with the middle treadle by a depending wire appearing atM,fig.552., and thus, by the pressure of that treadle, the presser is forced down to close the barbs of the needle. The re-ascent of the presser is sometimes effected by means of a counterpoising weight passing over a pulley behind; and sometimes by the reaction of a wooden spring, formed of a strong hoop like that represented atK. The latter of these is preferred, especially by the Nottingham hosiers, because, as they assert, it makes the presser spring up with greaterrapidity, and consequently saves time in working. How far this may be practically the case, it would be superfluous here to investigate; but it is obvious that the wooden spring, if very stiff, must add much to the hosier’s exertion of his foot, already exercised against the united spring of all his barbs; and this inconvenience is much complained of by those who have been accustomed to work with the counterpoise.

Working of jacks and sinkers

AtLare two pulleys or wheels, of different diameters, moving upon a common centre, by which the jack sinkers are relieved from the back springs, and thrown downwards to form the loops upon the needles. About the larger wheel is a band of whipcord, passing twice round, the extremities of which are attached to what is called the slur, which disengages the jacks from the back springs. The smaller pulley, by another band, communicates with the right and left treadle; so that these treadles, when pressed alternately, turn the pulleys about in an inverted order. The directions of these bands also appear more plainly in the front elevation,fig.558.The construction of the slur, and its effect upon the jacks, will also be rendered apparent byfig.559.In this figure, eight jacks are represented in section, the tail part of three of which, 1, 2, 3, are thrown up by the slur in its progress from left to right; the fourth is in the act of rising, and the remaining four, 5, 6, 7, and 8, are still unacted upon, the slur not yet having reached them. As the slur acts in the direction of the dotted lineX,X,fig.556., behind the centres of the jacks, it is hardly necessary to remark, that this forcing up of the tails must of course depress the joints by which the sinkers in front are suspended. The jack sinkers falling successively from the loops on every alternate needle, in the way represented atfig.560., where both kinds of sinkers appear in section, the light part expressing what is above the point at which the throat of the sinker operates upon the thread, and the dark part what is below. The second set, or, as they are called, the lead sinkers, from the manner of jointing them, and suspending them from the bar above, appear still elevated; the position of the bar being represented by the lineA,B. But when these are pulled down to the level of the former by the operator’s hands, the whole looping will be completed, and the threadC,D, which is still slack, will be brought to its full and proper degree of tension, which is regulated by stop screws, so as to be tempered or altered at pleasure. The sinking of this second set of sinkers, may be easily explained byfig.561.The direction of the sinkers is expressed by the lineE; the bar from which they are suspended will be atA; the top frame is in the direction fromAtoB; the back standards atD, and the joint atB, is the centre of motion. IfEis pulled perpendicularly downwards, the springC, will be contracted, and its upper extreme pointG, will be brought nearer to its lower extreme pointF, which is fixed. Again, when the force which has depressedEis removed, the springCwill revert to its former state, and the sinkers will rise. The raising of the jack sinkers and jacks takes place at the same time, by the hosier raising his hands; and for the cause of this we must revert tofig.556.The lead sinkers in rising, lay hold of notches, which raise the extreme parts of the set of jacksZ,Z, which are called half-jacks. Between the extremities of these atZ,Z, is a cross bar, which, in descending, presses all the intermediate jacks behind the common centre, and restores them to their original posture, where they are secured by the back springs, until they are again relieved by the operation of the slur recrossing at the next course.

Working of the frame.—In order to work a frame, the whole apparatus being previously put into complete order, the hosier places himself on the seatBin front, and provides himself with a bobbin of yarn or stuff. This bobbin he places loosely on a vertical pin of wire, driven into one side of the frame contiguous to the needles, so that it may turn freely as the stuff is unwound from it. Taking the thread in his hand, he draws it loosely along the needles, behind the barbs, and under the throats of the sinkers. He then presses down one of the treadles to pass the slur along, and unlock the jacks from the back springs, that they may fall in succession. When this is done, the number of loops thus formed is doubled by bringing down the lead sinkers, and the new formed loops are lodged under the barbs of the needles by bringing forward the sinkers. The preceding course, and former fabric, being then again pushed back, the barbs are shut by depressing the middle treadle, and forcing down the presser upon the needles. The former work is now easily brought over the shut needles, after which, by raising thehands, both sets of sinkers are raised; the jacks are locked by the back springs, and the hosier goes on to another course.

From this it will be apparent, that the remark made in the outset is well founded, that there are in reality, no complicated or difficult movements in the stocking-frame. Almost the whole are merely those of levers moving upon their respective fulcra, excepting that of the carriage which gives the horizontal motion to the sinkers, and that is merely an alternate motion on four wheels. Yet the frame is a machine which requires considerable experience and care, both to work it to advantage, and also to keep it in good order. This circumstance arises greatly from the small compass in which a number of moving parts must be included. Owing to this, the needles, unless cautiously and delicately handled, are easily bent or injured. The same circumstance applies with equal or greater force to the sinkers, which must be so very thin as to be easily injured. But as these must work freely, both in a perpendicular and horizontal direction between the needles, in a very confined and limited space, the slightest variation in either, from being truly and squarely placed, unavoidably injures the others. When a hosier, either ignorant of the mechanical laws, of their relation to each other, or too impatient to wait for the assistance of another, attempts to rectify defects, he in most cases increases them tenfold, and renders the machine incapable of working at all, until repaired by some more experienced person. This circumstance has given rise to a set of men employed in this trade, and distinguished by the name of upsetters; and these people, beside setting new frames to work, have frequently more employment in repairing old ones injured by want of care or skill, than many country apothecaries, who live in unhealthy parishes, find in tampering with the disorders of mankind.

It seems unnecessary to go further into detail respecting a machine so well known, and which requires practical attention even more than most others. It may, therefore, be sufficient to describe shortly some of its varieties, the most simple and common of which is the rib stocking-frame.

Rib stocking-frame.—This frame, which, next to the common frame, is most extensively in use, is employed for working those striped or ribbed stockings, which are very common in all the different materials of which hosiery is formed. In principle it does not differ from the common frame, and not greatly in construction. The preceding general description will nearly apply to this machine with equal propriety as to the former: that part, however, by which the ribs or stripes are formed, is entirely an addition, and to the application of this additional machinery it may be proper to pay the chief attention, referring chiefly tofig.558., which is a front elevation.

Position of bars

This figure has been already referred to for the illustration of those parts of the machinery which are common to both, and those parts therefore require no recapitulation. The principle of weaving ribbed hosiery possesses considerable affinity to that which subsists in the weaving of that kind of cloth which is distinguished by the name of tweeling, for the formation of stripes, with some variation arising merely from the different nature of the fabric. In cloth weaving, two different kinds of yarn intersecting each other at right angles, are employed; in hosiery only one is used. In the tweeling of cloth, striped as dimity, in the cotton or kerseymere, and in the woollen manufacture, the stripes are produced by reversing these yarns. In hosiery, where only one kind of yarn is used, a similar effect is produced by reversing the loops. To effect this reversing of the loops, a second set of needles is placed upon a vertical frame, so that the bends of the hooks may be nearly under those of the common needles. These needles are cast into tin moulds, pretty similar to the former, but more oblique or bevelled towards the point, so as to prevent obstructions in working them. They are also screwed to a bar of iron, generally lighter than the other, and secured by means of plates: this bar is not fixed, but has a pivot in each end, by means of which the bar may have a kind of oscillatory motion on these pivots. Two frames of iron support this bar; that in which it oscillates being nearly vertical, but inclined a little towards the other needles.Fig.562., which is a profile elevation, will serve to illustrate the relative position of each bar to the other. The lower or horizontal frame, the ends only of which can be seen infig.558.undera a, appears in profile infig.562., where it is distinguished byd. The vertical frame atais attached to this by two centre screws, which serve as joints for it to move in. On the top of this frame is the rib-needle bar atf, infigs.552.and562., and one needle is represented infig.562.atf. Atgis a small presser, to shut the barbs of the rib-needles, in the same manner as the large one does those of the frame. Athis one of the frame needles, to show the relative position of the one set to the other. The whole of the rib-bar is not fitted with needles like the other; for here needles are only placed where ribs or stripes are to be formed, the intervals being filled up with blank leads, that isto say, with sockets of the same shape as the others, but without needles; being merely designed to fill the bar and preserve the intervals. Two small handles depend from the needle bar, by which the oscillatory motion upon the upper centres is given. The rising and sinking motion is communicated to this machine by chains which are attached to iron sliders below, and which are wrought by the hosier’s heel when necessary. The pressure takes place partly by the action of the small presser, and partly by the motion of the needles in descending, A small iron slider is placed behind the rib-needles, which rises as they descend, and serves to free the loops perfectly from each other.

In the weaving of ribbed hosiery, the plain and rib courses are wrought alternately. When the plain are finished, the rib-needles are raised between the others, but no additional stuff is supplied. The rib-needles intersecting the plain ones, merely lay hold of the last thread, and, by again bringing it through that which was on the rib-needle before, give it an additional looping, which reverses the line of chaining, and raises the rib above the plain intervals, which have only received a single knitting.

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