H.

GYPSUM,Sulphate of Lime,Alabaster,or Paris Plaster. This substance is found in three geological positions in the crust of the earth; among transition rocks; in the red marl formation; and above the chalk, in the tertiary beds.1. The alpine gypsums are ranged by M. Brochant among the transition class, and are characterized by the presence of anthracite or stone coal; some of them are white and pure, others gray or yellowish, and mixed with mica, talc, steatite, black oxide of iron, pyrites, compact carbonate of lime, sulphur, and common salt. Examples of such localities are found in the gypsum ofVal-Canariaat the foot of Saint Gothard, that of Brigg in the upper Valais; of the Grilla in the valley of Chamouni, and of Saint Gervais-les-Bains, near Sallenches in Savoy.2. The secondary gypsum, or that of the salt mine districts, belongs to thered ground, immediately beneath the lias in the order of stratification, and therefore a rock relatively antient. Near Northwick, the red marl beds above the great deposit of rock salt, are irregularly intersected with gypsum, in numerous laminæ or plates. At Newbiggin in Cumberland, the gypsum lies in red argillaceous marl, between two strata of sandstone; and a mile south of Whitehaven, the subterraneous workings for the alabaster extend 30 yards in a direct line; with two or three lateral branches extending about 10 yards, at whose extremities are large spaces where the gypsum is blasted with gunpowder. It is generally compact, forming a regular and conformable bed, with crystals of selenite (crystallized gypsum) in drusy cavities. Gypsum occurs in the red marl in the isle of Axholme, and various other places in Nottinghamshire. In Derbyshire some considerable deposits have been found in the same red sandstone, several of which are mined, as at Chellaston hill, which would exhibit a naked and water-worn rock of gypsum,were it not for a covering of alluvial clay. It appears in general to present itself chiefly in particular patches, occasioning a sudden rise, or an insulated hill, by the additional thickness which it gives to the stratum of thered groundin these places. The principal demand for the pure white gypsum, or that faintly streaked with red, is by the potters in Staffordshire, who form their moulds with the calcined powder which it affords; only particularly fine blocks are selected for making alabaster ornaments on the turning lathe. In one of the salt pits near Droitwich, the strata sunk through, were, vegetable mould, 3 feet; red marl, 35 feet; gypsum, 40 feet; a river of brine, 22 inches; gypsum, 75 feet; a rock of salt, bored into only 5 feet, but probably extending much deeper. On the Welsh side of the Bristol channel, gypsum occurs in the red marl cliffs ofGlamorganshire, from Pennarth to Lavernock. No organic remains or metallic minerals have hitherto been found in the gypsum of this formation.3. The most interesting gypsums in a general point of view, are certainly the tertiary, or those of the plains, or hills of comparatively modern formation. They are characterized, by the presence of fossil bones of extinct animals, bothmammiferaand birds, by shells, and a large proportion of carbonate of lime, which gives them the property of effervescing with acids, and the title of limestone gypsums. Such are the gypsums of the environs of Paris, as at the heights of Montmartre, which contain crystallized sulphate of lime in many forms, but most commonly the lenticular and lance-shaped.Sulphate of lime occurs either as a dense compound without water, and is calledanhydritefrom that circumstance; or with combined water, which is its most ordinary state. Of the latter there are 6 sub-species; sparry gypsum or selenite in a variety of crystalline forms; the foliated granular; the compact; the fibrous; the scaly foliated; the earthy.The prevailing colour is white, with various shades of gray, blue, red, and yellow. More or less translucent. Soft, sectile, yielding to the nail. Specific gravity 2·2. Water dissolves about one five-hundredth part of its weight of gypsum, and acquires the quality of hardness, with the characteristic selenitic taste. When exposed on red hot coals, it decrepitates, becomes white, and splits into a great many brittle plates. At the heat of a baker’s oven, or about 400° Fahr., the combined water of gypsum escapes with a species of ebullition. At a higher temperature the particles get indurated. When rightly calcined and pulverized, gypsum is mixed with water to the consistence of cream, and poured into moulds by the manufacturers of stucco ornaments and statues. A species of rapid crystallization ensues, and the thin paste soon acquires a solid consistence, which is increased by drying the figure in proper stoves. During the consolidation of the plaster, its volume expands into the finest lines of the mould, so as to give a sharp and faithful impression.The plaster stone of the Paris basin contains about 12per cent.of carbonate of lime. This body, ground and mixed with water, forms an adhesive mortar much used in building, as it fixes very speedily. Works executed with pure gypsum never become so hard as those made with the calcareous kind; and hence it might be proper to add a certain portion of white slaked lime to our calcined gypsum, in order to give the stucco this valuable property. Coloured stuccos of great solidity are made by adding to a clear solution of glue, any desired colouring tincture, and mixing-in the proper quantity of the calcined calcareous gypsum.The compact, fine-grained gypseous alabaster is often cut into various ornamental figures, such as vases, statuary groups, &c., which take a high polish and look beautiful, but from their softness are easily injured, and require to be kept enclosed within a glass shade.In America and France, the virtues of gypsum in fertilizing land have been highly extolled, but they have not been realized in the trials made in this kingdom.Pure gypsum consists of lime 28; sulphuric acid 40; water 18; which are the respective weights of its prime equivalent parts.M. Gay Lussac, in a short notice, in theAnnales de Chimiefor April 1829, on the setting of gypsum, says that the purest plasters are those that harden least, and that the addition of lime is of no use towards promoting their solidity, nor can the heat proper for boiling gypsum ever expel the carbonic acid gas from the calcareous carbonate present in the gypsum of Montmartre. He conceives that ahardplaster-stone having lost its water, will resume more solidity in returning to its first state, than a plaster-stone naturally tender or soft; and that it is the primitive molecular arrangement which is regenerated. SeeAlabaster.

1. The alpine gypsums are ranged by M. Brochant among the transition class, and are characterized by the presence of anthracite or stone coal; some of them are white and pure, others gray or yellowish, and mixed with mica, talc, steatite, black oxide of iron, pyrites, compact carbonate of lime, sulphur, and common salt. Examples of such localities are found in the gypsum ofVal-Canariaat the foot of Saint Gothard, that of Brigg in the upper Valais; of the Grilla in the valley of Chamouni, and of Saint Gervais-les-Bains, near Sallenches in Savoy.

2. The secondary gypsum, or that of the salt mine districts, belongs to thered ground, immediately beneath the lias in the order of stratification, and therefore a rock relatively antient. Near Northwick, the red marl beds above the great deposit of rock salt, are irregularly intersected with gypsum, in numerous laminæ or plates. At Newbiggin in Cumberland, the gypsum lies in red argillaceous marl, between two strata of sandstone; and a mile south of Whitehaven, the subterraneous workings for the alabaster extend 30 yards in a direct line; with two or three lateral branches extending about 10 yards, at whose extremities are large spaces where the gypsum is blasted with gunpowder. It is generally compact, forming a regular and conformable bed, with crystals of selenite (crystallized gypsum) in drusy cavities. Gypsum occurs in the red marl in the isle of Axholme, and various other places in Nottinghamshire. In Derbyshire some considerable deposits have been found in the same red sandstone, several of which are mined, as at Chellaston hill, which would exhibit a naked and water-worn rock of gypsum,were it not for a covering of alluvial clay. It appears in general to present itself chiefly in particular patches, occasioning a sudden rise, or an insulated hill, by the additional thickness which it gives to the stratum of thered groundin these places. The principal demand for the pure white gypsum, or that faintly streaked with red, is by the potters in Staffordshire, who form their moulds with the calcined powder which it affords; only particularly fine blocks are selected for making alabaster ornaments on the turning lathe. In one of the salt pits near Droitwich, the strata sunk through, were, vegetable mould, 3 feet; red marl, 35 feet; gypsum, 40 feet; a river of brine, 22 inches; gypsum, 75 feet; a rock of salt, bored into only 5 feet, but probably extending much deeper. On the Welsh side of the Bristol channel, gypsum occurs in the red marl cliffs ofGlamorganshire, from Pennarth to Lavernock. No organic remains or metallic minerals have hitherto been found in the gypsum of this formation.

3. The most interesting gypsums in a general point of view, are certainly the tertiary, or those of the plains, or hills of comparatively modern formation. They are characterized, by the presence of fossil bones of extinct animals, bothmammiferaand birds, by shells, and a large proportion of carbonate of lime, which gives them the property of effervescing with acids, and the title of limestone gypsums. Such are the gypsums of the environs of Paris, as at the heights of Montmartre, which contain crystallized sulphate of lime in many forms, but most commonly the lenticular and lance-shaped.

Sulphate of lime occurs either as a dense compound without water, and is calledanhydritefrom that circumstance; or with combined water, which is its most ordinary state. Of the latter there are 6 sub-species; sparry gypsum or selenite in a variety of crystalline forms; the foliated granular; the compact; the fibrous; the scaly foliated; the earthy.

The prevailing colour is white, with various shades of gray, blue, red, and yellow. More or less translucent. Soft, sectile, yielding to the nail. Specific gravity 2·2. Water dissolves about one five-hundredth part of its weight of gypsum, and acquires the quality of hardness, with the characteristic selenitic taste. When exposed on red hot coals, it decrepitates, becomes white, and splits into a great many brittle plates. At the heat of a baker’s oven, or about 400° Fahr., the combined water of gypsum escapes with a species of ebullition. At a higher temperature the particles get indurated. When rightly calcined and pulverized, gypsum is mixed with water to the consistence of cream, and poured into moulds by the manufacturers of stucco ornaments and statues. A species of rapid crystallization ensues, and the thin paste soon acquires a solid consistence, which is increased by drying the figure in proper stoves. During the consolidation of the plaster, its volume expands into the finest lines of the mould, so as to give a sharp and faithful impression.

The plaster stone of the Paris basin contains about 12per cent.of carbonate of lime. This body, ground and mixed with water, forms an adhesive mortar much used in building, as it fixes very speedily. Works executed with pure gypsum never become so hard as those made with the calcareous kind; and hence it might be proper to add a certain portion of white slaked lime to our calcined gypsum, in order to give the stucco this valuable property. Coloured stuccos of great solidity are made by adding to a clear solution of glue, any desired colouring tincture, and mixing-in the proper quantity of the calcined calcareous gypsum.

The compact, fine-grained gypseous alabaster is often cut into various ornamental figures, such as vases, statuary groups, &c., which take a high polish and look beautiful, but from their softness are easily injured, and require to be kept enclosed within a glass shade.

In America and France, the virtues of gypsum in fertilizing land have been highly extolled, but they have not been realized in the trials made in this kingdom.

Pure gypsum consists of lime 28; sulphuric acid 40; water 18; which are the respective weights of its prime equivalent parts.

M. Gay Lussac, in a short notice, in theAnnales de Chimiefor April 1829, on the setting of gypsum, says that the purest plasters are those that harden least, and that the addition of lime is of no use towards promoting their solidity, nor can the heat proper for boiling gypsum ever expel the carbonic acid gas from the calcareous carbonate present in the gypsum of Montmartre. He conceives that ahardplaster-stone having lost its water, will resume more solidity in returning to its first state, than a plaster-stone naturally tender or soft; and that it is the primitive molecular arrangement which is regenerated. SeeAlabaster.

HADE; signifies among English miners, the inclination, or deviation from the vertical, of any mineral vein.

HAIR; (Cheveu,Crin, Fr.;Haar, Germ.) is of all animal products, the one least liable to spontaneous change. It can be dissolved in water only at a temperature somewhat above 230° F., in a Papin’s digester, but it appears to be partially decomposed by this heat, since some sulphuretted hydrogen is disengaged. By dry distillation, hair gives off several sulphuretted gases, while the residuum contains sulphate of lime, common salt, much silica, with some oxide of iron and manganese. It is a remarkable fact that fair hair affords magnesia, instead of these latter two oxides. Horse-hair yields about 12 per cent. of phosphate of lime.Hairs are tubular, their cavities being filled with a fat oil, having the same colour with themselves. Hair plunged in chlorine gas, is immediately decomposed and converted into a viscid mass; but when immersed in weak aqueous chlorine, it undergoes no change, except a little bleaching. The application of nitrate of mercury to hairy skins in the process ofsecrétage, is explained underPeltry.For the dyeing of horse-hair, see thenext article.Living hairs are rendered black by applying to them for a short time, a paste made by mixing litharge, slaked lime, and bicarbonate of potash, in various proportions, according to the shade of colour desired.We have no recent analysis of hair. Vauquelin found nine different substances in black hair; in red hair, a red oil instead of a greenish-black one.The salts of mercury, lead, bismuth, as well as their oxides, blacken hair, or make it of a dark violet, by the formation, most probably, of metallic sulphurets.Hair as an object of manufactures is of two kinds, thecurlyand thestraight. The former, which is short, is spun into a cord, and boiled in this state, to give it the tortuous springy form. The long straight hair is woven into cloth for sieves, and also for ornamental purposes, as in the damask-hair cloth of chair bottoms. For this purpose the hair may be dyed in the following way.Forty pounds of tail hair about 26 inches long are steeped in lime water during twelve hours. Then a bath is made with a decoction of 20 pounds of logwood, kept boiling for three hours, after which time the fire is withdrawn from the boiler, and ten ounces of copperas are introduced, stirred about, and the hair is immersed, having been washed from the lime in river water. The hair should remain in this cooling bath for 24 hours, when the operation will be finished. For other colours, see the respective dyes.TempletThe looms for weaving hair differ from the common ones, only in the templet and the shuttle. Two templets of iron must be used to keep the stuff equably, but lightly stretched. These templets, of which one is represented infig.532., are constructed in the shape of flat pincers; the jawsC Cbeing furnished with teeth inside. A screwD, binds the jaws together, and hinders the selvage from going inwards. Upon the side cross beam of the loom, seen in section atI, a bolt is fixed which carries a nutFat its end, into which a screwed iron rodEenters, on one of whose ends is the handleB. The other extremity of the screwEis adapted by a washer and pin to the back of the pincers at the pointH, so that by turning the handle to the right or the left, we draw onwards or push backwards the pincers and the stuff at pleasure. The warp of the web is made of black linen yarn. The weft is of hair, and it is thrown with a long hooked shuttle; or a long rod, having a catch hook at its end. The length of this shuttle is about 3 feet; its breadth half an inch, and its thickness one sixth. It is made of box-wood. The reed is of polished steel; the thread warps are conducted through it in the usual way. The workman passes this shuttle between the hairs of the warp with one hand, when the shed or shuttle way is opened by the treddles; a child placed on one side of the loom presents a hair to the weaver near the selvage, who catches it with the hook of his shuttle, and by drawing it out passes it through the warp. The hairs are placed in a bundle on the side where the child stands, in a chest filled with water to keep them moist, for otherwise they would not have the suppleness requisite to form a web. Each time that a hair is thrown across, the batten is driven home twice. The warp is dressed withpaste in the usual way. The hair cloth after it is woven, is hot calendered to give it lustre.

Hairs are tubular, their cavities being filled with a fat oil, having the same colour with themselves. Hair plunged in chlorine gas, is immediately decomposed and converted into a viscid mass; but when immersed in weak aqueous chlorine, it undergoes no change, except a little bleaching. The application of nitrate of mercury to hairy skins in the process ofsecrétage, is explained underPeltry.

For the dyeing of horse-hair, see thenext article.

Living hairs are rendered black by applying to them for a short time, a paste made by mixing litharge, slaked lime, and bicarbonate of potash, in various proportions, according to the shade of colour desired.

We have no recent analysis of hair. Vauquelin found nine different substances in black hair; in red hair, a red oil instead of a greenish-black one.

The salts of mercury, lead, bismuth, as well as their oxides, blacken hair, or make it of a dark violet, by the formation, most probably, of metallic sulphurets.

Hair as an object of manufactures is of two kinds, thecurlyand thestraight. The former, which is short, is spun into a cord, and boiled in this state, to give it the tortuous springy form. The long straight hair is woven into cloth for sieves, and also for ornamental purposes, as in the damask-hair cloth of chair bottoms. For this purpose the hair may be dyed in the following way.

Forty pounds of tail hair about 26 inches long are steeped in lime water during twelve hours. Then a bath is made with a decoction of 20 pounds of logwood, kept boiling for three hours, after which time the fire is withdrawn from the boiler, and ten ounces of copperas are introduced, stirred about, and the hair is immersed, having been washed from the lime in river water. The hair should remain in this cooling bath for 24 hours, when the operation will be finished. For other colours, see the respective dyes.

Templet

The looms for weaving hair differ from the common ones, only in the templet and the shuttle. Two templets of iron must be used to keep the stuff equably, but lightly stretched. These templets, of which one is represented infig.532., are constructed in the shape of flat pincers; the jawsC Cbeing furnished with teeth inside. A screwD, binds the jaws together, and hinders the selvage from going inwards. Upon the side cross beam of the loom, seen in section atI, a bolt is fixed which carries a nutFat its end, into which a screwed iron rodEenters, on one of whose ends is the handleB. The other extremity of the screwEis adapted by a washer and pin to the back of the pincers at the pointH, so that by turning the handle to the right or the left, we draw onwards or push backwards the pincers and the stuff at pleasure. The warp of the web is made of black linen yarn. The weft is of hair, and it is thrown with a long hooked shuttle; or a long rod, having a catch hook at its end. The length of this shuttle is about 3 feet; its breadth half an inch, and its thickness one sixth. It is made of box-wood. The reed is of polished steel; the thread warps are conducted through it in the usual way. The workman passes this shuttle between the hairs of the warp with one hand, when the shed or shuttle way is opened by the treddles; a child placed on one side of the loom presents a hair to the weaver near the selvage, who catches it with the hook of his shuttle, and by drawing it out passes it through the warp. The hairs are placed in a bundle on the side where the child stands, in a chest filled with water to keep them moist, for otherwise they would not have the suppleness requisite to form a web. Each time that a hair is thrown across, the batten is driven home twice. The warp is dressed withpaste in the usual way. The hair cloth after it is woven, is hot calendered to give it lustre.

HAIR PENCILS OR BRUSHES for painting. Two sorts are made; those with coarse hair, as that of the swine, the wild boar, the dog, &c., which are attached usually to short wooden rods as handles; these are commonly calledbrushes; and hair pencils properly so called, which are composed of very fine hairs, as of the minever, the marten, the badger, the polecat, &c. These are mounted in a quill when they are small or of moderate size, but when larger than a quill, they are mounted in white-iron tubes.The most essential quality of a good pencil is to form a fine point, so that all the hairs without exception may be united when they are moistened by laying them upon the tongue, or drawing them through the lips. When hairs present the form of an elongated cone in a pencil, their point only can be used. The whole difficulty consists after the hairs are cleansed, in arranging them together so that all their points may lie in the same horizontal plane. We must wash the tails of the animals whose hairs are to be used, by scouring them in a solution of alum till they be quite free from grease, and then steeping them for 24 hours in luke-warm water. We next squeeze out the water by pressing them strongly from the root to the tip, in order to lay the hairs as smooth as possible. They are to be dried with pressure in linen cloths, combed in the longitudinal direction, with a very fine-toothed comb, finally wrapped up in fine linen, and dried. When perfectly dry, the hairs are seized with pincers, cut across close to the skin, and arranged in separate heaps, according to their respective lengths.Each of these little heaps is placed separately, one after the other, in small tin pans with flat bottoms, with the tips of the hair upwards. On striking the bottom of the pan slightly upon a table, the hairs get arranged parallel to each other, and their delicate points rise more or less according to their lengths. The longer ones are to be picked out and made into so many separate parcels, whereby each parcel may be composed of equally long hairs. The perfection of the pencil depends upon this equality; the tapering point being produced simply by the attenuation of the tips.A pinch of one of these parcels is then taken, of a thickness corresponding to the intended size of the pencil; it is set in a little tin pan, with its tips undermost, and is shaken by striking the pan on the table as before. The root end of the hairs being tied by the fisherman’s or seaman’s knot, with a fine thread, it is taken out of the pan, and then hooped with stronger thread or twine; the knots being drawn very tight by means of two little sticks. The distance from the tips at which these ligatures are placed, is of course relative to the nature of the hair, and the desired length of the pencil. The base of the pencil must be trimmed flat with a pair of scissors.Nothing now remains to be done but to mount the pencils in quill or tin-plate tubes as above described. The quills are those of swans, geese, ducks, lapwings, pigeons, or larks, according to the size of the pencil. They are steeped during 24 hours in water, to swell and soften them, and to prevent the chance of their splitting when the hair brush is pressed into them. The brush of hair is introduced by its tips into the large end of the cut quill, having previously drawn them to a point with the lips, when it is pushed forwards with a wire of the same diameter, till it comes out at the other and narrower end of the quill.The smaller the pencils, the finer ought the hairs to be. In this respect, the manufacture requires much delicacy of tact and experience. It is said, that there are only four first-rate hands among all the dexterous pencil-makers of Paris, and that these are principally women.

The most essential quality of a good pencil is to form a fine point, so that all the hairs without exception may be united when they are moistened by laying them upon the tongue, or drawing them through the lips. When hairs present the form of an elongated cone in a pencil, their point only can be used. The whole difficulty consists after the hairs are cleansed, in arranging them together so that all their points may lie in the same horizontal plane. We must wash the tails of the animals whose hairs are to be used, by scouring them in a solution of alum till they be quite free from grease, and then steeping them for 24 hours in luke-warm water. We next squeeze out the water by pressing them strongly from the root to the tip, in order to lay the hairs as smooth as possible. They are to be dried with pressure in linen cloths, combed in the longitudinal direction, with a very fine-toothed comb, finally wrapped up in fine linen, and dried. When perfectly dry, the hairs are seized with pincers, cut across close to the skin, and arranged in separate heaps, according to their respective lengths.

Each of these little heaps is placed separately, one after the other, in small tin pans with flat bottoms, with the tips of the hair upwards. On striking the bottom of the pan slightly upon a table, the hairs get arranged parallel to each other, and their delicate points rise more or less according to their lengths. The longer ones are to be picked out and made into so many separate parcels, whereby each parcel may be composed of equally long hairs. The perfection of the pencil depends upon this equality; the tapering point being produced simply by the attenuation of the tips.

A pinch of one of these parcels is then taken, of a thickness corresponding to the intended size of the pencil; it is set in a little tin pan, with its tips undermost, and is shaken by striking the pan on the table as before. The root end of the hairs being tied by the fisherman’s or seaman’s knot, with a fine thread, it is taken out of the pan, and then hooped with stronger thread or twine; the knots being drawn very tight by means of two little sticks. The distance from the tips at which these ligatures are placed, is of course relative to the nature of the hair, and the desired length of the pencil. The base of the pencil must be trimmed flat with a pair of scissors.

Nothing now remains to be done but to mount the pencils in quill or tin-plate tubes as above described. The quills are those of swans, geese, ducks, lapwings, pigeons, or larks, according to the size of the pencil. They are steeped during 24 hours in water, to swell and soften them, and to prevent the chance of their splitting when the hair brush is pressed into them. The brush of hair is introduced by its tips into the large end of the cut quill, having previously drawn them to a point with the lips, when it is pushed forwards with a wire of the same diameter, till it comes out at the other and narrower end of the quill.

The smaller the pencils, the finer ought the hairs to be. In this respect, the manufacture requires much delicacy of tact and experience. It is said, that there are only four first-rate hands among all the dexterous pencil-makers of Paris, and that these are principally women.

HALOGENE; is a term employed by Berzelius to designate those substances which form compounds of a saline nature, by their union with metals; such areBromine,Chlorine,Cyanogene,Fluorine,Iodine.Haloidis his name of the salt thereby formed.

HANDSPIKE, is a strong wooden bar, used as a lever to move the windlass and capstan in heaving up the anchor, or raising any heavy weights on board a ship. The handle is smooth, round, and somewhat taper; the other end is squared to fit the holes in the head of the capstan or barrel of the windlass.

HARDNESS (Dureté, Fr.;Härte,Festigkeit, Germ.); is that modification of cohesive attraction which enables bodies to resist any effort made to abrade their surfaces. Its relative intensity is measured by the power they possess of cutting or scratching other substances. The following table exhibits pretty nearly the successive hardnesses of the several bodies in the list:—Substances.Hardness.Sp. Grav.Diamond from Ormus203·7Pink diamond193·4Bluish diamond193·3Yellowish diamond193·3Cubic diamond183·2Ruby174·2Pale ruby from Brazil163·5Deep blue sapphire163·8Ditto, paler173·8Topaz154·2Whitish topaz143·5Ruby spinell133·4Bohemian topaz112·8Emerald122·8Garnet124·4Agate122·6Onyx122·6Sardonyx122·6Occidental amethyst112·7Crystal112·6Cornelian112·7Green jasper112·7Reddish yellow do.92·6Schoerl103·6Tourmaline103·0Quartz102·7Opal102·6Chrysolite103·7Zeolite82·1Fluor73·5Calcareous spar62·7Gypsum52·3Chalk32·7

HARTSHORN, SPIRIT OF; is the old name for water ofammonia.

HATCHING OF CHICKENS; seeIncubation, Artificial.

HAT MANUFACTURE. (L’art de Chapelier, Fr.;Hutmacherkunst, Germ.) Hat is the name of a piece of dress worn upon the head by both sexes, but principally by the men, and seems to have been first introduced as a distinction among the ecclesiastics in the 12th century, though it was not till the year 1400 that it was generally adopted by respectable laymen.As the art of making common hats does not involve the description of any curious machinery, or any interesting processes, we shall not enter into very minute details upon the subject. It will be sufficient to convey to the reader a general idea of the methods employed in this manufacture.The materials used in making stuff hats are the furs of hares and rabbits freed from the long hair, together with wool and beaver. The beaver is reserved for the finer hats. The fur is first laid upon a hurdle made of wood or wire, with longitudinal openings; and the operator, by means of an instrument called the bow, (which is a piece of elastic ash, six or seven feet long, with a catgut stretched between its two extremities, and made to vibrate by a bowstick,) causes the vibrating string to strike and play upon the fur, so as to scatter the fibres in all directions, while the dust and filth descend through the grids of the hurdle.After the fur is thus driven by the bow from the one end of the hurdle to the other, it forms a mass called abat, which is only half the quantity sufficient for a hat. The bat orcapadethus formed is rendered compact by pressing it down with thehardening skin, (a piece of half-tanned leather,) and the union of the fibres is increased by covering them with a cloth, while the workman presses them together repeatedly with his hands. The cloth being taken off, a piece of paper, with its corners doubled in, so as to give it a triangular outline, is laid above the bat. The opposite edges of the bat are then folded over the paper, and being brought together and pressed again with the hands, they form a conical cap. This cap is next laid upon another bat, ready hardened, so that the joinededges of the first bat rest upon the new one. This new bat is folded over the other, and its edges joined by pressure as before; so that the joining of the first conical cap is opposite to that of the second. This compound bat is now wrought with the hands for a considerable time upon the hurdle between folds of linen cloth, being occasionally sprinkled with clear water, till the hat is basoned or rendered tolerably firm.Wooden receiverThe cap is now taken to a wooden receiver, like a very flat mill-hopper, consisting of eight wooden planes, sloping gently to the centre, which contains a kettle filled with water acidulated with sulphuric acid. The technical name of this vessel is thebattery. It consists of a kettleA; and of the planks,B C, which are sloping planes, usually eight in number, one being allotted to each workman. The half of each plank next the kettle is made of lead, the upper half of mahogany. In this liquor the hat is occasionally dipped, and wrought by the hands, or sometimes with a roller, upon the sloping planks. It is thus fulled or thickened during four or five hours; the knots or hard substances are picked out by the workman, and fresh felt is added by means of a wet brush to those parts that require it. The beaver is applied at the end of this operation. In the manufacture of beaver hats, the grounds of beer are added to the liquor in the kettle.Stopping, or thickening the thin spots, seen by looking through the body, is performed by daubing on additional stuff with successive applications of the hot acidulous liquor from a brush dipped into the kettle, until the body be sufficiently shrunk and made uniform. After drying, it is stiffened with varnish composition rubbed in with a brush; the inside surface being more copiously imbued with it than the outer; while the brim is peculiarly charged with the stiffening.When once more dried, the body is ready to becovered, which is done at thebattery. The first cover of beaver or napping, which has been previouslybowed, is strewed equably over the body, and patted on with a brush moistened with the hot liquor, until it gets incorporated; the cut ends towards the root, being the points which spontaneously intrude. The body is now put into a coarse hair cloth, then dipped and rolled in the hot liquor, until the root ends of the beaver are thoroughly worked in. This is technically called rolling off, orroughing. A strip for the brim, round the edge of the inside, is treated in the same way; whereby every thing is ready for the second cover (of beaver), which is incorporated in like manner; the rolling, &c. being continued, till a uniform, close, and well-felted hood is formed.The hat is now ready to receive its proper shape. For this purpose the workman turns up the edge or brim to the depth of about 11⁄2inch, and then returns the point of the cone back again through the axis of the cap, so as to produce another inner fold of the same depth. A third fold is produced by returning the point of the cone, and so on till the point resembles a flat circular piece having a number of concentric folds. In this state it is laid upon the plank, and wetted with the liquor. The workman pulls out the point with his fingers, and presses it down with his hand, turning it at the same time round on its centre upon the plank, till a flat portion, equal to the crown of the hat, is rubbed out. This flat crown is now placed upon a block, and, by pressing a string called acommander, down the sides of the block, he forces the parts adjacent to the crown, to assume a cylindrical figure. The brim now appears like a puckered appendage round the cylindrical cone; but the proper figure is next given to it, by working and rubbing it. The body is rendered waterproof and stiff by being imbued with a varnish composed of shellac, sandarach, mastic, and other resins dissolved in alcohol or naphtha.The hat being dried, its nap is raised or loosened with a wire brush or card, and sometimes it is previously pounced or rubbed with pumice, to take off the coarser parts, and afterwards rubbed over with seal-skin. The hat is now tied with pack-thread upon its block, and is afterwards dyed. SeeHat-dyeing,infra.The dyed hats are now removed to the stiffening shop. Beer grounds are next applied on the inside of the crown, for the purpose of preventing the glue from coming through; and when the beer grounds are dried, glue, (gum Senegal is sometimes used,) a little thinner than that used by carpenters, is laid with a brush on the inside of the crown, and the lower surface of the brim.The hat is then softened by exposure to steam, on the steaming basin, and is brushed and ironed till it receives the proper gloss. It is lastly cut round at the brim by a knife fixed at the end of a gauge, which rests against the crown. The brim, however, is notcut entirely through, but is torn off so as to leave an edging of beaver round the external rim of the hat. The crown being tied up in a gauze paper, which is neatly ironed down, is then ready for the last operations of lining and binding.The furs and wools of which hats are manufactured contain in their early stage of preparation,hempsandhairs, which must be removed in order to produce a material for the better description of hats. This separation is effected by a sort of winnowing machine, which wafts away the finer and lighter parts of the furs and wools from the coarser. Messrs. Parker and Harris obtained a patent in 1822 for the invention and use of such an apparatus, whose structure and functions may be perfectly understood, from its analogy to the blowing and scutching machine of the cotton manufacture; to which I therefore refer my readers.I shall now proceed to describe some of the recent improvements proposed in the manufacture of hats, but their introduction is scarcely possible, on account of the perfectly organized combination which exists among journeymen hatters throughout the kingdom, by which the masters are held in a state of complete servitude, having no power to take a single apprentice into their works beyond the number specified by theUnion, nor any sort of machine which is likely to supersede hand labour in any remarkable degree. Hence the hat trade is, generally speaking, unproductive to the capitalist, and incapable of receiving any considerable development. The public of a free country like this, ought to counteract this disgraceful state of things, by renouncing the wear of stuff hats, a branch of the business entirely under the controul of this despoticUnion, and betake themselves to the use of silk hats, which, from recent improvements in their fabric and dyeing, are not a whit inferior to the beaver hats, in comfort, appearance, or durability, while they may be had of the best quality for one-fourth part of their price.Ollerenshaw's machineThe annexed figures represent Mr. Ollerenshaw’s machine, now generally employed for ironing hats.Fig.534.is the frame-work or standard upon which three of these lathes are mounted, asA,B,C. The latheAis intended to be employed when the crown of the hat is to be ironed. The latheB, when the flat top, and the upper side of the brim is ironed, and latheC, when its under side is ironed; motion being given to the whole by means of a band passing from any first mover (as a steam-engine, water-wheel, &c.) to the drum on the main shafta a. From this drum a strap passes over the riggerb, which actuates the axle of the latheA. On to this lathe a sort of chuck is screwed, and to the chuck the blockcis made fast by screws, bolts, or pins. This block is represented in section, in order to shew the manner in which it is made, of several pieces held fast by the centre wedge-piece, as seen atfig.535.BlockThe hat-block being made to turn round with the chuck, at the rate of about twenty turns per minute, but in the opposite direction to the revolution of an ordinary turning lathe, the workman applies his hot iron to the surface of the hat, and thereby smooths it, giving a beautiful glossy appearance to the beaver; he then applies a plush cushion, and rubs round the surface of the hat while it is still revolving. The hat, with its block, is now removed to the lathB, where it is placed upon the chuckd, and made to turn in a horizontal direction, at the rate of about twenty revolutions per minute, for the purpose of ironing the flat-top of the crown. This latheBmoves upon an upright shafte, and is actuated by a twisted band passing from the main shaft, round theriggerf. In order to iron the upper surface of the brim, the blockcis removed from the lathe, and taken out of the hat, when the blockfig.536.is mounted upon the chuckd, and made to turn under the hand of the workman, as before.RimThe hat is now to be removed to the latheC, where it is introduced in an inverted position, between the armsg gsupporting the rimh h, the top surface of which is shewn atfig.537.The spindleiof the lathe turns by similar means to the last, but slower; only ten turns per minute will be sufficient. The workman now smooths the under side of the brim, by drawing the iron across it, that is from the centre outwards. The hat is then carefully examined, and all the burs and coarse hairs picked out, after which the smoothing process is performed as before, and the dressing of the hat is complete.Messrs. Gillman and Wilson, of Manchester, obtained a patent, in 1823, for a peculiar kind of fabric to be made of cotton, or a mixture of cotton and silk, for the covering of hats and bonnets, in imitation of beaver. The foundation of the hat may be of felt, hemp, wool, which is to be covered, by the patent fabric. This debased article does not seem to have got into use; cotton, from its want of the felting property and inelasticity, being very ill-adapted for making hat-stuff.A more ingenious invention of John Gibson, hatter, in Glasgow, consisting of an elastic fabric of whalebone, was made the subject of a patent, in June, 1824. The whalebone, being separated into threads no larger than hay stalks, is to be boiled in some alkaline liquid for removing the oil from it, and rendering it more elastic. The longest threads are to be employed for warp, the shorter for weft; and are to be woven in a hair-cloth loom. This fabric is to be passed between rollers, after which it is fit to be cut out into forms for making hats and bonnets, to be sewed together at the joints, and stiffened with a preparation of resinous varnishes, to prevent its being acted upon by perspiration or rain. A very considerable improvement in the lightness and elasticity of silk hats has been the result of this invention.The foundation of men’s hats, upon whose outside the beaver, down, or other fine fur is laid to produce a nap, is, as I have described, usually made of wool felted together by hand, and formed first into conical caps, which are afterwards stretched and moulded upon blocks to the desired shape. Mr. Borradaile, of Bucklersbury, obtained a patent in November 1825, for a machine, invented by a foreigner, for setting up hat bodies, which seems to be ingeniously contrived; but I shall decline describing it, as it has probably not been suffered by theUnionto come into practical operation, and as I shall presently give the details of another later invention for the same purpose.Silk hats, for several years after they were manufactured, were liable to two objections; first, the body or shell over which the silk covering is laid, was, from its hardness, apt to hurt the head; second, the edge of the crown being much exposed to blows, the silk nap soon got abraded, so as to lay bare the cotton foundation, which is not capable of taking so fine a black die as the silk; whence the hat assumed a shabby appearance. Messrs. Mayhew and White, of London, hat-manufacturers, proposed in their patent of February, 1826, to remedy these defects, by making the hat body of stuff or wool, and relieving the stiffness of the inner part round the brim, by attaching a coating of beaver upon the under side of the brim, so as to render the hat pliable. Round the edge of the tip or crown, a quantity of what is called stop wool is to be attached by the ordinary operation of bowing, which will render the edge soft and elastic. The hat is to be afterwards dyed of a good black colour, both outside and inside; and being then properly stiffened and blocked, is ready for the covering of silk.The plush employed for covering silk hats, is a raised nap or pile woven usually upon a cotton foundation; and the cotton, being incapable of receiving the same brilliant black dye as the silk, renders the hat apt to turn brown whenever the silk nap is partially worn off. The patentees proposed to counteract this evil, by making the foundation of the plush entirely of silk. To these two improvements, now pretty generally introduced, the present excellence of the silk hats, may be, in a good measure, ascribed.The apparatus above alluded to, for making the foundations of hats by the aid of mechanism, was rendered the subject of a patent, by Mr. Williams, in September, 1826; but I fear it has never obtained a footing, nor even a fair trial in our manufactures, on account of the hostility of the operatives to all labour-saving machines.Carding engineFig. 538 enlarged(122 kB)Fig.538.is a side view of the carding engine, with a horizontal or plan view of the lower part of the carding machine, shewing the operative parts of the winding apparatus, as connected to the carding engine. The doffer cylinder is covered with fillets of wire cards, such as are usually employed in carding engines, and these fillets are divided into two, three, or more spaces extending round the periphery of the cylinder, the object of which division is to separate the sliver into two, three, or more breadths, which are to be conducted to, and wound upon distinct blocks, for making so many separate hats or caps.The principal cylinder of the carding engine, is made to revolve by a rigger upon its axle, actuated by a band from any first mover as usual, and the subordinate rollers or cylinders belonging to the carding engine, are all turned by pullies, and bands, and geer, as in the ordinary construction.The wool or other material is supplied to the feeding cloth, and carried through the engine to the doffer cylinder, as in other carding engines; the doffer comb is actuated by a revolving crank in the common way, and by means of it the slivers are taken from the doffer cylinder, and thence received on to the surfaces of the blockse e. These blocks, of which two only are shewn to prevent confusion, are mounted upon axles, supported by suitable bearings in a carriagef f, and are made to revolve by means of a bandg g, leading from a pulley on the axle of a conical drum beneath. The bandgpasses over a pulleyh, affixed to the axle of one of the blocks, while another pulleyi, upon the same axle, gives motion, by means of a band, to as many other blocks as are adapted to the machine.As it is necessary in winding the slivers on to the blocks, to cross them in different directions, and also to pass the sliver over the hemispherical ends of the blocks, in order that the wool or other material may be uniformly spread over the surface in forming the cap or hood for the shell or foundation of the intended hat, the carriagef, with the blocks, is made to traverse to and fro in lateral directions upon rollers at each end.This alternating motion of the carriage is caused by a horizontal leverl l, (seen in the horizontal viewfig.538.) moving upon a fulcrum pin atm, which lever is attached to the carriage at one extremityn, and at the other end has a weighted cord which draws the side of this lever against a cam wheelo. This cam is made to revolve by means of a band and pulley, which turns the shaft and endless screwq, and this endless screw taking into a toothed wheelr, on the axle of the camo, causes the cam to revolve, the periphery of which cam running against a friction roller on the side of the leverl, causes the lever to vibrate, and the carriagef f, attached to it, to traverse to and fro upon the supporting rollers, as described. By these means the slivers are laid in oblique directions, (varying as the carriage traverses,) over the surface of the blocks.The blocks being conically formed, or of other irregular figures, it is necessary, in order to wind the slivers with uniform tension, to vary their speed according to the diameter of that part of the block which is receiving the sliver. This is effected by giving different velocities to the pulley on the axle of the conical drums, corresponding withe. There is a similar conical drumt, placed in a reverse position in the lowerpart of the frame, which is actuated by a band from any convenient part of the machine passing over a pulleyu, upon the axle oft. From the drumt, to the drums, there is a bandv, which is made to slide along the drums by the guidance of two rollers at the end of the leverl.It will now be seen that when the larger diameter of the cam wheeloforces the lever outwards, the bandvwill be guided on to the smaller part of the conical drumt, and the larger part ofs, consequently the drumswill at this time receive its slowest motion, and the bandgwill turn the blocks slower also; the reverse end of the leverl, having by the same movement, slidden the carriage into that position which causes the slivers to wind upon the larger diameter of the blocks.When the smaller diameter of the cam is acting against the side of the lever, the weighted cord draws the end of the lever to the opposite side, and the bandvwill be guided on to the larger part of the cordt, and the smaller part of the cones; consequently, the quicker movement of the bandgwill now cause the blockse eto revolve with a corresponding speed. The carriagefwill also be moved upon its rollers, to the reverse side, and the sliver of wool or other material be now wound upon the smaller parts and ends of the blocks, at which time the quicker rotation of the blocks is required. It may be here observed, that the cam wheeloshould be differently formed according to the different shaped blocks employed, so as to produce the requisite movements of the lever and carriage suited thereto.It only remains to state, that there are two heavy conical rollersw w, bearing upon the peripheries of the blockse e, which turn loosely upon their axles by the friction of contact, for the purpose of pressing the slivers of wool or other material on the blocks as it comes from the doffer cylinder of the carding engine, and when the blocks have been coated with a sufficient quantity of the sliver, the smaller end of the pressing rollers is to be raised, while the cap is withdrawn from the block. The process being continued as before, the formations of other bodies or caps is effected in the manner above described.Heated platesAfter the caps or bodies of hats, &c. are formed in the above described machine, they are folded in wet cloths, and placed upon heated plates, where they are rolled under pressure, for the purpose of being hardened.Fig.539.represents the front of three furnacesa a a, the tops of which are covered with iron platesb b b. Upon these plates, which are heated by the furnace below, or by steam, the bodies wrapped in the wet clothsc c c, are placed, and pressed upon by the flaps or coversd d d, sliding upon guide rods, to which flaps a traversing motion is given, by means of chains attached to an alternating bare e. This bar is moved by a rotatory crankf, which has its motion by pulleys from any actuating power. When any one of the flaps is turned up to remove the bodies from beneath, the chains hang loosely, and the flap remains stationary.These caps or hat bodies, after having been hardened in the manner above described, may be felted in the usual way by hand, or they are felted in a fulling mill, by the usual process employed for milling cloths, except that the hat bodies are occasionally taken out of the fulling mill, and passed between rollers, for the purpose of rendering the felt more perfect.Mr. Carey, of Basford, obtained a patent in October, 1834, for an invention of certain machinery to be employed in the manufacture of hats, which is ingenious and seems to be worthy of notice in this place. It consists in the adaptation of a system of rollers, forming a machine, by means of which the operation of roughing or plaiting of hats may be performed; that is, the beaver or other fur may be made to attach itself, and work into the felt or hat body, without the necessity of the ordinary manual operations.Roughing or plaiting machineThe accompanying drawings represent the machine in several views, for the purpose of showing the construction of all its parts.Fig.540.is a front elevation of the machine;fig.541.is a side elevation of the same;fig.542.is a longitudinal section of the machine; andfig.543.is a transverse section; the similar letters indicating the same parts in all the figures.Roughing or plaiting machineUpon a brick or other suitable base, a furnace or fire-placea, is made, having a descending flueb, for the purpose of carrying away the smoke. A pan or shallow vesselc c, formed of lead, is placed over the furnace; which vessel is intended to contain a sour liquor, as a solution of vitriolic acid and water. On the edge of this pan is erected a wooden casingd d d, which encloses three sides, leaving the fourth open for the purpose of obtaining access to the working apparatus within. A series of what may be termed lantern rollers,e e e, is mounted on axles turning in the side casings; and another series of similar lantern rollers,f f f, is in like manner mounted above. These lantern rollers are made to revolve by means of bevel pinions, fixed on the ends of their axles, which are turned by similar bevel wheels on the lateral shaftsgandh, driven by a winchi, and geer, as shown infigs.540.and541.Having prepared the bodies of the hats, and laid upon their surfaces the usual coatings of beaver, or other fur, when so prepared they are to be placed between hair cloths, and these hair cloths folded within a canvass or other suitable wrapper. Three or more hats being thus enclosed in each wrapper, the packages are severally put into bags or pockets in an endless band of sackcloth, or other suitable material; which endless band is extended over the lantern rollers in the machine.In the first instance, for the purpose of merely attaching the furs to the felts (which is called slicking, when performed by hand), Mr. Carey prefers to pass the endless bandk k k, with the covered hat bodies, over the upper seriesf f f, of the lantern rollers, in order to avoid the inconvenience of disturbing the fur, which might occur from subjecting them to immersion in the solution contained in the pan, before the fur had become attached to the bodies.After this operation of slicking has been effected, he distends the endless bandk k k, over the lower series of lantern rollerse e e, and round a carrier rollerl, as shown infig.542.; and having withdrawn the hat bodies for the purpose of examining them, and changing their folds, he packs them again in a similar way in flannel, or other suitable cloths, and introduces them into the pockets or bags of the endless bands, as before.On putting the machinery in rotatory motion in the way described, the hats will be carried along through the apparatus, and subjected to the scalding solution in the pan, as also to the pressure, and to a tortuous action between the ribs of the lantern rollers, as they revolve, which will cause the ends of the fur to work into the felted bodies of the hats, and by that means permanently to attach the nap to the body; an operation which when performed by hand, is called rolling off.The improved stiffening for hat bodies proposed by Mr. Blades, under his patent of January, 1828, consists in making his solution of shellac in an alkaline lye, instead of spirits of wine, or pyroxylic spirit, vulgarly called naphtha.He prepares his water-proof stiffening by mixing 18 pounds of shellac with 11⁄2pounds of salt of tartar (carbonate of potash), and 51⁄2gallons of water. These materials are to be put into a kettle, and made to boil gradually until the lac is dissolved; when the liquor will become as clear as water, without any scum upon the top, and if left to cool, will have a thin crust upon its surface of a whitish cast, mixed with the light impurities of the gum. When this skin is taken off, the hat body is to be dipped into the mixture in a cold state, so as to absorb as much as possible of it; or it may be applied with a brush or sponge. The hat body being thus stiffened, may stand till it become dry, or nearly so; and after it has been brushed, it must be immersed in very dilute sulphuric or acetic acid, in order to neutralize the potash, and cause the shellac toset. If the hats are not to be napped immediately, they may be thrown into a cistern of pure water, and taken out as wanted.Should the hat bodies have been worked at first with sulphuric acid (as usual), they must be soaked in hot water to extract the acid, and dried before the stiffening is applied; care being taken that no water falls upon the stiffened body, before it has been immersed in the acid.This ingenious chemical process has not been, to the best of my knowledge, introduced into the hat manufacture. A varnish made by dissolving shellac, mastic, sandarach, and other resins in alcohol, or the naphtha of wood vinegar, is generally employed as the stiffening and water-proof ingredient of hat bodies. A solution of caoutchouc is often applied to whalebone and horse-hair hat bodies.The following recipe has been prescribed as a good composition for stiffening hats: four parts of shellac, one part of mastic, one half of a part of turpentine, dissolved in five parts of alcohol, by agitation and subsequent repose, without the aid of heat. This stiffening varnish should be applied quickly to the body or foundation with a soft oblong brush, in a dry and rather warm workshop; the hat being previously fitted with its inside turned outwards upon a block. The body must be immediately afterwards taken off, to prevent adhesion.Hat-Dyeing.—The ordinary bath for dyeing hats, employed by the London manufacturers, consists for 12 dozen, of—144pounds of logwood;12pounds of green sulphate of iron, or copperas;71⁄2pounds of verdigris.The copper is usually made of a semi-cylindrical shape, and should be surrounded with an iron jacket or case, into which steam may be admitted, so as to raise the temperature of the interior bath to 190° F., but no higher, otherwise the heat is apt to affect the stiffening varnish, called the gum, with which the body of the hat has been imbued. The logwood having been introduced and digested for some time, the copperas and verdigris are added in successive quantities, and in the above proportions, along with every successive two or three dozens of hats, suspended upon the dipping machine. Each set of hats, after being exposed to the bath with occasional airings during 40 minutes, is taken off the pegs, and laid out upon the ground to be more completely blackened by the peroxidizement of the iron with the atmospheric oxygen. In 3 or 4 hours the dyeing is completed. When fully dyed, the hats are well washed in running water.Mr. Buffum states that there are four principal objects accomplished by his patent invention for dyeing hats.1. in the operation;2. the production of a better colour;3. the prevention of any of the damages to which hats are liable in the dyeing;4. the accomplishment of the dyeing process in a much shorter time than by the usual methods, and consequently lessening the injurious effects of the dye-bath upon the texture of the hat.Buffum's apparatusFig.544.shows one method of constructing the apparatus.a ais a semi-cylindrical shaped copper vessel, with flat ends, in which the dyeing process is carried on.b b bis a wheel with several circular rims mounted upon arms, which revolve upon an axlec. In the face of these rims a number of pegs or blocks are set at nearly equal distances apart, upon each of which pegs or blocks it is intended to place a hat, and as the wheelrevolves, to pass it into and out of the dyeing liquor in the vat or copper. This wheel may be kept revolving with a very slow motion, either by geer connecting its axle,c, with any moving power, or it may be turned round by hand, at intervals of ten minutes; whereby the hats hung upon the pegs, will be alternately immersed for the space of ten minutes in the dyeing liquor, and then for the same space exposed to the atmospheric air. In this way, the process of dyeing, it is supposed, may be greatly facilitated, and improved, as the occasional transition from the dye vat into the air, and from the air again into the bath, will enable the oxygen of the atmosphere to strike the dye more perfectly and expeditiously into the materials of which the hat is composed, than by a continued immersion in the bath for a much longer time.Variation on Buffum's apparatusA variation in the mode of performing this process is suggested, and the apparatusfig.545.is proposed to be employed,a ais a square vat or vessel containing the dyeing liquor;b bis a frame or rack having a number of pegs placed in it for hanging the hats upon, which are about to be dyed, in a manner similar to the wheel above described. This frame or rack is suspended by cords from a crane, and may in that way be lowered down with the hats into the vat, or drawn up and exposed in the air; changes which may be made every 10 or 20 minutes.I have seen apparatus of this kind doing good work in the hat-dyeing manufactories of London, that being a department of the business with which the Union has not thought it worth their while to interfere.Hodge's apparatusMr. William Hodge’s patent improvements in hat dyeing, partly founded upon an invention of Mr. Bowler, consist, first in causing every alternate frame to which the suspenders or blocks are to be attached, to slide in and out of grooves, for the purpose of more easily removing the said suspenders when required.Fig.546.represents the improved dyeing frame, consisting of two circular rims,a a, which are connected together at top and bottom, by three fixed perpendicular bars or the frame-workb b b. Two other perpendicular framesc c, similar to the former, slide in grooves,d d d d, fixed to the upper and lower rims. These grooves have anti-friction rollers in them, for the purpose of making the framesc c, to slide in and out more freely. The suspenders or substitutes for blocks, by these means, may be more easily got at by drawing out the framesc c, about half way, when the suspenders, which are attached to the frames with the hats upon them, may be easily reached, and either removed or altered in position; and when it is done on one side, the sliding frame may be brought out on the other, and the remaining quantity of “suspenders” undergo the same operation.The patentee remarks, that it is well known to all hat dyers, that after the hats have been in the dyeing liquor some time, they ought to be taken out and exposed to the action of the atmospheric air, when they are again immersed in the copper, that part of the hat which was uppermost in the first immersion, being placed downwards in the second. This is done for the purpose of obtaining an uniform and regular dye. The patentee’s mode of carrying this operation into effect, is shown in the figure:e eare pivots for the dyeing-frame to turn upon, which is supported by the armsf, from a crane above. The whole apparatus may be raised up or lowered into the copper by means of the crane or other mechanism. When the dyeing-frame is raised out of the copper, the whole of the suspenders or blocks are reversed, by turning the apparatus over upon the pivotse e, and thus the whole surfaces of the hats are equally acted upon by the dyeing material.It should be observed, that when the dyeing-frame is raised up out of the copper, it should be tilted on one side, so as to make all the liquor run out of the hats, as also to cause the rims of the hats to hang down, and not stick to the body of the hat, or leave a bad place or uneven dye upon it. The second improvement described by the patentee, is the construction of “suspenders,” to be substituted instead of the ordinary blocks.SuspendersThese “suspenders” are composed of thin plates of copper, bent into the required form, that is, nearly resembling that of a hat block, and made in such a manner as to be capable of contraction and expansion to suit different sized hats, and keep them distended, which may be altered by the workman at pleasure, when it is required to place the hats upon them, or remove them therefrom. The dyeing-frame atfig.546.is shown with only two of these “suspenders,” in order to prevent confusion. One of these suspenders is represented detached atfig.547., which exhibits a side view; andfig.548.a front view of the same. It will be seen by reference to the figure, that the suspenders consist of two distinct parts, which may be enlarged or collapsed by a variety of means, and which means may be suggested by any competent mechanic. The two parts of the suspenders are proposed to be connected together by armsg g, and at the junction of these arms a key is connected for turning them round when required. It will be seen on reference to the front view,fig.548., that the “suspenders” or substitutes for blocks, are open at the top or crown part of the hat; this is for the purpose of allowing the dyeing liquor to penetrate.From the mixture of copperas and verdigris employed in the hat-dye, a vast quantity of an ochreous muddy precipitate results, amounting to no less than 25 per cent. of the weight of the copperas. This iron mud forms a deposit upon the hats, which not only corrodes the fine filaments of the beaver, but causes both them and the felt stuff to turn speedily of a rusty brown. There is no process in the whole circle of our manufactures, so barbarous as that of dyeing stuff hats. No ray of chemical science seems hitherto to have penetrated the dark recesses of their dye shops. Some hatters have tried to remove this corrosive brown ochre by a bath of dilute sulphuric acid, and then counteract the evil effect of the acid upon the black dye by an alkaline bath; but with a most unhappy effect. Hats so treated are most deceptious and unprofitable; as they turn of a dirty brown hue, when exposed for a few weeks to sunshine and air.

As the art of making common hats does not involve the description of any curious machinery, or any interesting processes, we shall not enter into very minute details upon the subject. It will be sufficient to convey to the reader a general idea of the methods employed in this manufacture.

The materials used in making stuff hats are the furs of hares and rabbits freed from the long hair, together with wool and beaver. The beaver is reserved for the finer hats. The fur is first laid upon a hurdle made of wood or wire, with longitudinal openings; and the operator, by means of an instrument called the bow, (which is a piece of elastic ash, six or seven feet long, with a catgut stretched between its two extremities, and made to vibrate by a bowstick,) causes the vibrating string to strike and play upon the fur, so as to scatter the fibres in all directions, while the dust and filth descend through the grids of the hurdle.

After the fur is thus driven by the bow from the one end of the hurdle to the other, it forms a mass called abat, which is only half the quantity sufficient for a hat. The bat orcapadethus formed is rendered compact by pressing it down with thehardening skin, (a piece of half-tanned leather,) and the union of the fibres is increased by covering them with a cloth, while the workman presses them together repeatedly with his hands. The cloth being taken off, a piece of paper, with its corners doubled in, so as to give it a triangular outline, is laid above the bat. The opposite edges of the bat are then folded over the paper, and being brought together and pressed again with the hands, they form a conical cap. This cap is next laid upon another bat, ready hardened, so that the joinededges of the first bat rest upon the new one. This new bat is folded over the other, and its edges joined by pressure as before; so that the joining of the first conical cap is opposite to that of the second. This compound bat is now wrought with the hands for a considerable time upon the hurdle between folds of linen cloth, being occasionally sprinkled with clear water, till the hat is basoned or rendered tolerably firm.

Wooden receiver

The cap is now taken to a wooden receiver, like a very flat mill-hopper, consisting of eight wooden planes, sloping gently to the centre, which contains a kettle filled with water acidulated with sulphuric acid. The technical name of this vessel is thebattery. It consists of a kettleA; and of the planks,B C, which are sloping planes, usually eight in number, one being allotted to each workman. The half of each plank next the kettle is made of lead, the upper half of mahogany. In this liquor the hat is occasionally dipped, and wrought by the hands, or sometimes with a roller, upon the sloping planks. It is thus fulled or thickened during four or five hours; the knots or hard substances are picked out by the workman, and fresh felt is added by means of a wet brush to those parts that require it. The beaver is applied at the end of this operation. In the manufacture of beaver hats, the grounds of beer are added to the liquor in the kettle.

Stopping, or thickening the thin spots, seen by looking through the body, is performed by daubing on additional stuff with successive applications of the hot acidulous liquor from a brush dipped into the kettle, until the body be sufficiently shrunk and made uniform. After drying, it is stiffened with varnish composition rubbed in with a brush; the inside surface being more copiously imbued with it than the outer; while the brim is peculiarly charged with the stiffening.

When once more dried, the body is ready to becovered, which is done at thebattery. The first cover of beaver or napping, which has been previouslybowed, is strewed equably over the body, and patted on with a brush moistened with the hot liquor, until it gets incorporated; the cut ends towards the root, being the points which spontaneously intrude. The body is now put into a coarse hair cloth, then dipped and rolled in the hot liquor, until the root ends of the beaver are thoroughly worked in. This is technically called rolling off, orroughing. A strip for the brim, round the edge of the inside, is treated in the same way; whereby every thing is ready for the second cover (of beaver), which is incorporated in like manner; the rolling, &c. being continued, till a uniform, close, and well-felted hood is formed.

The hat is now ready to receive its proper shape. For this purpose the workman turns up the edge or brim to the depth of about 11⁄2inch, and then returns the point of the cone back again through the axis of the cap, so as to produce another inner fold of the same depth. A third fold is produced by returning the point of the cone, and so on till the point resembles a flat circular piece having a number of concentric folds. In this state it is laid upon the plank, and wetted with the liquor. The workman pulls out the point with his fingers, and presses it down with his hand, turning it at the same time round on its centre upon the plank, till a flat portion, equal to the crown of the hat, is rubbed out. This flat crown is now placed upon a block, and, by pressing a string called acommander, down the sides of the block, he forces the parts adjacent to the crown, to assume a cylindrical figure. The brim now appears like a puckered appendage round the cylindrical cone; but the proper figure is next given to it, by working and rubbing it. The body is rendered waterproof and stiff by being imbued with a varnish composed of shellac, sandarach, mastic, and other resins dissolved in alcohol or naphtha.

The hat being dried, its nap is raised or loosened with a wire brush or card, and sometimes it is previously pounced or rubbed with pumice, to take off the coarser parts, and afterwards rubbed over with seal-skin. The hat is now tied with pack-thread upon its block, and is afterwards dyed. SeeHat-dyeing,infra.

The dyed hats are now removed to the stiffening shop. Beer grounds are next applied on the inside of the crown, for the purpose of preventing the glue from coming through; and when the beer grounds are dried, glue, (gum Senegal is sometimes used,) a little thinner than that used by carpenters, is laid with a brush on the inside of the crown, and the lower surface of the brim.

The hat is then softened by exposure to steam, on the steaming basin, and is brushed and ironed till it receives the proper gloss. It is lastly cut round at the brim by a knife fixed at the end of a gauge, which rests against the crown. The brim, however, is notcut entirely through, but is torn off so as to leave an edging of beaver round the external rim of the hat. The crown being tied up in a gauze paper, which is neatly ironed down, is then ready for the last operations of lining and binding.

The furs and wools of which hats are manufactured contain in their early stage of preparation,hempsandhairs, which must be removed in order to produce a material for the better description of hats. This separation is effected by a sort of winnowing machine, which wafts away the finer and lighter parts of the furs and wools from the coarser. Messrs. Parker and Harris obtained a patent in 1822 for the invention and use of such an apparatus, whose structure and functions may be perfectly understood, from its analogy to the blowing and scutching machine of the cotton manufacture; to which I therefore refer my readers.

I shall now proceed to describe some of the recent improvements proposed in the manufacture of hats, but their introduction is scarcely possible, on account of the perfectly organized combination which exists among journeymen hatters throughout the kingdom, by which the masters are held in a state of complete servitude, having no power to take a single apprentice into their works beyond the number specified by theUnion, nor any sort of machine which is likely to supersede hand labour in any remarkable degree. Hence the hat trade is, generally speaking, unproductive to the capitalist, and incapable of receiving any considerable development. The public of a free country like this, ought to counteract this disgraceful state of things, by renouncing the wear of stuff hats, a branch of the business entirely under the controul of this despoticUnion, and betake themselves to the use of silk hats, which, from recent improvements in their fabric and dyeing, are not a whit inferior to the beaver hats, in comfort, appearance, or durability, while they may be had of the best quality for one-fourth part of their price.

Ollerenshaw's machine

The annexed figures represent Mr. Ollerenshaw’s machine, now generally employed for ironing hats.Fig.534.is the frame-work or standard upon which three of these lathes are mounted, asA,B,C. The latheAis intended to be employed when the crown of the hat is to be ironed. The latheB, when the flat top, and the upper side of the brim is ironed, and latheC, when its under side is ironed; motion being given to the whole by means of a band passing from any first mover (as a steam-engine, water-wheel, &c.) to the drum on the main shafta a. From this drum a strap passes over the riggerb, which actuates the axle of the latheA. On to this lathe a sort of chuck is screwed, and to the chuck the blockcis made fast by screws, bolts, or pins. This block is represented in section, in order to shew the manner in which it is made, of several pieces held fast by the centre wedge-piece, as seen atfig.535.

Block

The hat-block being made to turn round with the chuck, at the rate of about twenty turns per minute, but in the opposite direction to the revolution of an ordinary turning lathe, the workman applies his hot iron to the surface of the hat, and thereby smooths it, giving a beautiful glossy appearance to the beaver; he then applies a plush cushion, and rubs round the surface of the hat while it is still revolving. The hat, with its block, is now removed to the lathB, where it is placed upon the chuckd, and made to turn in a horizontal direction, at the rate of about twenty revolutions per minute, for the purpose of ironing the flat-top of the crown. This latheBmoves upon an upright shafte, and is actuated by a twisted band passing from the main shaft, round theriggerf. In order to iron the upper surface of the brim, the blockcis removed from the lathe, and taken out of the hat, when the blockfig.536.is mounted upon the chuckd, and made to turn under the hand of the workman, as before.

Rim

The hat is now to be removed to the latheC, where it is introduced in an inverted position, between the armsg gsupporting the rimh h, the top surface of which is shewn atfig.537.The spindleiof the lathe turns by similar means to the last, but slower; only ten turns per minute will be sufficient. The workman now smooths the under side of the brim, by drawing the iron across it, that is from the centre outwards. The hat is then carefully examined, and all the burs and coarse hairs picked out, after which the smoothing process is performed as before, and the dressing of the hat is complete.

Messrs. Gillman and Wilson, of Manchester, obtained a patent, in 1823, for a peculiar kind of fabric to be made of cotton, or a mixture of cotton and silk, for the covering of hats and bonnets, in imitation of beaver. The foundation of the hat may be of felt, hemp, wool, which is to be covered, by the patent fabric. This debased article does not seem to have got into use; cotton, from its want of the felting property and inelasticity, being very ill-adapted for making hat-stuff.

A more ingenious invention of John Gibson, hatter, in Glasgow, consisting of an elastic fabric of whalebone, was made the subject of a patent, in June, 1824. The whalebone, being separated into threads no larger than hay stalks, is to be boiled in some alkaline liquid for removing the oil from it, and rendering it more elastic. The longest threads are to be employed for warp, the shorter for weft; and are to be woven in a hair-cloth loom. This fabric is to be passed between rollers, after which it is fit to be cut out into forms for making hats and bonnets, to be sewed together at the joints, and stiffened with a preparation of resinous varnishes, to prevent its being acted upon by perspiration or rain. A very considerable improvement in the lightness and elasticity of silk hats has been the result of this invention.

The foundation of men’s hats, upon whose outside the beaver, down, or other fine fur is laid to produce a nap, is, as I have described, usually made of wool felted together by hand, and formed first into conical caps, which are afterwards stretched and moulded upon blocks to the desired shape. Mr. Borradaile, of Bucklersbury, obtained a patent in November 1825, for a machine, invented by a foreigner, for setting up hat bodies, which seems to be ingeniously contrived; but I shall decline describing it, as it has probably not been suffered by theUnionto come into practical operation, and as I shall presently give the details of another later invention for the same purpose.

Silk hats, for several years after they were manufactured, were liable to two objections; first, the body or shell over which the silk covering is laid, was, from its hardness, apt to hurt the head; second, the edge of the crown being much exposed to blows, the silk nap soon got abraded, so as to lay bare the cotton foundation, which is not capable of taking so fine a black die as the silk; whence the hat assumed a shabby appearance. Messrs. Mayhew and White, of London, hat-manufacturers, proposed in their patent of February, 1826, to remedy these defects, by making the hat body of stuff or wool, and relieving the stiffness of the inner part round the brim, by attaching a coating of beaver upon the under side of the brim, so as to render the hat pliable. Round the edge of the tip or crown, a quantity of what is called stop wool is to be attached by the ordinary operation of bowing, which will render the edge soft and elastic. The hat is to be afterwards dyed of a good black colour, both outside and inside; and being then properly stiffened and blocked, is ready for the covering of silk.

The plush employed for covering silk hats, is a raised nap or pile woven usually upon a cotton foundation; and the cotton, being incapable of receiving the same brilliant black dye as the silk, renders the hat apt to turn brown whenever the silk nap is partially worn off. The patentees proposed to counteract this evil, by making the foundation of the plush entirely of silk. To these two improvements, now pretty generally introduced, the present excellence of the silk hats, may be, in a good measure, ascribed.

The apparatus above alluded to, for making the foundations of hats by the aid of mechanism, was rendered the subject of a patent, by Mr. Williams, in September, 1826; but I fear it has never obtained a footing, nor even a fair trial in our manufactures, on account of the hostility of the operatives to all labour-saving machines.

Carding engineFig. 538 enlarged(122 kB)

Fig. 538 enlarged(122 kB)

Fig.538.is a side view of the carding engine, with a horizontal or plan view of the lower part of the carding machine, shewing the operative parts of the winding apparatus, as connected to the carding engine. The doffer cylinder is covered with fillets of wire cards, such as are usually employed in carding engines, and these fillets are divided into two, three, or more spaces extending round the periphery of the cylinder, the object of which division is to separate the sliver into two, three, or more breadths, which are to be conducted to, and wound upon distinct blocks, for making so many separate hats or caps.

The principal cylinder of the carding engine, is made to revolve by a rigger upon its axle, actuated by a band from any first mover as usual, and the subordinate rollers or cylinders belonging to the carding engine, are all turned by pullies, and bands, and geer, as in the ordinary construction.

The wool or other material is supplied to the feeding cloth, and carried through the engine to the doffer cylinder, as in other carding engines; the doffer comb is actuated by a revolving crank in the common way, and by means of it the slivers are taken from the doffer cylinder, and thence received on to the surfaces of the blockse e. These blocks, of which two only are shewn to prevent confusion, are mounted upon axles, supported by suitable bearings in a carriagef f, and are made to revolve by means of a bandg g, leading from a pulley on the axle of a conical drum beneath. The bandgpasses over a pulleyh, affixed to the axle of one of the blocks, while another pulleyi, upon the same axle, gives motion, by means of a band, to as many other blocks as are adapted to the machine.

As it is necessary in winding the slivers on to the blocks, to cross them in different directions, and also to pass the sliver over the hemispherical ends of the blocks, in order that the wool or other material may be uniformly spread over the surface in forming the cap or hood for the shell or foundation of the intended hat, the carriagef, with the blocks, is made to traverse to and fro in lateral directions upon rollers at each end.

This alternating motion of the carriage is caused by a horizontal leverl l, (seen in the horizontal viewfig.538.) moving upon a fulcrum pin atm, which lever is attached to the carriage at one extremityn, and at the other end has a weighted cord which draws the side of this lever against a cam wheelo. This cam is made to revolve by means of a band and pulley, which turns the shaft and endless screwq, and this endless screw taking into a toothed wheelr, on the axle of the camo, causes the cam to revolve, the periphery of which cam running against a friction roller on the side of the leverl, causes the lever to vibrate, and the carriagef f, attached to it, to traverse to and fro upon the supporting rollers, as described. By these means the slivers are laid in oblique directions, (varying as the carriage traverses,) over the surface of the blocks.

The blocks being conically formed, or of other irregular figures, it is necessary, in order to wind the slivers with uniform tension, to vary their speed according to the diameter of that part of the block which is receiving the sliver. This is effected by giving different velocities to the pulley on the axle of the conical drums, corresponding withe. There is a similar conical drumt, placed in a reverse position in the lowerpart of the frame, which is actuated by a band from any convenient part of the machine passing over a pulleyu, upon the axle oft. From the drumt, to the drums, there is a bandv, which is made to slide along the drums by the guidance of two rollers at the end of the leverl.

It will now be seen that when the larger diameter of the cam wheeloforces the lever outwards, the bandvwill be guided on to the smaller part of the conical drumt, and the larger part ofs, consequently the drumswill at this time receive its slowest motion, and the bandgwill turn the blocks slower also; the reverse end of the leverl, having by the same movement, slidden the carriage into that position which causes the slivers to wind upon the larger diameter of the blocks.

When the smaller diameter of the cam is acting against the side of the lever, the weighted cord draws the end of the lever to the opposite side, and the bandvwill be guided on to the larger part of the cordt, and the smaller part of the cones; consequently, the quicker movement of the bandgwill now cause the blockse eto revolve with a corresponding speed. The carriagefwill also be moved upon its rollers, to the reverse side, and the sliver of wool or other material be now wound upon the smaller parts and ends of the blocks, at which time the quicker rotation of the blocks is required. It may be here observed, that the cam wheeloshould be differently formed according to the different shaped blocks employed, so as to produce the requisite movements of the lever and carriage suited thereto.

It only remains to state, that there are two heavy conical rollersw w, bearing upon the peripheries of the blockse e, which turn loosely upon their axles by the friction of contact, for the purpose of pressing the slivers of wool or other material on the blocks as it comes from the doffer cylinder of the carding engine, and when the blocks have been coated with a sufficient quantity of the sliver, the smaller end of the pressing rollers is to be raised, while the cap is withdrawn from the block. The process being continued as before, the formations of other bodies or caps is effected in the manner above described.

Heated plates

After the caps or bodies of hats, &c. are formed in the above described machine, they are folded in wet cloths, and placed upon heated plates, where they are rolled under pressure, for the purpose of being hardened.Fig.539.represents the front of three furnacesa a a, the tops of which are covered with iron platesb b b. Upon these plates, which are heated by the furnace below, or by steam, the bodies wrapped in the wet clothsc c c, are placed, and pressed upon by the flaps or coversd d d, sliding upon guide rods, to which flaps a traversing motion is given, by means of chains attached to an alternating bare e. This bar is moved by a rotatory crankf, which has its motion by pulleys from any actuating power. When any one of the flaps is turned up to remove the bodies from beneath, the chains hang loosely, and the flap remains stationary.

These caps or hat bodies, after having been hardened in the manner above described, may be felted in the usual way by hand, or they are felted in a fulling mill, by the usual process employed for milling cloths, except that the hat bodies are occasionally taken out of the fulling mill, and passed between rollers, for the purpose of rendering the felt more perfect.

Mr. Carey, of Basford, obtained a patent in October, 1834, for an invention of certain machinery to be employed in the manufacture of hats, which is ingenious and seems to be worthy of notice in this place. It consists in the adaptation of a system of rollers, forming a machine, by means of which the operation of roughing or plaiting of hats may be performed; that is, the beaver or other fur may be made to attach itself, and work into the felt or hat body, without the necessity of the ordinary manual operations.

Roughing or plaiting machine

The accompanying drawings represent the machine in several views, for the purpose of showing the construction of all its parts.Fig.540.is a front elevation of the machine;fig.541.is a side elevation of the same;fig.542.is a longitudinal section of the machine; andfig.543.is a transverse section; the similar letters indicating the same parts in all the figures.

Roughing or plaiting machine

Upon a brick or other suitable base, a furnace or fire-placea, is made, having a descending flueb, for the purpose of carrying away the smoke. A pan or shallow vesselc c, formed of lead, is placed over the furnace; which vessel is intended to contain a sour liquor, as a solution of vitriolic acid and water. On the edge of this pan is erected a wooden casingd d d, which encloses three sides, leaving the fourth open for the purpose of obtaining access to the working apparatus within. A series of what may be termed lantern rollers,e e e, is mounted on axles turning in the side casings; and another series of similar lantern rollers,f f f, is in like manner mounted above. These lantern rollers are made to revolve by means of bevel pinions, fixed on the ends of their axles, which are turned by similar bevel wheels on the lateral shaftsgandh, driven by a winchi, and geer, as shown infigs.540.and541.

Having prepared the bodies of the hats, and laid upon their surfaces the usual coatings of beaver, or other fur, when so prepared they are to be placed between hair cloths, and these hair cloths folded within a canvass or other suitable wrapper. Three or more hats being thus enclosed in each wrapper, the packages are severally put into bags or pockets in an endless band of sackcloth, or other suitable material; which endless band is extended over the lantern rollers in the machine.

In the first instance, for the purpose of merely attaching the furs to the felts (which is called slicking, when performed by hand), Mr. Carey prefers to pass the endless bandk k k, with the covered hat bodies, over the upper seriesf f f, of the lantern rollers, in order to avoid the inconvenience of disturbing the fur, which might occur from subjecting them to immersion in the solution contained in the pan, before the fur had become attached to the bodies.

After this operation of slicking has been effected, he distends the endless bandk k k, over the lower series of lantern rollerse e e, and round a carrier rollerl, as shown infig.542.; and having withdrawn the hat bodies for the purpose of examining them, and changing their folds, he packs them again in a similar way in flannel, or other suitable cloths, and introduces them into the pockets or bags of the endless bands, as before.

On putting the machinery in rotatory motion in the way described, the hats will be carried along through the apparatus, and subjected to the scalding solution in the pan, as also to the pressure, and to a tortuous action between the ribs of the lantern rollers, as they revolve, which will cause the ends of the fur to work into the felted bodies of the hats, and by that means permanently to attach the nap to the body; an operation which when performed by hand, is called rolling off.

The improved stiffening for hat bodies proposed by Mr. Blades, under his patent of January, 1828, consists in making his solution of shellac in an alkaline lye, instead of spirits of wine, or pyroxylic spirit, vulgarly called naphtha.

He prepares his water-proof stiffening by mixing 18 pounds of shellac with 11⁄2pounds of salt of tartar (carbonate of potash), and 51⁄2gallons of water. These materials are to be put into a kettle, and made to boil gradually until the lac is dissolved; when the liquor will become as clear as water, without any scum upon the top, and if left to cool, will have a thin crust upon its surface of a whitish cast, mixed with the light impurities of the gum. When this skin is taken off, the hat body is to be dipped into the mixture in a cold state, so as to absorb as much as possible of it; or it may be applied with a brush or sponge. The hat body being thus stiffened, may stand till it become dry, or nearly so; and after it has been brushed, it must be immersed in very dilute sulphuric or acetic acid, in order to neutralize the potash, and cause the shellac toset. If the hats are not to be napped immediately, they may be thrown into a cistern of pure water, and taken out as wanted.

Should the hat bodies have been worked at first with sulphuric acid (as usual), they must be soaked in hot water to extract the acid, and dried before the stiffening is applied; care being taken that no water falls upon the stiffened body, before it has been immersed in the acid.

This ingenious chemical process has not been, to the best of my knowledge, introduced into the hat manufacture. A varnish made by dissolving shellac, mastic, sandarach, and other resins in alcohol, or the naphtha of wood vinegar, is generally employed as the stiffening and water-proof ingredient of hat bodies. A solution of caoutchouc is often applied to whalebone and horse-hair hat bodies.

The following recipe has been prescribed as a good composition for stiffening hats: four parts of shellac, one part of mastic, one half of a part of turpentine, dissolved in five parts of alcohol, by agitation and subsequent repose, without the aid of heat. This stiffening varnish should be applied quickly to the body or foundation with a soft oblong brush, in a dry and rather warm workshop; the hat being previously fitted with its inside turned outwards upon a block. The body must be immediately afterwards taken off, to prevent adhesion.

Hat-Dyeing.—The ordinary bath for dyeing hats, employed by the London manufacturers, consists for 12 dozen, of—

The copper is usually made of a semi-cylindrical shape, and should be surrounded with an iron jacket or case, into which steam may be admitted, so as to raise the temperature of the interior bath to 190° F., but no higher, otherwise the heat is apt to affect the stiffening varnish, called the gum, with which the body of the hat has been imbued. The logwood having been introduced and digested for some time, the copperas and verdigris are added in successive quantities, and in the above proportions, along with every successive two or three dozens of hats, suspended upon the dipping machine. Each set of hats, after being exposed to the bath with occasional airings during 40 minutes, is taken off the pegs, and laid out upon the ground to be more completely blackened by the peroxidizement of the iron with the atmospheric oxygen. In 3 or 4 hours the dyeing is completed. When fully dyed, the hats are well washed in running water.

Mr. Buffum states that there are four principal objects accomplished by his patent invention for dyeing hats.

1. in the operation;

2. the production of a better colour;

3. the prevention of any of the damages to which hats are liable in the dyeing;

4. the accomplishment of the dyeing process in a much shorter time than by the usual methods, and consequently lessening the injurious effects of the dye-bath upon the texture of the hat.

Buffum's apparatus

Fig.544.shows one method of constructing the apparatus.a ais a semi-cylindrical shaped copper vessel, with flat ends, in which the dyeing process is carried on.b b bis a wheel with several circular rims mounted upon arms, which revolve upon an axlec. In the face of these rims a number of pegs or blocks are set at nearly equal distances apart, upon each of which pegs or blocks it is intended to place a hat, and as the wheelrevolves, to pass it into and out of the dyeing liquor in the vat or copper. This wheel may be kept revolving with a very slow motion, either by geer connecting its axle,c, with any moving power, or it may be turned round by hand, at intervals of ten minutes; whereby the hats hung upon the pegs, will be alternately immersed for the space of ten minutes in the dyeing liquor, and then for the same space exposed to the atmospheric air. In this way, the process of dyeing, it is supposed, may be greatly facilitated, and improved, as the occasional transition from the dye vat into the air, and from the air again into the bath, will enable the oxygen of the atmosphere to strike the dye more perfectly and expeditiously into the materials of which the hat is composed, than by a continued immersion in the bath for a much longer time.

Variation on Buffum's apparatus

A variation in the mode of performing this process is suggested, and the apparatusfig.545.is proposed to be employed,a ais a square vat or vessel containing the dyeing liquor;b bis a frame or rack having a number of pegs placed in it for hanging the hats upon, which are about to be dyed, in a manner similar to the wheel above described. This frame or rack is suspended by cords from a crane, and may in that way be lowered down with the hats into the vat, or drawn up and exposed in the air; changes which may be made every 10 or 20 minutes.

I have seen apparatus of this kind doing good work in the hat-dyeing manufactories of London, that being a department of the business with which the Union has not thought it worth their while to interfere.

Hodge's apparatus

Mr. William Hodge’s patent improvements in hat dyeing, partly founded upon an invention of Mr. Bowler, consist, first in causing every alternate frame to which the suspenders or blocks are to be attached, to slide in and out of grooves, for the purpose of more easily removing the said suspenders when required.Fig.546.represents the improved dyeing frame, consisting of two circular rims,a a, which are connected together at top and bottom, by three fixed perpendicular bars or the frame-workb b b. Two other perpendicular framesc c, similar to the former, slide in grooves,d d d d, fixed to the upper and lower rims. These grooves have anti-friction rollers in them, for the purpose of making the framesc c, to slide in and out more freely. The suspenders or substitutes for blocks, by these means, may be more easily got at by drawing out the framesc c, about half way, when the suspenders, which are attached to the frames with the hats upon them, may be easily reached, and either removed or altered in position; and when it is done on one side, the sliding frame may be brought out on the other, and the remaining quantity of “suspenders” undergo the same operation.

The patentee remarks, that it is well known to all hat dyers, that after the hats have been in the dyeing liquor some time, they ought to be taken out and exposed to the action of the atmospheric air, when they are again immersed in the copper, that part of the hat which was uppermost in the first immersion, being placed downwards in the second. This is done for the purpose of obtaining an uniform and regular dye. The patentee’s mode of carrying this operation into effect, is shown in the figure:e eare pivots for the dyeing-frame to turn upon, which is supported by the armsf, from a crane above. The whole apparatus may be raised up or lowered into the copper by means of the crane or other mechanism. When the dyeing-frame is raised out of the copper, the whole of the suspenders or blocks are reversed, by turning the apparatus over upon the pivotse e, and thus the whole surfaces of the hats are equally acted upon by the dyeing material.

It should be observed, that when the dyeing-frame is raised up out of the copper, it should be tilted on one side, so as to make all the liquor run out of the hats, as also to cause the rims of the hats to hang down, and not stick to the body of the hat, or leave a bad place or uneven dye upon it. The second improvement described by the patentee, is the construction of “suspenders,” to be substituted instead of the ordinary blocks.

Suspenders

These “suspenders” are composed of thin plates of copper, bent into the required form, that is, nearly resembling that of a hat block, and made in such a manner as to be capable of contraction and expansion to suit different sized hats, and keep them distended, which may be altered by the workman at pleasure, when it is required to place the hats upon them, or remove them therefrom. The dyeing-frame atfig.546.is shown with only two of these “suspenders,” in order to prevent confusion. One of these suspenders is represented detached atfig.547., which exhibits a side view; andfig.548.a front view of the same. It will be seen by reference to the figure, that the suspenders consist of two distinct parts, which may be enlarged or collapsed by a variety of means, and which means may be suggested by any competent mechanic. The two parts of the suspenders are proposed to be connected together by armsg g, and at the junction of these arms a key is connected for turning them round when required. It will be seen on reference to the front view,fig.548., that the “suspenders” or substitutes for blocks, are open at the top or crown part of the hat; this is for the purpose of allowing the dyeing liquor to penetrate.

From the mixture of copperas and verdigris employed in the hat-dye, a vast quantity of an ochreous muddy precipitate results, amounting to no less than 25 per cent. of the weight of the copperas. This iron mud forms a deposit upon the hats, which not only corrodes the fine filaments of the beaver, but causes both them and the felt stuff to turn speedily of a rusty brown. There is no process in the whole circle of our manufactures, so barbarous as that of dyeing stuff hats. No ray of chemical science seems hitherto to have penetrated the dark recesses of their dye shops. Some hatters have tried to remove this corrosive brown ochre by a bath of dilute sulphuric acid, and then counteract the evil effect of the acid upon the black dye by an alkaline bath; but with a most unhappy effect. Hats so treated are most deceptious and unprofitable; as they turn of a dirty brown hue, when exposed for a few weeks to sunshine and air.

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