CONCLUSION
The brief survey of sea power in the preceding chapters has shown that the ocean has been the highway for the march of civilization and empire. Crete in its day became a great island power and distributed throughout the Mediterranean the wealth and the arts of its own culture and that of Egypt. In turn, Phœnicia held sway on the inland sea, and though creating little, she seized upon and developed the material and intellectual resources of her neighbors, and carried them not only to the corners of the Mediterranean, but far out on the unknown sea. Later when Phœnicia was subject to Persia, Athens by her triremes saved the growing civilization of Greece, and during a brief period of glory planted the seeds of Greek, as opposed to Asiatic culture, on the islands and coasts of the Ægean. After Athens, Carthage inherited the trident, and in turn fell before the energy of a land power, Rome. And as the Roman Empire grew to include practically all of the known world, every waterway, river and ocean, served to spread Roman law, engineering, and ideals of practical efficiency, at the same time bringing back to the heart of the Empire not only the products of the colonies, but such impalpable treasures as the art, literature, and philosophy of Greece. This was the story of the sea in antiquity.
After the dissolution of the Roman empire, as Christian peoples were struggling in blood and darkness, a great menace came from Arabia, the Saracen invasion, which was checked successfully and repeatedly by the navy of Constantinople. To this, primarily, is due the preservation of the Christian ideal in the world. Later, the cities of Italy began to reëstablish sea commerce, which had been for centuries interrupted bypirates. Venice gained the ascendancy, and Venetian ships carried the Crusading armies during the centuries when western peoples went eastward to fight for the Cross and brought back new ideas they had learned from the Infidels. Then there arose a new Mohammedan threat, the Turk, determined like the earlier Saracen to conquer the world for the Crescent. Constantinople, betrayed by Christian nations, fell, Christian peoples of the Levant were made subject to the Turk, and thereafter till our day the Ægean was a Turkish lake. About the same time a new Mohammedan sea power arose in the Moors of the African coast, and for a century and more the Mediterranean was a no-man's land between the rival peoples and the rival religions.
Meanwhile the trade with the East by caravan routes to the Arabian Gulf had been stopped by the presence of the Turk. To reach the old markets, therefore, new routes had to be found and there came the great era of discovery. The new world was only an accidental discovery in a search for the westward route to Asia. The claims of Spain to this new region called forth her fleets of trading ships. But the lure of the West attracted the energies of the English also, and England and Spain clashed. As Spain became more and more dependent on her western colonies for income, and yet failed to establish her ascendancy over the Atlantic routes, she declined in favor of her enemies, England and Holland. The latter country, being dependent on the sea for sustenance, early captured a large part of the world's carrying trade, especially in the Mediterranean and the East. Her rich profits excited the envy and rivalry of the English, and in consequence, after three hard-fought naval wars, the scepter of the sea passed to England. The subsequent wars between England and France served only to strengthen England's control of trade routes and extend her colonial possessions; with one notable exception, when France, denying to her rival the control of the sea at a critical juncture in the American Revolution, deprived her of her richest and most extensive colony. It was primarily England with her navy that broke the power of Napoleon in the subsequent conflict, and throughout a centuryof peace the spread of English speech and institutions has extended to the uttermost parts of the world. One power in our day challenged Britain's control of the sea—now even more essential to her security than it was in the 17th century to that of Holland—and the World War was the consequence.
In all this story it is interesting to note that insularity in position is the reverse of insularity in fact. Crete touched the far shores of the Mediterranean because she was an island and her people were forced upon the sea. Similarly, Phœnicia, driven to sea by mountains and desert at her back, spread her sails beyond the Pillars of Hercules. And England, hemmed in by the Atlantic, has carried her goods and her language to every nook and cranny of the earth. Thus the ocean has served less to separate than to bring together. As a common highway it has not only excited quarrels, but established common interests between nations. Special agreements governing the suppression of piracy and the slave trade, navigation regulations and the like, have long since brought nations together in peace on a common ground. It has also gone far to create international law for the problems of war. Rules governing blockade, contraband, and neutral rights have been agreed upon long since. But, as every war has proved, international law has needed a higher authority to enforce its rules in the teeth of a powerful belligerent. To remedy this defect is one of the purposes of a League of Nations.
Such has been the significance of the sea. The nations who have used it have made history and have laid the rest of the world under their dominion intellectually, commercially, and politically. Indeed, the story of the sea is the history of civilization.
At the conclusion of this survey, it is appropriate to pause and summarize what is meant by the term "sea power." It is a catch phrase, made famous by Mahan and glibly used ever since. What does sea power mean? What are its elements?
Obviously it means, in brief, a nation's ability to enforce its will upon the sea. This means a navy superior to those of its enemies. But it means also strategic bases equipped for supplying a fleet for battle or offering refuge in defeat. To thesebases there must run lines of communication guarded from interruption by the enemy. Imagine, for instance, the Suez or the Panama Canal held by a hostile force, or a battlefleet cut off from its fuel supply of coal or oil.
The relation of shipping to sea power is not what it was in earlier days. Merchantmen are indeed still useful in war for transport and auxiliary service, but it is no longer true that men in the merchant service are trained for man-of-war service. The difference between them has widened as the battleship of to-day differs from a merchantman of to-day. Nor can a merchantship be transformed into a cruiser, as in the American navy of a hundred years ago. The place of shipping in sea power is therefore subsidiary. In fact, unless a nation can control the sea, the amount of its wealth dispersed in merchantmen is just so much loss in time of war.
The major element in sea power is the fleet, but possession of the largest navy is no guarantee of victory or even of control of the sea. Size is important, but it is an interesting fact that most of the great victories in naval history have been won by a smaller fleet over a larger. The effectiveness of a great navy depends first on its quality, secondly, on how it is handled, and thirdly, on its power of reaching the enemy's communications.
The quality of a navy is two-fold, material and personal. In material, the great problem of modern days is to keep abreast of the time. The danger to a navy lies in conservatism and bureaucratic control. There is always the chance that a weaker power may defeat the stronger, not by using the old weapons, but by devising some new weapon that will render the old ones obsolete. The trouble with the professional man in any walk of life has always been that he sticks to the traditional ways. In consequence he lays himself open to the amateur, who, caring nothing about tradition, beats him with something novel. The inventions that have revolutionized naval warfare have come from men outside the naval profession. Thus the Romans, unable to match the Carthaginians in seamanship, made that seamanship of no value by their invention of the corvus. Greek fire not only saved the insignificant fleets of the EasternEmpire, but annihilated the huge armadas of Saracen and Slav. If the South in our Civil War had possessed the necessary resources, her ironclad rams would have made an end of the Union navy and of the war. In our own time the German submarine came within an ace of winning the war despite all the Allied dreadnoughts, because its potentialities had not been realized and no counter measures devised. A navy that drops behind is lost.
The personal side is a matter of training and morale. The material part is of no value unless it is operated by skill and by the will to win. Slackness or inexperience or lack of heart in officers or men—any of these may bring ruin. Napoleon once spoke of the Russian army as brave, but as "an army without a soul." A navy must have a soul. Unfortunately, the tendency in recent years has been to emphasize the material and the mechanical at the expense of the intellectual and spiritual. With all the enormous development of the ships and weapons, it must be remembered that the man is, and always will be, greater than the machine.
As to handling the navy, first of all the War Staff and the commander in chief must solve the strategic problem correctly. The fate of the Spanish Armada in the 16th Century and that of the Russian navy at the beginning of the 20th are eloquent of the effect of bad strategy on a powerful fleet. Secondly, the commander in chief must be possessed of the right fighting doctrine—the spirit of the offensive. In all ages the naval commander who sought to achieve his purpose by avoiding battle went to disaster. The true objective must be, now as always,the destruction of the enemy's fleet.
Such are the material and the spiritual essentials of sea power. The phrase has become so popular that a superior fleet has been widely accepted as a talisman in war. The idea is that a nation with sea power must win. But with all the tremendous "influence of sea power on history," the student must not be misled into thinking that sea power is invincible. The Athenian navy went to ruin under the catapults of Syracuse whose navy was insignificant. Carthage, the sea power, succumbed to a land power, Rome. In modern times France,with a navy second to England's, fell in ruin before Prussia, which had practically no navy at all. And in the World War it required the entry of a new ally, the United States, to save the Entente from defeat at the hands of land power, despite an overwhelming superiority on the sea.
The significance of sea power iscommunications. Just so far as sea control affects lines of communications vital to either belligerent, so far does it affect the war. To a sea empire like the British, sea control is essential as a measure of defense. If an enemy controls the sea the empire will fall apart like a house of cards, and the British Isles will be speedily starved into submission. It is another thing, however, to make the navy a sword as well as a shield. Whenever the British navy could cut the communications of the enemy, as in the case of the wars with Spain and Holland, it was terribly effective. When it fought a nation like Russia in the Crimean War, it hardly touched the sources of Russian supplies, because these came by the interior land communications. So also the French navy in 1870 could not touch a single important line of German communications and its effect therefore was negligible. If in 1914 Russia, for example, had been neutral, no Allied naval superiority could have saved France from destruction by the combined armies of Germany and Austria, just as the Grand Fleet was powerless to check the conquest or deny the possession of Belgium. It must be borne in mind that a land power has the advantages of central position and interior lines, and the interior lines of to-day are those of rail and motor transport, offering facilities for a rapid concentration on any front.
Of course, modern life and modern warfare are so complex that few nations are able to live and wage war entirely on their own resources; important communications extend across the sea. In this respect the United States is singularly fortunate. With the exception of rubber, every essential is produced in our country, and the sea power that would attempt to strangle the United States by a blockade on two coasts would find it unprofitable even if it were practicable. A hostile navy would have to land armies to strike directly at the manufacturingcities near the seaboard in order to affect our communications. In brief, sea power is decisive just so far as it cuts the enemy's communications.
Finally in considering sea power we should note the importance of coördinating naval policies with national. The character of a navy and the size of a navy depend on what policy a nation expects to stand for. It is the business of a navy to stand behind a nation's will. For Great Britain, circumstances of position have long made her policy consistent, without regard to change of party. She had to dominate the sea to insure the safety of the empire. With the United States, the situation has been different. The nation has not been conscious of any foreign policy, with the single exception of the Monroe Doctrine. And even this has changed in character since it was first enunciated.
At the present day, for example, how far does the United States purpose to go in the Monroe Doctrine? Shall we attempt to police the smaller South and Central American nations? Shall we make the Caribbean an area under our naval control? What is to be our policy toward Mexico? How far are we willing to go to sustain the Open Door policy in the Far East? Are we determined to resist the immigration of Asiatics? Are we bound to hold against conquest our outlying possessions,—the Philippines, Guam, Hawaiian Islands, and Alaska? Shall we play a "lone hand" among nations, or join an international league? Until there is some answer to these questions of foreign policy, our naval program is based on nothing definite. In short, the naval policy of a nation should spring from its national policy.
On that national policy must be based not only the types of ships built and their numbers, but also the number and locale of the naval bases and the entire strategic plan. In the past there has been too little mutual understanding between the American navy and the American people. The navy—the Service, as it is appropriately called—is the trained servant of the republic. It is only fair to ask that the republic make clear what it expects that servant to do. But before a national policy is accepted, it must be thought out to its logical conclusionby both the popular leaders and naval advisers. As Mahan has said, "the naval officer must be a statesman as well as a seaman." Is the policy accepted going to conflict with that of another nation; if so, are we prepared to accept the consequences?
The recent history of Germany is a striking example of the effect of a naval policy on international relations. The closing decade of the 19th century found Great Britain still following the policy of "splendid isolation," with France and Russia her traditional enemies. Her relations with Germany were friendly, as they always had been. At the close of the century, the Kaiser, inspired by Mahan's "Influence of Sea Power on History," launched the policy of a big navy. First, he argued, German commerce was growing with astonishing rapidity. It was necessary, according to Mahan, to have a strong navy to protect a great carrying trade. This von Tirpitz[1] emphasizes, though he never makes clear just what precise danger threatened the German trading fleets, provided Germany maintained a policy of friendly relations with England. Secondly, Germany found herself with no outlet for expansion. The best colonial fields had already been appropriated by other countries, chiefly England. To back up German claims to new territory or trading concessions, it was necessary to have a strong navy. All this was strictly by the book, and it is characteristic of the German mind that it faithfully followed the text. "Unsere Zukunft," cried the Kaiser, "liegt auf dem Wasser!" But what was implied in this proposal? A great navy increasing rapidly to the point of rivaling that of England could be regarded by that country only as a pistol leveled at her head. England would be at the mercy of any power that could defeat her navy. And this policy coupled with the demand for "a place in the sun," threatened the rich colonies that lay under the British flag. It could not be taken otherwise.
[Footnote 1:My Memoirs, Chap. xv andpassim.]
These implications began to bear fruit after their kind. In the place of friendliness on the part of the English,—a friendliness uninterrupted by war, and based on the blood of their royal family and the comradeship in arms againstFrance in the days of Louis XIV, Frederick the Great, and Napoleon—there developed a growing hostility. In vain missions were sent by the British Government to promote a better understanding, for the Germans declined to accept either a "naval holiday" or a position of perpetual naval inferiority. In consequence, England abandoned her policy of isolation, and came to an understanding with her ancient enemies, Russia and France. Thus Germany arrayed against herself all the resources of the British Empire and in this act signed her own death warrant.
A final word as to the future of sea power. The influence of modern inventions is bound to affect the significance of the sea in the future. Oceans have practically dwindled away as national barriers. Wireless and the speed of the modern steamship have reduced the oceans to ponds. "Splendid isolation" is now impossible. Modern artillery placed at Calais, for instance, could shell London and cover the transportation of troops in the teeth of a fleet. Aircraft cross land and sea with equal ease. The submersible has come to stay. Indeed, it looks as if the navy of the future will tend first to the submersible types and later abandon the sea for the air, and the "illimitable pathways of the sea" will yield to still more illimitable pathways of the sky. The consequence is bound to be a closer knitting of the peoples of the world through the conquering of distance by time.
This bringing together breeds war quite as easily as peace, and the progress of invention makes wars more frightful. The closely knit economic structure of Europe did not prevent the greatest war in history and there is little hope for the idea that wars can never occur again. The older causes of war lay in pressure of population, the temptation of better lands, racial hatreds or ambitions, religious fanaticism, dynastic aims, and imperialism. Some of these remain. The chief modern source of trouble is trade rivalry, with which imperialism is closely interwoven and trade rivalry makes enemies of old friends. There is, therefore, a place for navies still.
At present there are two great naval powers, Great Britain and the United States. A race in naval armaments betweenthe two would be criminal folly, and could lead to only one disastrous end. The immediate way toward guaranteeing freedom of the seas is a closer entente between the two English-speaking peoples, whose common ground extends beyond their speech to institutions and ideals of justice and liberty. The fine spirit of cöoperation produced by the World War should be perpetuated in peace for the purpose of maintaining peace. In his memoirs van Tirpitz mourns the fact that now "Anglo-Saxondom" controls the world. There is small danger that where public opinion rules, the two peoples will loot the world to their own advantage. On the other hand, there is every prospect that, for the immediate future, sea power in their hands can be made the most potent influence toward peace, and the preservation of that inheritance of civilization which has been slowly accumulated and spread throughout the world by those peoples of every age who have been the pathfinders on the seas.
A.
Abercromby, British general,226,252
Aboukir, Hogue, and Cressy, British cruisers, loss of,355
Aboukir Bay, battle of,seeNile
Actium, campaign of,61-64; battle of,64-69
Ægospotami, battle of,24,47
Agrippa, Roman admiral,62-66
Aircraft, in World War,411,429,449
Albuquerque, Portuguese viceroy,118
Alfred, king of England,71,130,145
Algeciras Convention,347
Ali Pasha, Turkish admiral,104,105,107
Allemand, French admiral,224
Almeida, Portuguese leader,117-118
Amboyna,143,170
Amiens, treaty of,227,259,261
Amsterdam,119,133,141,142
Anthony, Roman general, at Actium,61-68
Antwerp,119,133,140
Arabs, at war with Eastern Empire,72-83,441-442; as traders,83; ships of,117
Arbuthnot, British admiral,388
Ariabignes, Persian admiral,33,36
Aristides,36
Armada,seeSpanish Armada
Armed Neutrality, league of,253
Armor,289,296
Armstrong, Sir William,289
Athens,seeGreece
Audacious, British ship,355
August 10, battle of,334
Austerlitz battle of,279
Austria, in Napoleonic Wars,232,244,253,279; at war with Italy,296-303; in Triple Alliance,345; in World War,351
B.
Bacon, Roger,111,112,121
Bagdad Railway,346
Bantry Bay, action in,194; attempted landing in,233
Barbarigo, Venetian admiral,102,104-105
Barbarossa, Turkish admiral,90-92,95-97
Barham, First Lord of Admiralty,266
Bart, Jean, French naval leader,195
Battle cruiser,seeShips of War
Beachy Head, battle of,194
Beatty, British admiral, at Heligoland Bight,352-354; at Dogger Bank,370-373; at Jutland,389-408,413,415
Berlin Decree,279
Bismarck,297,345
Blake, British admiral,169,171-182,194,414,416
Blockade, in American Civil War,290; in World War,419-424,439
Boisot, Dutch admiral,139
Bonaparte,seeNapoleon
Bossu, Spanish admiral,138-139
Boxer Rebellion,329-330
Boyne, battle of,194
Bragadino, Venetian general,100
Breda, peace of,188
Bridport, British admiral,232,233,234
Brill, capture of,138
Brueys, French admiral,224,248,250
Burney, British admiral,401,415
Bushnell, David,293-294
C.
Cabot, John,121
Cadiz, founded,17; British expeditions to,155,165,168; blockadedby Blake,181; blockaded by Jervis,244; Allied fleet in,270,274,277
Calder, British admiral,243; in action with Villeneuve,266,267-269,270
Camara, Spanish admiral,319
Camperdown, battle of,223,234-237
Canidius, Roman general,67
Carden, British admiral,375-379
Carpenter, Alfred, British commander,434
Carthage, founded,18; at war with Greece,20,38; in Punic Wars,49-60,76,441
Cervantes,102,119
Cervera, Spanish admiral,315; in Santiago campaign,321-326
Ceylon,83,226,227
Champlain, battle of Lake,284
Charlemagne,85,130
Charles II of England,183,188,189
Charles V of Spain,91,92,126,127,134
Charleston, attack on,69
Chatham, raided by Dutch,188
Chauncey, U. S. commodore,283
China, in ancient times,25; first ships to,118; at war with Japan,304-310; in disruption,328-329
Chios, battle of,286
Churchill, Winston,375-378,381,383
Cinque Ports,145
Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, in Actium campaign,61,63-68
Clerk, John,203,204
Collingwood, British admiral,239,243; at Trafalgar,272,274-277
Colonna, admiral of Papal States,102,105
Colport, British admiral,233
Columbus,112,120,121; voyages of,122-125
Commerce, of Phœnicians,16-19; under Roman Empire,70; with the East,110,113-118; in northern Europe,131-132; in modern times,312-313
Commerce Warfare, in Dutch War of Independence,137-138; in Napoleonic Wars,259-260; in War of 1812,281,284; in World War,369,419-440
Communications, in warfare,446
Compass, introduction of,111
Condalmiero, Venetian admiral,93,96
Conflans, French admiral,197,198,199
Constantinople, founded,71; attacked by Arabs,72-83; attacked by Russians,83-84; sacked by Crusaders,85; captured by Turks,86,89,110; in World War,375,381-382,384;441,442
Continental System,279-280,285
Continuous Voyage, doctrine of,290,420-421
Contraband,253
Convoy, System in World War,436-438
Cook, Captain James,219-220
Copenhagen, battle of,223,236,252-259
Corinthian Gulf, battle of,35,40-43
Cornwallis, British admiral,263,265,267,270
Coronel, battle of,359-361
Corsica,17,238
Corunna, Armada sails from,158; attacked by Drake,165; Allied fleet in,269
Corvi,52,55,444
Cradock, British admiral, at Coronel,358-361
Crete,15-16,25,26,43,247,442,443
Cromwell, Oliver,170,181,182
Custozza, battle of,297,298
Cyprus,88,99.
D.
Da Gama, Vasco,114,116-117
Dardanelles, German squadron enters,356-357; campaign of,374-385
Darius, king of Persia,21,27,28
De Grasse, French admiral, at Virginia Capes,207-211; at Saints'
Passage,212-215
De Guichen, French admiral,203,204
Denmark, in Copenhagen campaign,252-259
De Ruyter, Dutch admiral,173,175,179,182,184-190,194,416
D'Estaing, French admiral,202-203,227
Destroyer,seeShips of War
Dewa, Japanese admiral,339,341
Dewey, U. S. admiral, at Manila,316-320,415
De Witt, Dutch admiral,172,177
Diaz, Bartolomeo,114,116
Diedrichs, German admiral,320
Director fire,350,410
Dirkzoon, Dutch admiral,138
Diu, battle of,118
Dogger Bank, Russian fleet off,335; action off,364,369-374
Don Juan of Austria, at Lepanto,100-109;135
Doria, Andrea, Genoese admiral,91,92,95-98
Doria, Gian Andrea, Genoese admiral98-108
Dragut, Turkish commander,90,98
Drake, Sir Francis, British admiral, voyages of,153-155; in Armada campaign,157-163; last years of,165
Dreadnought,seeShips of War
Drepanum, battle of,57
Duguay-Trouin, French commander,195,197
Duilius, Roman consul,52
Dumanoir, French admiral,277
Duncan, British admiral, at Camperdown,234-237
Dungeness, battle of,172
E.
East Indies Companies, British and Dutch,141
Ecnomus, battle of,53-56
Egypt, early ships of,15; Napoleon in,233,347,357,374,441
Elizabeth, queen of England,125,138,151,152,155,166
Emden, German cruiser,355; cruise of,366-368
England, early naval history of,145-151; at war with Spain,151-167; at war with Holland,168-192; at war with France,193-221; plans for invasion of,197-198,232,261-265.SeeGreat Britain
Entente of Great Britain, France, and Russia,347
Ericsson, John,287,290,292
Erie, battle of Lake,284
Eurybiades, Spartan commander,32,45
Evan-Thomas, British admiral,390,392,393,396-398,401
Evertsen, Dutch admiral,174
F.
Falkland Islands, battle of,363-366
Farragut, U. S. admiral,292,296,317,381,414
Fighting Instructions, of British Navy,184,187,190,200,206,211,216-217,416
Fireships,162,178
First of June, battle of,227-232
Fisher, British admiral,348,359,377,378,381,384
Fisher, Fort, capture of,293
Fleet in Being,190,321,331,358,417
Foch, French general,439
Foley, British captain,249,256
Four Days' Battle, in Dutch Wars,185-186
France, at war with England in18th century,193-221; in Napoleonic Wars,222-280; in Far East,329; aids Russia,335; in World War,345,347Francis I, of France,91,125