(2.) No Latin word can end in two explosives: thus, finaltis dropped inlac,milk(478); finaldincor,heart(476).(3.) When finalswas preceded byrorl, it was assimilated to these liquids, and finalrrandllwere then simplified torandl. See the examples under (1). Wherever final-rsand-lsappear they are not original but the result of the disappearance of an intervening consonant: as,puls,pottage, for*pults(533);pars,part, for*parts(533); all with syncope (111) of the voweliin the nominativesg.(4.) Original finalnswas changed tosand the preceding vowel was lengthened: as,sanguīs,blood(2452), for*sanguinsfrom the stemsanguin-(486). Wherever final-nsappears it is not original but the result of the disappearance of an intervening consonant: as,ferēns,carrying, for*ferents, from the stemferent-;frōns,foliage, for*fronds, from the stemfrond-.(5.) A dental mute before finalsis dropped: as,hērēs,heir, for*hērēds(475);virtūs,virtue, for*virtūts(477);nox,night, for*nocts(533); a labial or guttural mute is retained: as,fornāx(x=cs),furnace, from the stemfornāc-(531);lēx,law, from the stemleg-(472);urbs,city, from the stemurb-(480);opsfrom the stemop-,help(480).DEVELOPMENT OF AN ANAPTYCTICAL VOWEL.172.Certain consonant groups, notably those containing a liquid, are sometimes eased by the insertion of a vowel which develops between the consonants. This is calledAnaptyxis(Greekἀναπτύσσειν,unfold). It is the opposite of syncope of vowels (110,111).(1.) The suffix-clo-(242), changed to-culo-, being thus no longer distinguishable from the diminutive suffix-culo-(267): as,pōculum,cup, forpōclum(Plaut.);vehiculum,carriage, forvehiclum(Plaut.). But-clo-is more common in Plautus than-culo-, especially after long vowels. The suffixes-blo-(245), and-bli-(294) always show the anaptyctical vowel. Its colour depends on the nature of thel(60): as,stabulum,resting-place;stabilis,steady. The group-ngl-also changes to-ngul-: as,angulus(164, 6).(2.) In words borrowed from the Greek an unfamiliar sequence of consonants was so lightened; as,mina,mina, for*mna(μνᾶ); and in Old Latindrachuma(Plaut.) for laterdrachma,drachma(δραχμή);techina,trick, from Greekτέχνη;TecumēssaforTecmēssa(Τέκμησσα).(3.) Before syllabic (83)landra vowel is developed (111,b): as,íncertus,uncertain, for*íncr̥tus;fácultās,capability, forfácl̥tās. Likewise before syllabicn(139).DISSIMILATION.173.(1.) To avoid the repetition of the same liquid in successive syllableslis sometimes changed tor: as,caeruleus,sky-blue, for*caeluleus, fromcaelum;Parīlia, by the side ofPalīlia, fromPalēs; the suffix-clo-appears as-cro-after anl: as,lavācrum,bath,simulācrum,image(241); the suffix-āli-under like conditions changes to-āri-; as,molāre,of a mill(313), butaugurāle,of an augur.(2.) In a few cases repetition is avoided by dropping the sound once: as,praestīgiae,jugglery, forpraestrīgiae. This also applies to the spirantsfollowed by a consonant, a combination which is not tolerated in successive syllables: as in the reduplicated perfectsstetī, for*stestī;spopondī, for*spospondī(859), where the second syllable, and inquisquiliae,sweepings, for*squisquiliae, where the first syllable was lightened.CHANGES WITHIN COMPOUNDS.174.The final syllable of the first member of compounds (181) sometimes undergoes certain changes by analogy to other compounds:(1.) The final-āofā-stems, by analogy to the more frequent-o-stems, usually changed to-o, which in atonic syllables became-i(105): as,āli-ger,winged, for*ālo-gerfromālā-.(2.) Stems in-on-substitute-o-for-on-by analogy to the-o-stems: as,homi-cída,murderer, for*homo-cīda(105) fromhomon-(Nom.homō).(3.) Some stems in-ssubstitute-o-by analogy to the-o-stems: as,foedi-fragus,treaty-breaking, for*foedo-fragusfrom the stemfoedos-(Nom.foedus, Gen.foederis; 154).SYLLABLES.175.A word has as many syllables as it has separate vowels or diphthongs. The last syllable is called theUltima; the last syllable but one is called thePenult; the last syllable but two is called theAntepenult.176.The quantity of single sounds (e.g. the quantity of a vowel) must be carefully distinguished from the quantity of the group of sounds or the syllable of which the single sound forms a part.LENGTH OF SYLLABLES.177.A syllable is long if its vowel is long, or if its vowel is followed by two consonants or byxorz: as,dūcēbās;volvunt. Indūcēbāsboth the vowels and the syllables are long; involvuntthe vowels are short, but the syllables are long; in cases like the last the syllables (not the vowels) are said to belong by position.hdoes not count as a consonant (58) andqu(orqv,27) has the value of a single consonant only: thus, inadhūcandaquathe first syllable is short.178.In prose or old dramatic verse a syllable with a short vowel before a mute orffollowed bylorris not long: astenebrae. In other verse, however, such syllables are sometimes regarded as long. In compounds such syllables are long in any verse: asobruit.LOSS OF SYLLABLES.179.The first of two successive syllables which begin with the same sound is sometimes lost. This is calledHaplology.Thus,sēmodiusforsēmimodius,half a bushel;calamitōsusfor*calamitātōsus, from the stemcalamitāt-(262) and suffix-oso-(336);voluntārius, forvoluntātārius(262,309);cōnsuētūdō, forcōnsuētitūdō(264). See also255;379.B. FORMATION.180.Formationis the process by which stems are formed from roots or from other stems.181.A word containing a single stem is called aSimpleword: as,magnus,great, stemmagno-;animus,soul, stemanimo-. A word containing two or more stems is called aCompoundword: as,magnanimus,great-souled, stemmagnanimo-.182.Most inflected words consist of two parts: a stem, which is usually a modified root (195), and an inflection ending: thus, inductōrī,for a leader, the root isduc-,lead, the stem isductōr-,leader, and-īis the inflection ending, meaningfor.ROOTS.183.ARootis a monosyllable which gives the fundamental meaning to a word or group of words.184.A root is not a real word; it is neither a noun, naming something, nor a verb, denoting action. Thusiug-,yoke, does not meana yokenorI yoke; it merelysuggestssomething about yoking. The root becomes a real word only when an inflection ending is added, or, more commonly, both a formative suffix and an inflection ending: as,iug-u-m,a yoke.185.Roots are common to Latin and its cognate languages, such as the Sanskrit and the Greek. When a root is named in this book, the specific Latin form of the root is meant. This often differs somewhat from the form of the root which is assumed as applicable to all the cognate languages.186.Almost all roots are noun and verb roots; that is, roots with a meaning which may be embodied either in a noun or in a verb, or in both. Besides these there is a small class, less than a dozen in number, of pronoun roots. There are many words which cannot be traced back to their roots.187.A root sometimes has two or more forms: as,fīd-(forfeid-),foed-,fid-,trust;gen-,gn-,sire;tol,tl,bear; see135,145.Thus,fīd-is found infīd-us,trusty,fīd-ūcia,confidence,fīd-ūciō,I pledge,fīd-ūciārius,in trust,fīd-ere,put trust in,fīd-ēns,courageous,fīd-entia,courage;foed-infoed-us,pledge of faith,foed-erātus,bound by a pledge of faith;fid-infid-ēs,faith,fid-ēlis,faithful,fid-ēliter,faithfully,fid-ēlitās,faithfulness,per-fid-us,faithless,per-fid-ia,faithlessness,per-fid-iōsus,full of faithlessness, per-fid-iōsē, faithlessly.gen-ingen-itor,sire,gn-ingi-gn-ere,beget,gn-ā-ingnā-tus,son.188.A root ending in a vowel is called aVowel Root: as,da-,give; a root ending in a consonant is called aConsonant Root: as,rup-,break. Roots are conveniently indicated by the sign √: as, √teg-, to be read ‘rootteg-.’189.A root or a part of a root is sometimes doubled in forming a word; this is calledReduplication: as,mur-mur,murmur;tur-tur,turtle-dove;po-pul-us,people;ul-ul-āre,yell.PRESENT STEMS AS ROOTS.190.Many nouns are formed from the present stems of verbs, which take the place of roots. Stems thus used are mostly those of verbs in-āreand-īre.Thus, fromōrā-, stem ofōrāre,speak, are formedōrā-tor,speaker, andōrā-tiō,speech; fromaudī-, stem ofaudīre,hear, are formedaudī-tor,hearer, andaudī-tiō,hearing.191.Verbs in-ēre, and those in-āreand-īrein which theāorīis confined to the present system (868,874) usually have parallel nouns formed directly from a root: as,doc-tor,teacher,doc-umentum,lesson,doc-ilis,teachable(√doc-,docēre);sec-tor,cutter(√sec-,secāre);dom-itor,tamer,dom-inus,master,dom-itus,tamed(√dom-,domāre);sarc-ina,package(√sarc-,sarcīre).192.But a noun is sometimes exceptionally formed from the present stem of a verb in-ēre: as,monē-ta,mint(monēre);acē-tum,vinegar(acēre);virē-tum,a green(virēre);suādē-la,persuasion(suādēre);habē-na,rein(habēre);egē-nus,needy(egēre);verē-cundus,shamefast(verērī);valē-tūdō,health(valēre).193.Verbs in-ere, and particularly such as have a present in-nō,-scō,-tōor-iō(832), usually have their parallel nouns formed directly from a root: as,vic-tor,conqueror(√vic-,vincere);incrē-mentum,growth(√crē-,crēscere);pul-sus,a push(√pol-,pellere).194.Sometimes, however, nouns are formed from such verb stems, and not from roots: as,lecti-stern-ium,a couch-spreading(sternere, √ster-,strā-);vinc-ibilis,conquerable(vincere, √vīc-);pāsc-uum,pasture(pāscere, √pā-);pect-en,comb(pectere, √pec-);fall-āx,deceitful(fallere, √fal-).STEMS.195.AStemis that part of a word which contains its meaning, and is either a root alone or more commonly a root with an addition called aFormative Suffix.Thus, in the wordducis,leader’s, the stem, which is identical with the rootduc-, meansleader; a root thus serving as a stem is called aRoot Stem; inductōris,leader’s, the stem is formed by the formative suffix-tōr-, denoting the agent, attached to the √duc-.196.New stems are formed by adding a suffix to a stem. Thus, fromōrātōr-,speaker, is formed by the addition of the suffix-io-, a new stemōrātōr-io-, N.ōrātōrius,speaker’s.197.The noun has usually only one form of the stem. The verb has different stems to indicate mood and tense; these stems are all based on two principal tense stems, the present and the perfect active.PRIMITIVES AND DENOMINATIVES.198.I. A stem or word formed directly from a root or a verb stem is called aPrimitive. II. A stem or word formed from a noun stem is called aDenominative.(a.) Primitives: from √rēg-,reg-,guide:rēx, stemrēg-,king;rēgnum, stemrēg-no-,kingdom;rēctus, stemrēc-to-,guided;regere, stemreg-e-,guide. Fromōrā-, stem ofōrāre,speak:ōrātor, stemōrā-tōr-,speaker;ōrātiō, stemōrā-tiōn-,speech.(b.) Denominatives: from noun stemrēg-,king:rēgīna, stemrēg-īnā,queen;rēgius, stemrēg-io-,rēgālis, stemrēg-āli-,royal. Fromōrātiōn-,speech:ōrātiūncula, stemōrātiūn-culā-,little speech. Fromrēg-no-,kingdom:rēgnāre, stemrēgnā-,to rule. Fromiūs,law:iūrāre,swear,stemiūrā(154).(A.) FORMATION OF THE NOUN.WITHOUT A FORMATIVE SUFFIX.199.Some roots are used as noun stems: as,duc-, N.dux,leader(√duc-,lead);rēg-, N.rēx,king(√rēg-,guide); particularly at the end of a compound: as,con-iug-, N.coniūnx,yoke-fellow,spouse(com-, √jug-,yoke);tubi-cin-, N.tubicen,trumpeter(tubā-, √can-,play).WITH A FORMATIVE SUFFIX.200.Simpleformative suffixes are vowels: as,-ā-,-o-,-i-,-u-; also-io-,-uo-, (-vo-); or such little syllables as-mo-,-min-;-ro-,-lo-;-ōn-;-no-,-ni-,-nu-;-to-,-ti-,-tu-;-ter-,-tōr-;-unt-(-nt-);-es-(-er-),-ōr-; these syllables sometimes have slight modifications of form.Compoundsuffixes consist of one or more simple suffixes attached to a simple suffix: as,-tōr-io-,-ti-mo-, &c., &c.201.The following are examples of noun stems formed from roots or verb stems by simple suffixes added:Stem.Nominative.From.fug-ā-fuga,flightfug-,flyfīd-o-fīdus,trustyfīd-,trustac-u-acus,pinac-,pointod-io-odium,hateod-,hatepluv-iā-pluvia,rainplov-,wetar-vo-arvom,tilthar-,tillal-vo-alvos,bellyal-,nurturesal-vo-salvos,safesal-,safefā-mā-fāma,talefā-,tellteg-min-tegmen,coverteg-,coversel-lā-sella,seatsed-,siterr-ōn-errō,strollererrā-,strollsom-no-somnus,sleepsop-,sleepplē-no-plēnus,fullplē-,fillrēg-no-rēgnum,realmrēg-,guideda-to-datus,givenda-,givelec-to-lectus,bedleg-,liegen-ti-gēns,racegen-,begetsta-tu-status,standsta-,standrēc-tōr-rēctor,rulerrēg-,guidee-unt-,iēns,goingi-,gorege-nt-regēns,guidingrege-,guidegen-er-genus,racegen-,begetfur-ōr-furor,madnessfur-,rave202.Formative suffixes are often preceded by a vowel, which in many instances is a stem vowel, real or presumed; in others, the vowel has come to be regarded as a part of the suffix itself.Thus,-lo-:fīlio-lo-, N.fīlio-lu-s,little son(fīlio-);hortu-lu-s,little garden(horto-,105,h); but-ulo-:rēg-ulu-s,petty king(rēg-);ger-ulu-s,porter(√ges-,bear),-ci-:pugnā-ci-, N.pugnā-x,full of fight(pugnā-re); but-āci-:fer-āx,productive(√fer-,bear),-to-:laudā-to-, N.laudā-tu-s,praised(laudā-re); but-āto-:dent-ātus,toothed(denti-).-tu-:equitā-tu-, N.equitā-tu-s,cavalry(equitā-re); but-ātu-:sen-ātu-s,senate(sen-).-lā-:suādē-lā-, N.suādē-la,persuasion(suādē-re,192); but-ēlā-:loqu-ēla,talk(√loqu-,speak).-tāt-:cīvi-tāt-, N.cīvi-tā-s,citizenship(cīvi-); but-itāt-:auctōr-itā-s,authority(auctōr-).-cio-:aedīli-cio-, N.aedīli-ciu-s,of an aedile(aedīli-); but-icio-:patr-iciu-s,patrician(patr-).-timo-:fīni-timo-, N.fīni-timu-s,bordering(fīni-); but-itimo-:lēg-itimu-s,of the law(lēg-).203.There are many formative suffixes of nouns. The commonest only can be named, and these may be conveniently grouped as below, by their meanings. Compound suffixes are arranged with reference to the last element of the suffix: thus, under the adjective suffix-io-(304) will be found-c-io-,-īc-io-,-tōr-io-, and-ār-io-. In many instances it is difficult to distinguish between simple and compound suffixes.I. THE SUBSTANTIVE.(A.) PRIMITIVES.I. THE AGENT.204.The suffixes-tōr-,-o-,-ā-,-lo-, and-ōn-, are used to denote theAgent: as,Stem.Nominative.From.lēc-tōr-lēctor,reader√lēg-,readscrīb-ā-scrība,writer√scrīb-,writefig-ulo-figulus,potter√fig-,moulderr-ōn-errō,strollererrā-re,stroll(1.)-tōr-(N.-tor).205.-tōr-, N.-tor, or-sōr-, N.-sor(159,202), is the commonest suffix of the agent; the feminine is-trī-ci-, N.-trī-x.-tōr-is sometimes used in a present sense, of action repeated or occurring at any time, and sometimes in a past sense.206.(a.)-tōr-(-sōr-), in the present sense, often denotes one who makes a regular business of the action of the root or verb.ōrā-tōr-, N.ōrā-tor,spokesman,speaker(ōrā-re);lēc-tor,reader(√leg-,read). Workmen and tradesmen:arā-tor,ploughman,pās-tor,shepherd,pīc-tor,painter,sū-tor,shoemaker. Semi-professional:captā-tor,legacy-hunter,dēlā-tor,professional informer. Government officials:cēn-sor,appraiser,censor,imperā-tor,commander,prae-tor, (leader),praetor,dictā-tor,līc-tor. Of the law:āc-tor,manager,accūsā-tor,accuser,spōn-sor,bondsman,tū-tor,guardian. From presumed verb stems (202):sen-ātor,senator(sen-);viā-tor,wayfarer(viā-);fundi-tor,slinger(fundā-).-tro-, N.-ter, has the meaning of-tōr-: as,aus-tro-, N.aus-ter(scorcher),south-wester(√aus-,burn).207.In the present sense-tōr-(-sōr-) is also used to indicate permanent character, quality, capability, tendency, likelihood: as,bellā-tor,a man of war,warlike;dēlīberā-tor,a man of caution;cessā-tor,a loiterer;dērī-sor,a mocker,ironical;cōnsūmp-tor,apt to destroy,destructive;aedificā-tor,building-mad.208.(b.)-tōr-(-sōr-), in a perfect sense, is used particularly in old Latin, or to denote an agent who has acquired a permanent name by a single conspicuous action. In this sense it usually has a genitive of the object, or a possessive pronoun: thus,castīgā-tor meus,my mentor, orthe man who has upbraided me;olīvae inven-tor,the deviser of the olive(Aristaeus);reper-tor vītis,the author of the vine(Bacchus);patriae līberā-tōrēs,the emancipators of the nation.(2.)-o-(N.-u-s),-ā-(N.-a);-lo-(N.-lu-s);-ōn-(N.-ō).209.-o-and-ā-stems may denote vocation or class; many are compounds.-o-, N.-u-s:coqu-o-, N.coqu-o-sorcoc-u-s,cook(√coqu-,cook);causidic-u-s,pleader(causā-, √dic-,speak).-ā-, N.-a:scrīb-ā-, N.scrīb-a,clerk(√scrīb-,write);agricol-a,husbandman(agro-, √col-,till).210.-u-lo-, N.-u-lu-s(202):ger-ulo-, N.ger-ulu-s,bearer(√ges-,bear);fig-ulu-s,potter(√fig-,shape,mould).211.-ōn-, N.-ō-:err-ōn-, N.err-ō,stroller(errā-re); especially in compounds:praed-ō,robber(praedā-rī);praec-ōfor*praevocō,herald(prae-vocā-re);combib-ō,fellow-drinker(com-, √bib-,drink).II. THE ACTION.212.The suffixes-ā-,-io-,-iā-;-min-;-i-ōn-,-ti-ōn-;-lā-;-mā-,-nā-;-tā-,-tu-;-er-,-or-,-ōr-, are used to denote theAction: as,Stem.Nominative.From.od-io-odium,hate√od-,hateāc-tiōn-āctiō,action√āg-,doques-tu-questus,complaint√ques-,complainfur-ōr-furor,rage√fur-,rave213.Words denoting action (1470) in a substantive form have a wide range of meaning; they may denote, according to the connection, action intransitive, transitive, or passive, complete or incomplete; if the verb denotes condition or state, the word of action often comes very near to denominatives of quality; furthermore the idea of action is often lost, and passes over to result, concrete effect, means or instrument, or place.(1.)-ā-(N.-a);-io-(N.-iu-m);-iā-(N.-ia),-iē-(N.-iē-s).214.-ā-, N.-a, is rare in words of action:fug-ā-, N.fug-a,flight(√fug-,fly); most words are concrete:mol-a,mill(√mol-,grind);tog-a,covering(√teg-,cover).215.-ūr-ā-, N.-ūr-a, is rare:fig-ūrā-, N.fig-ūra,shape(√fig-,shape).216.-tūr-ā-, N.-tūr-a, or-sūr-ā-, N.-sūr-a(159,202), akin to the agent in-tōr-(-sōr-):armā-tūrā-, N.armā-tūra,equipment(armā-re);pīc-tūra,painting, i.e.,act of paintingorpicture(√pig-,paint). Words parallel with official personal names (206) denote office:cēn-sūra,taxing,censor’s office(cf.cēnsōr-);prae-tūra,praetorship(cf.praetōr-).217.-io-, N.-iu-m, sometimes denotes the effect or the object. The line cannot always be drawn very sharply between these stems in-io-(many of which may be formed through a presumed noun stem), and denominatives in-io-(249).218.(a.)-io-is rarely suffixed to simple roots or verb stems:od-io-, N.od-iu-m,hate,hateful thing,hateful conduct(√od-,hate); some words become concrete:lab-iu-m,lip(√lab-,lick).219.(b.) Most primitives in-io-are compounds: as,adag-iu-m,proverb(ad, √ag-,speak);ingen-iu-m,disposition(in, √gen-,beget);dīscid-iu-m,separation,exscid-iu-m,destruction(dī-,ex, √scid-,cleave);incend-iu-m,conflagration(in, √cand-,light);obsequ-iu-m,compliance(ob-, √sequ-,follow);conloqu-iu-m,parley(com-, √loqu-,talk);obsid-iu-m,siege(ob, √sed-,sit).220.-t-io-, N.-t-iu-m:spa-tio-, N.spa-tiu-m,stretch(√spa-,span,stretch);sōlsti-tiu-m,sun-stand,solstice(sōl-, √sta-,stand);ini-tiu-m,a beginning(in, √i-,go).221.-iā-, N.-ia:fur-iā-, N.fur-iae, plural,ravings,madness(√fur-,rave);pluvia,rain(√pluv-,rain). Most stems in-iā-are compounds, used in the plural only, often with concrete or passive meaning:dēlic-iae,allurements,pet(dē, √lac-,allure);excub-iae,patrol(ex, √cub-,lie).222.-iē-, N.-iē-s, a variation of-iā-, usually denotes result (604):ser-iē-, N.ser-iē-s,row(√ser-,string);spec-iē-s,sight,looks(√spec-,spy,see);pernic-iē-s,destruction(per, √nec-,murder).223.-t-iē-, N.-t-iē-s:permi-tiē-, N.permi-tiē-s,wasting away(per, √mi-,less).(2.)-min-(103) (N.-men);-din-,-gin-(105,g) (N.-dō,-gō).224.-min-, N.-men(202), usually active, occasionally passive, is very common; it sometimes denotes the means, instrument, or effect.certā-min-, N.certā-men,contest(certā-re);crī-men,charge(√cer-,crī-,sift);spec-imen,what is inspected,sample(√spec-,spy,see);lū-men,light(√lūc-,light);flū-men,flood,stream(√flugṷ-,flow);ag-men,what is led,train(√ag-,lead). Words in-min-often mean nearly the same as those in-mento-(239): as,levā-men,levā-mentu-m,lightening;teg-umen,teg-umentu-m,covering.225.ē-din-,-ī-din-(202):-ē-din-, N.-ē-dō:grav-ēdin-, N.grav-ēdō, (heaviness),catarrh(√grav-,heavy),-ī-din-, N.-ī-dō:cup-īdin-, N.cup-īdō,desire(√cup-,desire);lib-idō,whim(√lib-,yearn).226.-ā-gin-,-ī-gin-(202):-ā-gin-, N.-ā-gō:vorā-gin-, N.vorā-gō,gulf(vorā-re);imā-gō,representation(*imā-, cf.imitārī).-ī-gin-, N.-ī-gō:orī-gin-, N.orī-gō,source(orī-rī);cāl-īgō,darkness(√cāl-,hide). A few denominatives have-ū-gin-, N.-ū-gō:aer-ūgin-, N.aer-ūgō,copper rust(aer-).(3.)-i-ōn-(N.-i-ō);-ti-ōn-or-si-ōn-(N.-ti-ōor-si-ō).227.-i-ōn-, N.-i-ō:opīn-iōn-, N.opīn-iō,notion(opīnā-rī);condic-iō,agreement(com-, √dic-,say);contāg-iō,touch(com-, √tag-,touch). Some words are concrete:leg-iō,pick,legion(√leg-,pick). A few are denominatives:commūn-iō,mutual participation(commūni-).228.-ti-ōn-, N.-ti-ō, or-si-ōn-, N.-si-ō(159,202), is very common, and may denote action either intransitive, transitive, or passive, or the manner or possibility of action.cōgitā-tiōn-, N.cōgitā-tiō,a thinking,a thought(cōgitā-re);exīstimā-tiō,judging,reputation(exīstimā-re);coven-tiō, commonlycōn-tiō,meeting,speech(com-, √ven-,come);dēpul-siō,warding off(dē-, √pol-,push);oppugnā-tiō,besieging,method of besieging(oppugnā-re);occultā-tiō,hiding,chance to hide,possibility of hiding(occultā-re). Some words denote the place where:sta-tiō,a stand(√sta-,stand); some become collectives or concretes:salūtā-tiō,greeting,levee,guests at a levee(salūtā-re);mūnī-tiō,fortification, i.e.,act of fortifying or works(mūnī-re).(4.)-ē-lā-(N.-ē-la),-tē-lā-(N.-tē-la).229.-ē-lā-, N.-ē-la(202):suādē-lā-, N.suādē-la,persuasion(suādē-rē):loqu-ēla,talk(√loqu-,talk);quer-ēlaorquer-ēlla,complaint(√ques-,complain). Some words are concrete:candē-la,candle(candē-re).230.-tē-lā-, N.-tē-la-:conrup-tēlā-, N.conrup-tēla,a seduction(com-, √rup-,spoil,ruin);tū-tēla,protection(√tū-,watch,protect).(5.)-mā-(N.-ma),-nā-(N.-na);-trī-nā-(N.-trī-na).231.-mā-and-nā-are rare, and denote result or something concrete.-mā-, N.-ma:fā-mā-, N.fā-ma,tale(√fā-,tell);-nā, N.-na:ur-na,pitcher(√urc-inurc-eus,pitcher,170, 3); with original suffix-sna(170, 2):lū-na,moon(√lūc-,light);scāla,stairs(√scand-,mount).232.-inā-, N.-ina:ang-inā-, N.ang-ina,choking(√ang-,choke);pāg-ina,page(√pāg-,fasten);sarc-ina,package(√sarc-,patch).-īnā-, N.-īna(202):ru-īnā-, N.ru-īna,downfall(√ru-,tumble);-īnā-is very common in denominatives:pisc-īna,fish-pond(pisci-).233.-trī-nā-, N.-trī-na, akin to the agent in-tōr-:doc-trīnā-, N.doc-trīna,teaching, eitherthe act of teachingorwhat is taught(√doc-,teach);sū-trīna,shoemaking,shoemaker’s trade,shoemaker’s shop(√sū-,sew).(6.)-tā-or-sā-(N.-taor-sa);-tu-or-su-(N.-tu-sor-su-s).234.-tā-, N.-ta, or-sā-, N.-sa(159), is rare, and sometimes denotes result, or something concrete: as,no-tā-, N.no-ta,mark(√gno-,know);por-ta(passage),gate(√por-,fare);fos-sa,ditch(√fod-,dig);repul-sa,repulse(re-, √pol-,push);offēn-sa,offence(ob, √fend-,strike).235.-tu-, N.-tu-s, or-su-, N.-su-s(159,202), denotes the action and its results:ques-tu-, N.ques-tu-s,complaint(√ques-,complain);gem-itus,groan(√gem-,groan). Stems in-ā-tu-, N.-ā-tu-s, sometimes denote office or officials:cōnsul-ātu-, N.cōnsul-ātu-s,being consul,consulship(cōnsul-);sen-ātu-s,senate(sen-).-tu-is seldom passive:vī-su-s, active,sight, passive,looks(√vīd-,see);apparā-tu-s,preparation, eithera getting ready, orwhat is got ready(apparā-re). The supine (2269) is the accusative or ablative of substantives in-tu-(-su-). Most words in-tu-(-su-) are defective in case, and are chiefly used in the ablative (430).(7.)-er-for-es-(N.-us);-ōr-(N.-or).236.Neuter stems in-er-(for-es-), or in-or-(for-os-), N.-us, denote result, or have a concrete meaning:gen-er-, N.gen-us,birth,race(√gen-,beget);op-er-, N.op-us,work(√op-,work);frīg-or-, N.frīg-us,cold(√frīg-,cold).-ēswith lengthenedēis sometimes used in the nominative of gender words: as,nūb-ēs,cloud(√nūb-,veil);sēd-ēs,seat(√sēd-);vāt-ēs,bard.-n-er-,-n-or-, N.-n-us:vol-ner-, N.vol-nus,wound(√vol-,tear);fac-inor-, N.fac-inus,deed(√fac-,do,202).237.-ōr-(for an older form-ōs-,154), N.-ōs, commonly-or, masculine, denotes a state. Many substantives in-ōr-have a parallel verb, usually in-ēre(368), and an adjective in-ido-(287).od-ōr-, N.od-ōsorod-or,smell(√od-,smell, cf.olē-re);pall-or,paleness(cf.pallē-re);cal-or,warmth(cf.calē-re);ūm-or,moisture(cf.ūmē-re);am-or,love(cf.amā-re);ang-or,choking,anguish(√ang-,choke).III. THE INSTRUMENT OR MEANS.238.The suffixes-men-to-,-tro-,-cro-or-culo-,-lo-,-bro-or-bulo-, are used to denote theInstrumentorMeans: as,Stem.Nominative.From.ōrnā-mento-ōrnāmentum,embellishmentōrnā-re,embellisharā-tro-arātrum,plougharā-re,ploughpō-culo-pōculum,drinking-cup√pō-,drinkpā-bulo-pābulum,fodder√pā-,feed239.-men-to-, N.-men-tu-m(202), is one of the commonest suffixes; it sometimes denotes result of action, rarely action itself.pig-mento-, N.pig-mentu-m,paint(√pīg-,paint);experī-mentu-m,test(experī-rī);ōrnā-mentu-m,ornament(ōrnā-re);frag-mentu-m,fragment(√frag-,break);cae-mentu-m,quarried stone(√caed-,cut);incrē-mentu-m,growth(in, √crē-,grow);al-imentu-m,nourishment(√al-,nurture);doc-umentu-m,lesson(√doc-,teach). See also-min-(224).-men-tā-, N.-men-ta, F., is rare:ful-menta,prop(√fulc-,prop);rā-menta,scraping(√rād-,scrape).240.-tro-, N.-tru-m(202):arā-tro-, N.arā-tru-m,plough(arā-re);fer-etru-m,bier(√fer-,bear);rōs-tru-m,beak(√rōd-,peck). Sometimes-stro-:mōn-stru-m,warning(√mon-,mind);lu-stra, plural,fen,jungle(√lu-,wash);lū-stru-m,purification(√lou-,wash).-trā-, N.-tra, F.:mulc-trā-, N.mulc-tra(alsomulc-tru-m, Ne.),milking-pail(√mulg-,milk).-es-trā-:fen-estra,window.241.-cro-, N.-cru-m, used when anlprecedes:ful-cro-, N.ful-cru-m,couch-leg(√fulc-,prop).-cro-sometimes denotes the place where:ambulā-cru-m,promenade(ambulā-re); sometimes the effect:simulā-cru-m,likeness(simulā-re).242.-culo-, N.-culu-m(202):pō-culo-, N.pō-culu-m,cup(√pō-,drink);fer-culu-m,tray(√fer-,bear).-culo-sometimes denotes the place where:cub-iculu-m,sleeping-room(√cub-,lie);cēnā-culu-m, originallydining-room, usuallygarret(cēnā-re).243.-u-lo-, N.-u-lu-m-(202): chiefly aftercorg:vinc-ulo-, N.vinc-ulu-m,bond(√vinc-,bind);cing-ulu-m,girdle(√cing-,gird).-u-lā-, N.-u-la, F.,rēg-ula,rule(√rēg-,guide).244.-bro-, N.-bru-m(202):crī-bro-, N.crī-bru-m,sieve(√cer-,crī-,sift);lā-bru-m,wash-basin(√lav-,wash).-brā-, N.-bra, F.:dolā-bra,chisel,mattock(dolā-re);late-bra,hiding-place(√lat-,hide).245.-bulo-, N.-bulu-m(202):pā-bulo-, N.pā-bulu-m,fodder(√pā-,keep);vēnā-bulu-m,hunting-spear(vēnā-rī);pat-ibulu-m,pillory(√pat-,stretch).-bulo-sometimes denotes the place where:sta-bulu-m,standing-place,stall(√sta-,stand).-bulā-, N.-bula, F., rare:sū-bula,awl(√su-,sew);ta-bula,board(√ta-,stretch);fā-bula,talk(√fā-,talk).(B.) DENOMINATIVES.
(2.) No Latin word can end in two explosives: thus, finaltis dropped inlac,milk(478); finaldincor,heart(476).
(3.) When finalswas preceded byrorl, it was assimilated to these liquids, and finalrrandllwere then simplified torandl. See the examples under (1). Wherever final-rsand-lsappear they are not original but the result of the disappearance of an intervening consonant: as,puls,pottage, for*pults(533);pars,part, for*parts(533); all with syncope (111) of the voweliin the nominativesg.
(4.) Original finalnswas changed tosand the preceding vowel was lengthened: as,sanguīs,blood(2452), for*sanguinsfrom the stemsanguin-(486). Wherever final-nsappears it is not original but the result of the disappearance of an intervening consonant: as,ferēns,carrying, for*ferents, from the stemferent-;frōns,foliage, for*fronds, from the stemfrond-.
(5.) A dental mute before finalsis dropped: as,hērēs,heir, for*hērēds(475);virtūs,virtue, for*virtūts(477);nox,night, for*nocts(533); a labial or guttural mute is retained: as,fornāx(x=cs),furnace, from the stemfornāc-(531);lēx,law, from the stemleg-(472);urbs,city, from the stemurb-(480);opsfrom the stemop-,help(480).
DEVELOPMENT OF AN ANAPTYCTICAL VOWEL.
172.Certain consonant groups, notably those containing a liquid, are sometimes eased by the insertion of a vowel which develops between the consonants. This is calledAnaptyxis(Greekἀναπτύσσειν,unfold). It is the opposite of syncope of vowels (110,111).
(1.) The suffix-clo-(242), changed to-culo-, being thus no longer distinguishable from the diminutive suffix-culo-(267): as,pōculum,cup, forpōclum(Plaut.);vehiculum,carriage, forvehiclum(Plaut.). But-clo-is more common in Plautus than-culo-, especially after long vowels. The suffixes-blo-(245), and-bli-(294) always show the anaptyctical vowel. Its colour depends on the nature of thel(60): as,stabulum,resting-place;stabilis,steady. The group-ngl-also changes to-ngul-: as,angulus(164, 6).
(2.) In words borrowed from the Greek an unfamiliar sequence of consonants was so lightened; as,mina,mina, for*mna(μνᾶ); and in Old Latindrachuma(Plaut.) for laterdrachma,drachma(δραχμή);techina,trick, from Greekτέχνη;TecumēssaforTecmēssa(Τέκμησσα).
(3.) Before syllabic (83)landra vowel is developed (111,b): as,íncertus,uncertain, for*íncr̥tus;fácultās,capability, forfácl̥tās. Likewise before syllabicn(139).
DISSIMILATION.
173.(1.) To avoid the repetition of the same liquid in successive syllableslis sometimes changed tor: as,caeruleus,sky-blue, for*caeluleus, fromcaelum;Parīlia, by the side ofPalīlia, fromPalēs; the suffix-clo-appears as-cro-after anl: as,lavācrum,bath,simulācrum,image(241); the suffix-āli-under like conditions changes to-āri-; as,molāre,of a mill(313), butaugurāle,of an augur.
(2.) In a few cases repetition is avoided by dropping the sound once: as,praestīgiae,jugglery, forpraestrīgiae. This also applies to the spirantsfollowed by a consonant, a combination which is not tolerated in successive syllables: as in the reduplicated perfectsstetī, for*stestī;spopondī, for*spospondī(859), where the second syllable, and inquisquiliae,sweepings, for*squisquiliae, where the first syllable was lightened.
CHANGES WITHIN COMPOUNDS.
174.The final syllable of the first member of compounds (181) sometimes undergoes certain changes by analogy to other compounds:
(1.) The final-āofā-stems, by analogy to the more frequent-o-stems, usually changed to-o, which in atonic syllables became-i(105): as,āli-ger,winged, for*ālo-gerfromālā-.
(2.) Stems in-on-substitute-o-for-on-by analogy to the-o-stems: as,homi-cída,murderer, for*homo-cīda(105) fromhomon-(Nom.homō).
(3.) Some stems in-ssubstitute-o-by analogy to the-o-stems: as,foedi-fragus,treaty-breaking, for*foedo-fragusfrom the stemfoedos-(Nom.foedus, Gen.foederis; 154).
175.A word has as many syllables as it has separate vowels or diphthongs. The last syllable is called theUltima; the last syllable but one is called thePenult; the last syllable but two is called theAntepenult.
176.The quantity of single sounds (e.g. the quantity of a vowel) must be carefully distinguished from the quantity of the group of sounds or the syllable of which the single sound forms a part.
177.A syllable is long if its vowel is long, or if its vowel is followed by two consonants or byxorz: as,
dūcēbās;volvunt. Indūcēbāsboth the vowels and the syllables are long; involvuntthe vowels are short, but the syllables are long; in cases like the last the syllables (not the vowels) are said to belong by position.hdoes not count as a consonant (58) andqu(orqv,27) has the value of a single consonant only: thus, inadhūcandaquathe first syllable is short.
178.In prose or old dramatic verse a syllable with a short vowel before a mute orffollowed bylorris not long: astenebrae. In other verse, however, such syllables are sometimes regarded as long. In compounds such syllables are long in any verse: asobruit.
179.The first of two successive syllables which begin with the same sound is sometimes lost. This is calledHaplology.
Thus,sēmodiusforsēmimodius,half a bushel;calamitōsusfor*calamitātōsus, from the stemcalamitāt-(262) and suffix-oso-(336);voluntārius, forvoluntātārius(262,309);cōnsuētūdō, forcōnsuētitūdō(264). See also255;379.
180.Formationis the process by which stems are formed from roots or from other stems.
181.A word containing a single stem is called aSimpleword: as,magnus,great, stemmagno-;animus,soul, stemanimo-. A word containing two or more stems is called aCompoundword: as,magnanimus,great-souled, stemmagnanimo-.
182.Most inflected words consist of two parts: a stem, which is usually a modified root (195), and an inflection ending: thus, inductōrī,for a leader, the root isduc-,lead, the stem isductōr-,leader, and-īis the inflection ending, meaningfor.
ROOTS.
183.ARootis a monosyllable which gives the fundamental meaning to a word or group of words.
184.A root is not a real word; it is neither a noun, naming something, nor a verb, denoting action. Thusiug-,yoke, does not meana yokenorI yoke; it merelysuggestssomething about yoking. The root becomes a real word only when an inflection ending is added, or, more commonly, both a formative suffix and an inflection ending: as,iug-u-m,a yoke.
185.Roots are common to Latin and its cognate languages, such as the Sanskrit and the Greek. When a root is named in this book, the specific Latin form of the root is meant. This often differs somewhat from the form of the root which is assumed as applicable to all the cognate languages.
186.Almost all roots are noun and verb roots; that is, roots with a meaning which may be embodied either in a noun or in a verb, or in both. Besides these there is a small class, less than a dozen in number, of pronoun roots. There are many words which cannot be traced back to their roots.
187.A root sometimes has two or more forms: as,fīd-(forfeid-),foed-,fid-,trust;gen-,gn-,sire;tol,tl,bear; see135,145.
Thus,fīd-is found infīd-us,trusty,fīd-ūcia,confidence,fīd-ūciō,I pledge,fīd-ūciārius,in trust,fīd-ere,put trust in,fīd-ēns,courageous,fīd-entia,courage;foed-infoed-us,pledge of faith,foed-erātus,bound by a pledge of faith;fid-infid-ēs,faith,fid-ēlis,faithful,fid-ēliter,faithfully,fid-ēlitās,faithfulness,per-fid-us,faithless,per-fid-ia,faithlessness,per-fid-iōsus,full of faithlessness, per-fid-iōsē, faithlessly.gen-ingen-itor,sire,gn-ingi-gn-ere,beget,gn-ā-ingnā-tus,son.
188.A root ending in a vowel is called aVowel Root: as,da-,give; a root ending in a consonant is called aConsonant Root: as,rup-,break. Roots are conveniently indicated by the sign √: as, √teg-, to be read ‘rootteg-.’
189.A root or a part of a root is sometimes doubled in forming a word; this is calledReduplication: as,mur-mur,murmur;tur-tur,turtle-dove;po-pul-us,people;ul-ul-āre,yell.
PRESENT STEMS AS ROOTS.
190.Many nouns are formed from the present stems of verbs, which take the place of roots. Stems thus used are mostly those of verbs in-āreand-īre.
Thus, fromōrā-, stem ofōrāre,speak, are formedōrā-tor,speaker, andōrā-tiō,speech; fromaudī-, stem ofaudīre,hear, are formedaudī-tor,hearer, andaudī-tiō,hearing.
191.Verbs in-ēre, and those in-āreand-īrein which theāorīis confined to the present system (868,874) usually have parallel nouns formed directly from a root: as,
doc-tor,teacher,doc-umentum,lesson,doc-ilis,teachable(√doc-,docēre);sec-tor,cutter(√sec-,secāre);dom-itor,tamer,dom-inus,master,dom-itus,tamed(√dom-,domāre);sarc-ina,package(√sarc-,sarcīre).
192.But a noun is sometimes exceptionally formed from the present stem of a verb in-ēre: as,monē-ta,mint(monēre);acē-tum,vinegar(acēre);virē-tum,a green(virēre);suādē-la,persuasion(suādēre);habē-na,rein(habēre);egē-nus,needy(egēre);verē-cundus,shamefast(verērī);valē-tūdō,health(valēre).
193.Verbs in-ere, and particularly such as have a present in-nō,-scō,-tōor-iō(832), usually have their parallel nouns formed directly from a root: as,
vic-tor,conqueror(√vic-,vincere);incrē-mentum,growth(√crē-,crēscere);pul-sus,a push(√pol-,pellere).
194.Sometimes, however, nouns are formed from such verb stems, and not from roots: as,lecti-stern-ium,a couch-spreading(sternere, √ster-,strā-);vinc-ibilis,conquerable(vincere, √vīc-);pāsc-uum,pasture(pāscere, √pā-);pect-en,comb(pectere, √pec-);fall-āx,deceitful(fallere, √fal-).
STEMS.
195.AStemis that part of a word which contains its meaning, and is either a root alone or more commonly a root with an addition called aFormative Suffix.
Thus, in the wordducis,leader’s, the stem, which is identical with the rootduc-, meansleader; a root thus serving as a stem is called aRoot Stem; inductōris,leader’s, the stem is formed by the formative suffix-tōr-, denoting the agent, attached to the √duc-.
196.New stems are formed by adding a suffix to a stem. Thus, fromōrātōr-,speaker, is formed by the addition of the suffix-io-, a new stemōrātōr-io-, N.ōrātōrius,speaker’s.
197.The noun has usually only one form of the stem. The verb has different stems to indicate mood and tense; these stems are all based on two principal tense stems, the present and the perfect active.
PRIMITIVES AND DENOMINATIVES.
198.I. A stem or word formed directly from a root or a verb stem is called aPrimitive. II. A stem or word formed from a noun stem is called aDenominative.
(a.) Primitives: from √rēg-,reg-,guide:rēx, stemrēg-,king;rēgnum, stemrēg-no-,kingdom;rēctus, stemrēc-to-,guided;regere, stemreg-e-,guide. Fromōrā-, stem ofōrāre,speak:ōrātor, stemōrā-tōr-,speaker;ōrātiō, stemōrā-tiōn-,speech.
(b.) Denominatives: from noun stemrēg-,king:rēgīna, stemrēg-īnā,queen;rēgius, stemrēg-io-,rēgālis, stemrēg-āli-,royal. Fromōrātiōn-,speech:ōrātiūncula, stemōrātiūn-culā-,little speech. Fromrēg-no-,kingdom:rēgnāre, stemrēgnā-,to rule. Fromiūs,law:iūrāre,swear,stemiūrā(154).
WITHOUT A FORMATIVE SUFFIX.
199.Some roots are used as noun stems: as,duc-, N.dux,leader(√duc-,lead);rēg-, N.rēx,king(√rēg-,guide); particularly at the end of a compound: as,con-iug-, N.coniūnx,yoke-fellow,spouse(com-, √jug-,yoke);tubi-cin-, N.tubicen,trumpeter(tubā-, √can-,play).
WITH A FORMATIVE SUFFIX.
200.Simpleformative suffixes are vowels: as,-ā-,-o-,-i-,-u-; also-io-,-uo-, (-vo-); or such little syllables as-mo-,-min-;-ro-,-lo-;-ōn-;-no-,-ni-,-nu-;-to-,-ti-,-tu-;-ter-,-tōr-;-unt-(-nt-);-es-(-er-),-ōr-; these syllables sometimes have slight modifications of form.Compoundsuffixes consist of one or more simple suffixes attached to a simple suffix: as,-tōr-io-,-ti-mo-, &c., &c.
201.The following are examples of noun stems formed from roots or verb stems by simple suffixes added:
202.Formative suffixes are often preceded by a vowel, which in many instances is a stem vowel, real or presumed; in others, the vowel has come to be regarded as a part of the suffix itself.
Thus,-lo-:fīlio-lo-, N.fīlio-lu-s,little son(fīlio-);hortu-lu-s,little garden(horto-,105,h); but-ulo-:rēg-ulu-s,petty king(rēg-);ger-ulu-s,porter(√ges-,bear),-ci-:pugnā-ci-, N.pugnā-x,full of fight(pugnā-re); but-āci-:fer-āx,productive(√fer-,bear),-to-:laudā-to-, N.laudā-tu-s,praised(laudā-re); but-āto-:dent-ātus,toothed(denti-).-tu-:equitā-tu-, N.equitā-tu-s,cavalry(equitā-re); but-ātu-:sen-ātu-s,senate(sen-).-lā-:suādē-lā-, N.suādē-la,persuasion(suādē-re,192); but-ēlā-:loqu-ēla,talk(√loqu-,speak).-tāt-:cīvi-tāt-, N.cīvi-tā-s,citizenship(cīvi-); but-itāt-:auctōr-itā-s,authority(auctōr-).-cio-:aedīli-cio-, N.aedīli-ciu-s,of an aedile(aedīli-); but-icio-:patr-iciu-s,patrician(patr-).-timo-:fīni-timo-, N.fīni-timu-s,bordering(fīni-); but-itimo-:lēg-itimu-s,of the law(lēg-).
203.There are many formative suffixes of nouns. The commonest only can be named, and these may be conveniently grouped as below, by their meanings. Compound suffixes are arranged with reference to the last element of the suffix: thus, under the adjective suffix-io-(304) will be found-c-io-,-īc-io-,-tōr-io-, and-ār-io-. In many instances it is difficult to distinguish between simple and compound suffixes.
(A.) PRIMITIVES.
I. THE AGENT.
204.The suffixes-tōr-,-o-,-ā-,-lo-, and-ōn-, are used to denote theAgent: as,
(1.)-tōr-(N.-tor).
205.-tōr-, N.-tor, or-sōr-, N.-sor(159,202), is the commonest suffix of the agent; the feminine is-trī-ci-, N.-trī-x.-tōr-is sometimes used in a present sense, of action repeated or occurring at any time, and sometimes in a past sense.
206.(a.)-tōr-(-sōr-), in the present sense, often denotes one who makes a regular business of the action of the root or verb.
ōrā-tōr-, N.ōrā-tor,spokesman,speaker(ōrā-re);lēc-tor,reader(√leg-,read). Workmen and tradesmen:arā-tor,ploughman,pās-tor,shepherd,pīc-tor,painter,sū-tor,shoemaker. Semi-professional:captā-tor,legacy-hunter,dēlā-tor,professional informer. Government officials:cēn-sor,appraiser,censor,imperā-tor,commander,prae-tor, (leader),praetor,dictā-tor,līc-tor. Of the law:āc-tor,manager,accūsā-tor,accuser,spōn-sor,bondsman,tū-tor,guardian. From presumed verb stems (202):sen-ātor,senator(sen-);viā-tor,wayfarer(viā-);fundi-tor,slinger(fundā-).-tro-, N.-ter, has the meaning of-tōr-: as,aus-tro-, N.aus-ter(scorcher),south-wester(√aus-,burn).
207.In the present sense-tōr-(-sōr-) is also used to indicate permanent character, quality, capability, tendency, likelihood: as,bellā-tor,a man of war,warlike;dēlīberā-tor,a man of caution;cessā-tor,a loiterer;dērī-sor,a mocker,ironical;cōnsūmp-tor,apt to destroy,destructive;aedificā-tor,building-mad.
208.(b.)-tōr-(-sōr-), in a perfect sense, is used particularly in old Latin, or to denote an agent who has acquired a permanent name by a single conspicuous action. In this sense it usually has a genitive of the object, or a possessive pronoun: thus,
castīgā-tor meus,my mentor, orthe man who has upbraided me;olīvae inven-tor,the deviser of the olive(Aristaeus);reper-tor vītis,the author of the vine(Bacchus);patriae līberā-tōrēs,the emancipators of the nation.
(2.)-o-(N.-u-s),-ā-(N.-a);-lo-(N.-lu-s);-ōn-(N.-ō).
209.-o-and-ā-stems may denote vocation or class; many are compounds.-o-, N.-u-s:coqu-o-, N.coqu-o-sorcoc-u-s,cook(√coqu-,cook);causidic-u-s,pleader(causā-, √dic-,speak).-ā-, N.-a:scrīb-ā-, N.scrīb-a,clerk(√scrīb-,write);agricol-a,husbandman(agro-, √col-,till).
210.-u-lo-, N.-u-lu-s(202):ger-ulo-, N.ger-ulu-s,bearer(√ges-,bear);fig-ulu-s,potter(√fig-,shape,mould).
211.-ōn-, N.-ō-:err-ōn-, N.err-ō,stroller(errā-re); especially in compounds:praed-ō,robber(praedā-rī);praec-ōfor*praevocō,herald(prae-vocā-re);combib-ō,fellow-drinker(com-, √bib-,drink).
II. THE ACTION.
212.The suffixes-ā-,-io-,-iā-;-min-;-i-ōn-,-ti-ōn-;-lā-;-mā-,-nā-;-tā-,-tu-;-er-,-or-,-ōr-, are used to denote theAction: as,
213.Words denoting action (1470) in a substantive form have a wide range of meaning; they may denote, according to the connection, action intransitive, transitive, or passive, complete or incomplete; if the verb denotes condition or state, the word of action often comes very near to denominatives of quality; furthermore the idea of action is often lost, and passes over to result, concrete effect, means or instrument, or place.
(1.)-ā-(N.-a);-io-(N.-iu-m);-iā-(N.-ia),-iē-(N.-iē-s).
214.-ā-, N.-a, is rare in words of action:fug-ā-, N.fug-a,flight(√fug-,fly); most words are concrete:mol-a,mill(√mol-,grind);tog-a,covering(√teg-,cover).
215.-ūr-ā-, N.-ūr-a, is rare:fig-ūrā-, N.fig-ūra,shape(√fig-,shape).
216.-tūr-ā-, N.-tūr-a, or-sūr-ā-, N.-sūr-a(159,202), akin to the agent in-tōr-(-sōr-):armā-tūrā-, N.armā-tūra,equipment(armā-re);pīc-tūra,painting, i.e.,act of paintingorpicture(√pig-,paint). Words parallel with official personal names (206) denote office:cēn-sūra,taxing,censor’s office(cf.cēnsōr-);prae-tūra,praetorship(cf.praetōr-).
217.-io-, N.-iu-m, sometimes denotes the effect or the object. The line cannot always be drawn very sharply between these stems in-io-(many of which may be formed through a presumed noun stem), and denominatives in-io-(249).
218.(a.)-io-is rarely suffixed to simple roots or verb stems:od-io-, N.od-iu-m,hate,hateful thing,hateful conduct(√od-,hate); some words become concrete:lab-iu-m,lip(√lab-,lick).
219.(b.) Most primitives in-io-are compounds: as,adag-iu-m,proverb(ad, √ag-,speak);ingen-iu-m,disposition(in, √gen-,beget);dīscid-iu-m,separation,exscid-iu-m,destruction(dī-,ex, √scid-,cleave);incend-iu-m,conflagration(in, √cand-,light);obsequ-iu-m,compliance(ob-, √sequ-,follow);conloqu-iu-m,parley(com-, √loqu-,talk);obsid-iu-m,siege(ob, √sed-,sit).
220.-t-io-, N.-t-iu-m:spa-tio-, N.spa-tiu-m,stretch(√spa-,span,stretch);sōlsti-tiu-m,sun-stand,solstice(sōl-, √sta-,stand);ini-tiu-m,a beginning(in, √i-,go).
221.-iā-, N.-ia:fur-iā-, N.fur-iae, plural,ravings,madness(√fur-,rave);pluvia,rain(√pluv-,rain). Most stems in-iā-are compounds, used in the plural only, often with concrete or passive meaning:dēlic-iae,allurements,pet(dē, √lac-,allure);excub-iae,patrol(ex, √cub-,lie).
222.-iē-, N.-iē-s, a variation of-iā-, usually denotes result (604):ser-iē-, N.ser-iē-s,row(√ser-,string);spec-iē-s,sight,looks(√spec-,spy,see);pernic-iē-s,destruction(per, √nec-,murder).
223.-t-iē-, N.-t-iē-s:permi-tiē-, N.permi-tiē-s,wasting away(per, √mi-,less).
(2.)-min-(103) (N.-men);-din-,-gin-(105,g) (N.-dō,-gō).
224.-min-, N.-men(202), usually active, occasionally passive, is very common; it sometimes denotes the means, instrument, or effect.
certā-min-, N.certā-men,contest(certā-re);crī-men,charge(√cer-,crī-,sift);spec-imen,what is inspected,sample(√spec-,spy,see);lū-men,light(√lūc-,light);flū-men,flood,stream(√flugṷ-,flow);ag-men,what is led,train(√ag-,lead). Words in-min-often mean nearly the same as those in-mento-(239): as,levā-men,levā-mentu-m,lightening;teg-umen,teg-umentu-m,covering.
225.ē-din-,-ī-din-(202):-ē-din-, N.-ē-dō:grav-ēdin-, N.grav-ēdō, (heaviness),catarrh(√grav-,heavy),-ī-din-, N.-ī-dō:cup-īdin-, N.cup-īdō,desire(√cup-,desire);lib-idō,whim(√lib-,yearn).
226.-ā-gin-,-ī-gin-(202):-ā-gin-, N.-ā-gō:vorā-gin-, N.vorā-gō,gulf(vorā-re);imā-gō,representation(*imā-, cf.imitārī).-ī-gin-, N.-ī-gō:orī-gin-, N.orī-gō,source(orī-rī);cāl-īgō,darkness(√cāl-,hide). A few denominatives have-ū-gin-, N.-ū-gō:aer-ūgin-, N.aer-ūgō,copper rust(aer-).
(3.)-i-ōn-(N.-i-ō);-ti-ōn-or-si-ōn-(N.-ti-ōor-si-ō).
227.-i-ōn-, N.-i-ō:opīn-iōn-, N.opīn-iō,notion(opīnā-rī);condic-iō,agreement(com-, √dic-,say);contāg-iō,touch(com-, √tag-,touch). Some words are concrete:leg-iō,pick,legion(√leg-,pick). A few are denominatives:commūn-iō,mutual participation(commūni-).
228.-ti-ōn-, N.-ti-ō, or-si-ōn-, N.-si-ō(159,202), is very common, and may denote action either intransitive, transitive, or passive, or the manner or possibility of action.
cōgitā-tiōn-, N.cōgitā-tiō,a thinking,a thought(cōgitā-re);exīstimā-tiō,judging,reputation(exīstimā-re);coven-tiō, commonlycōn-tiō,meeting,speech(com-, √ven-,come);dēpul-siō,warding off(dē-, √pol-,push);oppugnā-tiō,besieging,method of besieging(oppugnā-re);occultā-tiō,hiding,chance to hide,possibility of hiding(occultā-re). Some words denote the place where:sta-tiō,a stand(√sta-,stand); some become collectives or concretes:salūtā-tiō,greeting,levee,guests at a levee(salūtā-re);mūnī-tiō,fortification, i.e.,act of fortifying or works(mūnī-re).
(4.)-ē-lā-(N.-ē-la),-tē-lā-(N.-tē-la).
229.-ē-lā-, N.-ē-la(202):suādē-lā-, N.suādē-la,persuasion(suādē-rē):loqu-ēla,talk(√loqu-,talk);quer-ēlaorquer-ēlla,complaint(√ques-,complain). Some words are concrete:candē-la,candle(candē-re).
230.-tē-lā-, N.-tē-la-:conrup-tēlā-, N.conrup-tēla,a seduction(com-, √rup-,spoil,ruin);tū-tēla,protection(√tū-,watch,protect).
(5.)-mā-(N.-ma),-nā-(N.-na);-trī-nā-(N.-trī-na).
231.-mā-and-nā-are rare, and denote result or something concrete.-mā-, N.-ma:fā-mā-, N.fā-ma,tale(√fā-,tell);-nā, N.-na:ur-na,pitcher(√urc-inurc-eus,pitcher,170, 3); with original suffix-sna(170, 2):lū-na,moon(√lūc-,light);scāla,stairs(√scand-,mount).
232.-inā-, N.-ina:ang-inā-, N.ang-ina,choking(√ang-,choke);pāg-ina,page(√pāg-,fasten);sarc-ina,package(√sarc-,patch).-īnā-, N.-īna(202):ru-īnā-, N.ru-īna,downfall(√ru-,tumble);-īnā-is very common in denominatives:pisc-īna,fish-pond(pisci-).
233.-trī-nā-, N.-trī-na, akin to the agent in-tōr-:doc-trīnā-, N.doc-trīna,teaching, eitherthe act of teachingorwhat is taught(√doc-,teach);sū-trīna,shoemaking,shoemaker’s trade,shoemaker’s shop(√sū-,sew).
(6.)-tā-or-sā-(N.-taor-sa);-tu-or-su-(N.-tu-sor-su-s).
234.-tā-, N.-ta, or-sā-, N.-sa(159), is rare, and sometimes denotes result, or something concrete: as,no-tā-, N.no-ta,mark(√gno-,know);por-ta(passage),gate(√por-,fare);fos-sa,ditch(√fod-,dig);repul-sa,repulse(re-, √pol-,push);offēn-sa,offence(ob, √fend-,strike).
235.-tu-, N.-tu-s, or-su-, N.-su-s(159,202), denotes the action and its results:ques-tu-, N.ques-tu-s,complaint(√ques-,complain);gem-itus,groan(√gem-,groan). Stems in-ā-tu-, N.-ā-tu-s, sometimes denote office or officials:cōnsul-ātu-, N.cōnsul-ātu-s,being consul,consulship(cōnsul-);sen-ātu-s,senate(sen-).-tu-is seldom passive:vī-su-s, active,sight, passive,looks(√vīd-,see);apparā-tu-s,preparation, eithera getting ready, orwhat is got ready(apparā-re). The supine (2269) is the accusative or ablative of substantives in-tu-(-su-). Most words in-tu-(-su-) are defective in case, and are chiefly used in the ablative (430).
(7.)-er-for-es-(N.-us);-ōr-(N.-or).
236.Neuter stems in-er-(for-es-), or in-or-(for-os-), N.-us, denote result, or have a concrete meaning:gen-er-, N.gen-us,birth,race(√gen-,beget);op-er-, N.op-us,work(√op-,work);frīg-or-, N.frīg-us,cold(√frīg-,cold).-ēswith lengthenedēis sometimes used in the nominative of gender words: as,nūb-ēs,cloud(√nūb-,veil);sēd-ēs,seat(√sēd-);vāt-ēs,bard.-n-er-,-n-or-, N.-n-us:vol-ner-, N.vol-nus,wound(√vol-,tear);fac-inor-, N.fac-inus,deed(√fac-,do,202).
237.-ōr-(for an older form-ōs-,154), N.-ōs, commonly-or, masculine, denotes a state. Many substantives in-ōr-have a parallel verb, usually in-ēre(368), and an adjective in-ido-(287).
od-ōr-, N.od-ōsorod-or,smell(√od-,smell, cf.olē-re);pall-or,paleness(cf.pallē-re);cal-or,warmth(cf.calē-re);ūm-or,moisture(cf.ūmē-re);am-or,love(cf.amā-re);ang-or,choking,anguish(√ang-,choke).
III. THE INSTRUMENT OR MEANS.
238.The suffixes-men-to-,-tro-,-cro-or-culo-,-lo-,-bro-or-bulo-, are used to denote theInstrumentorMeans: as,
239.-men-to-, N.-men-tu-m(202), is one of the commonest suffixes; it sometimes denotes result of action, rarely action itself.
pig-mento-, N.pig-mentu-m,paint(√pīg-,paint);experī-mentu-m,test(experī-rī);ōrnā-mentu-m,ornament(ōrnā-re);frag-mentu-m,fragment(√frag-,break);cae-mentu-m,quarried stone(√caed-,cut);incrē-mentu-m,growth(in, √crē-,grow);al-imentu-m,nourishment(√al-,nurture);doc-umentu-m,lesson(√doc-,teach). See also-min-(224).-men-tā-, N.-men-ta, F., is rare:ful-menta,prop(√fulc-,prop);rā-menta,scraping(√rād-,scrape).
240.-tro-, N.-tru-m(202):arā-tro-, N.arā-tru-m,plough(arā-re);fer-etru-m,bier(√fer-,bear);rōs-tru-m,beak(√rōd-,peck). Sometimes-stro-:mōn-stru-m,warning(√mon-,mind);lu-stra, plural,fen,jungle(√lu-,wash);lū-stru-m,purification(√lou-,wash).-trā-, N.-tra, F.:mulc-trā-, N.mulc-tra(alsomulc-tru-m, Ne.),milking-pail(√mulg-,milk).-es-trā-:fen-estra,window.
241.-cro-, N.-cru-m, used when anlprecedes:ful-cro-, N.ful-cru-m,couch-leg(√fulc-,prop).-cro-sometimes denotes the place where:ambulā-cru-m,promenade(ambulā-re); sometimes the effect:simulā-cru-m,likeness(simulā-re).
242.-culo-, N.-culu-m(202):pō-culo-, N.pō-culu-m,cup(√pō-,drink);fer-culu-m,tray(√fer-,bear).-culo-sometimes denotes the place where:cub-iculu-m,sleeping-room(√cub-,lie);cēnā-culu-m, originallydining-room, usuallygarret(cēnā-re).
243.-u-lo-, N.-u-lu-m-(202): chiefly aftercorg:vinc-ulo-, N.vinc-ulu-m,bond(√vinc-,bind);cing-ulu-m,girdle(√cing-,gird).-u-lā-, N.-u-la, F.,rēg-ula,rule(√rēg-,guide).
244.-bro-, N.-bru-m(202):crī-bro-, N.crī-bru-m,sieve(√cer-,crī-,sift);lā-bru-m,wash-basin(√lav-,wash).-brā-, N.-bra, F.:dolā-bra,chisel,mattock(dolā-re);late-bra,hiding-place(√lat-,hide).
245.-bulo-, N.-bulu-m(202):pā-bulo-, N.pā-bulu-m,fodder(√pā-,keep);vēnā-bulu-m,hunting-spear(vēnā-rī);pat-ibulu-m,pillory(√pat-,stretch).-bulo-sometimes denotes the place where:sta-bulu-m,standing-place,stall(√sta-,stand).-bulā-, N.-bula, F., rare:sū-bula,awl(√su-,sew);ta-bula,board(√ta-,stretch);fā-bula,talk(√fā-,talk).
(B.) DENOMINATIVES.