341.Adverbs sometimes have a diminutive form: as,bellē,charmingly;paullulum,a little bit;meliusculē,a bit better(340).V. COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.342.Comparatives and superlatives are usually formed from the stem of the positive: as,dignior,worthier,dignissimus,worthiest, fromdigno-, stem ofdignus. A few are formed directly from roots: thus,maior,greater, andmaximus,greatest, are formed from the √mag-, and not frommagno-, stem ofmagnus.(1.)COMPARATIVE-ior,SUPERLATIVE-issimus.343.The nominative of comparative adjectives ends usually in-ior, and that of superlatives in-issimus: thus,Comparative.Superlative.Masc.Fem.Neut.Masc.Fem.Neut.-ior-ior-ius-issimus-issima-issimumPositive.Comparative.Superlative.altus,high,altior,higher,altissimus,highest.trīstis,sad,trīstior,sadder,trīstissimus,saddest.(2.)SUPERLATIVE-rimus.344.Adjectives with the nominative in-erhave the nominative of the superlative like the nominative of the positive with-rimusadded (350): as,Positive.Comparative.Superlative.pauper,poor,pauperior,poorer,pauperrimus,poorest.ācer,sharp,ācrior,sharper,ācerrimus,sharpest.mātūrrimusoccurs once (Tac.), formātūrissimus, positivemātūrus,ripe.(3.)SUPERLATIVE-limus.345.humilis,difficilis, andfacilis,similis,dissimilis, andgracilis,have the nominative of the superlative in-limus, followinglof the stem (350): as,Positive.Comparative.Superlative.humilis,lowly,humilior,lowlier,humillimus,lowliest.THE COMPARATIVE SUFFIX.346.The comparative suffix is-iōs-, which becomes in the singular, nominative masculine and feminine,-ior(154;132), neuter nominative and accusative,-ius(107,c); in all other cases-iōr-(154).347.Other comparative suffixes are-ro-or-ero-, and-tro-or-tero-, used in a few words, principally designating place: as,sup-erī,the upper ones,īnferī,the nether ones;ex-terī,outsiders,posterī,after-generations;alter,the other;uter,whether? which of the two?(for*quo-ter,146);dexter,right.348.Some words designating place have a doubled comparative suffix,-er-iōr-, or-ter-iōr-: as,sup-er-ior,upper,īnferior,lower.ci-ter-ior,hither,dēterior(lower),worse,exterior,outer,interior,inner,posterior,hinder,after,ulterior,further,dexterior,more to the right,-is-tro-is used in two words which have become substantives:min-is-ter(inferior),servant, andmagister(superior),master.THE SUPERLATIVE SUFFIX.349.The common superlative suffix is-issimo-, nominative-issimus, with older-issumo-, nominative-issumus(28).350.Stems which end in-ro-,-ri-, or-li-(344,345) take the suffix-issimo-(cf.-simo-,351) with syncope of its initiali(111) and assimilation of the finallorr(166, 8).351.The suffix-timo-is further used in a few root superlatives:ci-timus,dextimus,extimus,intimus,optimus,postumus, andultimus; and-simo-inmaximus,pessimus, andproximus.352.The suffix-mo-or-imo-is used insum-mo-, N.summus,highest(sub);min-imo-, N.minimus,least;prīmus,first,septimus,seventh,decimus,tenth.-mo-or-imo-is attached to-is-(135, 2) inplūrimusfor*plō-is-imo-s(fullest),most(99); and to-rē-or-trē-, possibly an adverbial form (705), insuprēmus,extrēmus, andpostrēmus.PECULIARITIES OF COMPARISON.353.Some positives have a comparative or superlative, or both, from a different form of the stem: such are,frūgī,thrifty,frūgālior,frūgālissimus.nēquam,naughty,nēquior,nēquissimus.iuvenis,young,iūnior,(nātū minimus).senex,old,senior,(nātū maximus).magnus,great,maior,maximus(351).beneficus,kindly,beneficentior,beneficentissimus.honōrificus,complimentary,honōrificentior,honōrificentissimus.magnificus,grand,magnificentior,magnificentissimus.354.iuvenior,younger, is late (Sen., Plin., Tac.).benevolēns,kindly,benevolentior,benevolentissimus, andmaledīcēns,abusive,maledīcentior(once each, Plaut.),maledīcentissimus, have usually as positivebenevolusandmaledicusrespectively.355.Some positives have a comparative or superlative, or both, from a wholly different stem: such are,bonus,good,melior,optimus(351).malus,bad,peior,pessimus(351).multus,much,plūs(sing. Ne. only),plūrimus(352).parvus,little,minor,minimus(352).parvushas rarelyparvissimus.356.Four comparatives in-erioror-terior, denoting place (348), have two forms of the superlative; the nominative masculine singular of the positive is not in common use:exterior,extimus(351), orextrēmus(352),outermost.īnferior,īnfimus, orīmus,lowest.posterior,postumus(351),lastborn, orpostrēmus(352),last.superior,summus(352), orsuprēmus(352),highest.357.Six, denoting place, have the positive only as an adverb or preposition:cis,this side,citerior(348),citimus(351),hitherest.dē,down,dēterior(348),dēterrimus,lowest,worst.in,in,interior(348),intimus,inmost.prae,before,prior,prīmus(352),first.prope,near,propior,proximus(351),nearest.uls,beyond,ulterior(348),ultimus(351),furthest.ōcior,swifter,ōcissimus, has no positive.358.These have a superlative, but no comparative:bellus,pretty,falsus,false,inclutus,famed,invictus,unconquered,invītus,unwilling,meritus,deserving,novus,new;vetus,veterrimus,old,sacer,sacerrimus,sacred,vafer,vaferrimus,sly;malevolus,malevolentissimus(twice, Cic.),spiteful;maleficus,maleficentissimus(once, Suet.),wicked,mūnificus,mūnificentissimus(inscrr.; Cic. once),generous,mīrificus,mīrificissimus(twice, Acc., Ter.),strange. Plautus hasipsissumus,his very self.359.Most primitives in-ilisand-bilis(292,294), have a comparative, but no superlative; but these have a superlative:facilisanddifficilis(345),easyandhard,ūtilis,useful; alsofertilis,productive,amābilis,lovable,mōbilis,movable,nōbilis,well known.360.Many adjectives have no suffixes of comparison, and supply the place of these bymagis,more, andmaximē,most: as,mīrus,strange,magis mīrus,maximē mīrus. Many adjectives, from their meaning, do not admit of comparison.COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE ADVERBS.361.Adverbs derived from adjectives have as their comparative the accusative singular neuter of the comparative adjective; the superlative is formed like that of the adjective, but ends in-ē: as,altē,on high,altius,altissimē.ācriter,sharply,ācrius,ācerrimē.facile,easily,facilius,facillimē.362.An older superlative ending,-ēdfor-ē, occurs in an inscription of 186B.C.:FACILVMED, i.e.facillimē. A few adverbs have superlatives in-ōor-um: as,meritissimō,most deservedly;prīmō,at first,prīmum,first;postrēmō,at last,postrēmum,for the last time.363.If the comparison of the adjective has peculiarities, they are retained in the adverb likewise: as,bene,well,melius,optimē;male,ill,peius,pessimē;multum,much,plūs,plūrimum;mātūrē,betimes,mātūrius,mātūrissimē(Cic., Plin.), ormātūrrimē(Cic., Caes., Sall., Tac.).ōcius,swifter, nopositive,ōcissimē.minus,less, is formed by the nominal suffix-es-(236), from √min-(minuō); formagis,more, see135, 2. In poetrymagissometimes becomesmage, as if neuter of an adjective in-i-.364.A few adverbs not derived from adjectives are compared: as,diū,long,diūtius,diūtissimē;saepe,often,saepius,saepissimē;nūper,lately, no comparative,nūperrimē;secus,otherwise,sētius,the less;temperī,betimes,temperius,earlier, no superlative.(B.) FORMATION OF DENOMINATIVE VERBS.365.Denominative verb stems have present infinitives in-āre,-ēre, or-īre(-ārī,-ērī, or-īrī), and are formed from noun stems of all endings: as,Verb.From Noun.fugā-re,routfugā-, N.fugalocā-re,placeloco-, N.locusnōminā-re,namenōmin-, N.nōmenlevā-re,lightenlevi-, N.levissinuā-re,bendsinu-, N.sinusalbē-re,be whitealbo-,N.albusmiserē-rī,pitymisero-, N.miserflōrē-re,blossomflōr-, N.flōssordē-re,be dirtysordi-, N.sordēspūnī-re,punishpoenā-, N.poenacondī-re,seasoncondo-, N.conduscustōdī-re,guardcustōd-, N.custōsvestī-re,dressvesti-, N.vestisgestī-re,fluttergestu-, N.gestus366.These present verb stems are formed by adding the suffix-i̭o-,-i̭e-to the noun stem: as*fugā-i̭ō,I flee; thei̭between two vowels was dropped (153, 2) and the final vowel of noun stem was often contracted with the ending (118, 3). The noun stem ending is often slightly modified.367.In a half a dozen denominatives from stems in-u-theuof the noun stem remains without modification, and is not contracted with the variable vowel (116,c): these are,acuere,sharpen(acu-),metuere,fear,statuere,set,tribuere,assign;arguere,make clear,bātuere,beat.368.Verbs in-āreare by far the most numerous class of denominatives; they are usually transitive; but deponents often express condition, sometimes occupation: as,dominārī,lord it,play the lord;aquārī,get oneself water. Most verbs in-īrealso are transitive; those in-ēreusually denote a state: as,calēre,be warm; but some are causative: as,monēre,remind.369.Many denominative verbs in-ārecontain a noun suffix which is not actually found in the noun itself; such suffixes are:-co-,-cin-,-lo-,-er-,-ro-,-to-, &c.: as,-co-:albi-cāre,be white(*albi-co-);velli-cāre,pluck(*velli-co-,plucker).-cin-:latrō-cinārī,be a robber(latrōn-);sermō-cinārī,discourse(sermōn-).-lo-:grātu-lārī,give one joy(*grātu-lo-);vi-olāre,harm(*vi-olo-);heiu-lāri,cry‘heia’ (*heiu-lo-).-er-:mod-erārī,check(*mod-es-,236).-ro-:tole-rāre,endure(*tole-ro-);flag-rāre,blaze(*flag-ro-).-to-:dēbili-tāre,lame(*dēbili-to-);dubi-tāre,doubt(*dubi-to-).370.Many denominatives in-āreare indirect compounds (377), often from compound noun stems which are not actually found. So, particularly, when the first part is a preposition, or the second is from the rootfac-,make,ag-,drive,do, orcap-,take: as,opi-tul-ārī,bear help(opitulo-);suf-fōc-āre,suffocate(*suf-fōc-o-,fauci-);aedi-fic-āre(housebuild),build(*aedific-or*aedifico-,housebuilder);sīgni-fic-āre,give token(*sīgnifico-);fūm-ig-āre,make smoke(*fūmigo-,smoker,fūmo-, √ag-);nāv-ig-āre,sail, andrēm-ig-āre,row(nāvi-,ship, andrēmo-,oar);mīt-ig-āre,make mild(mīti-);iūr-ig-āre, commonlyiūr-g-āre,quarrel(iūr-);pūr-ig-āre, commonlypūr-g-āre,clean(pūro-);gnār-ig-āre,tell(gnāro-,narrāre,169, 2;133, 1);anti-cip-āre,take beforehand(*anticipo-,ante, √cap-);oc-cup-āre,seize(*occupo-);re-cup-er-āre,get back(*recupero-).371.Many verbs in-tāre(-sāre), or-tārī(-sārī), express frequent, intense, or sometimes attempted action. These are calledFrequentativesorIntensives; they are formed from perfect participle stems; but stems in-ā-to-become-i-to-: as,cant-āre,sing(canto-);cess-āre,loiter(cesso-);amplex-ārī,embrace(amplexo-);habit-āre,live(habito-);pollicit-āri,make overtures(pollicito-);dormīt-āre,be sleepy(dormīto-);neg-itāre,keep denying(for*negā-tāre, with suffix-i-tāre,910).372.Some frequentatives in-tāreare formed from the present stem of a verb in-ere; the formative vowel before-tārebecomesi: as,agi-tāre,shake(age-re);flui-tāre,float(flue-re);nōsci-tāre,recognize(nōsce-re);quaeri-tāre,keep seeking(quaere-re);scīsci-tārī,enquire(scīsce-re);vēndi-tāre,try to sell(vēnde-re).373.A few frequentatives add-tā-to the perfect participle stem: as,ācti-tāre,act often(ācto-);facti-tāre,do repeatedly(facto-);lēcti-tāre,read again and again(lēcto-);ūncti-tāre,anoint often(ūncto-). From a frequentative another frequentative is sometimes derived: as,dict-āre,dictate,dicti-tāre,keep asserting(dicto-).374.Some verbs are found only as frequentatives: as,gust-āre,taste(*gusto-, √gus-,taste);put-āre,think(puto-, √pu-,clean);aegrōt-āre,be ill(aegrōto-).375.A few verbs in-uriō,-urīre, express desire; such are calledDesideratives: as,ēss-urīreorēs-urīre,want to eat(edere,ēsse). A few in-ssō,-ssere, express earnest action; such are calledMeditatives: as,lacē-ssō,lacē-ssere,provoke.COMPOSITION.376.In compounds, the fundamental word is usually the second, which has its meaning qualified by the first.377.ADirect Compoundis one formed directly from two parts: as,con-iug-, N.coniūnx,yoke-fellow(com-,together, √iug-,yoke);con-iungere,join together(com-,iungere); anIndirect Compoundis one formed by the addition of a suffix to a direct compound: as,iūdic-io-, N.iūudicium,trial(iūdic-):iūdicā-re,judge(iūdic-).378.AReal Compoundis a word whose stem is formed from two stems, or an inseparable prefix and a stem, fused into one stem; anApparent Compoundis formed by the juxtaposition of an inflected word with another inflected word, a preposition, or an adverb.I. COMPOSITION OF NOUNS.(A.) REAL COMPOUNDS.FORM OF COMPOUNDS.379.If the first part is a noun, its stem is taken: as,Ahēno-barbus,Redbeard,Barbarossa; usually with weakening of a stem vowel (103-105): as,aurifex,jeweller(auro-). On other changes of the final vowel in the first member of compounds, see174. Sometimes with disappearance of a syllable (179); as,*venēni-ficus,venē-ficus,poisoner(venēno-); or of a vowel (111): as,man-ceps,contractor(manu-); particularly before a vowel (119): as,magn-animus,great-souled(magno-). Consonant stems are often extended byibefore a consonant: as,mōri-gerus,complaisant(mōr-).380.Stems in-s-, including those in-er-,-or-and-ōr-(236), are sometimes compounded as above (379): as,nemori-vagus,woodranger;honōri-ficus,complimentary; but usually they drop the suffix and takei: as,opi-fex,work-man(oper-);foedi-fragus,truce-breaker(foeder-);volni-ficus,wounding(volner-);mūni-ficus,generous(mūner-);terri-ficus,awe-inspiring(terrōr-);horri-fer,dreadful,horri-sonus,awful-sounding(horrōr-).381.The second part, which often has weakening of the vowel (102), is sometimes a bare root used as a stem (199), oftener a root with a formative suffix; or a noun stem, sometimes with its stem ending modified: as,iū-dic-, N.iūdex,juror(√dic-,declare);causi-dic-o-, N.causidicus,pleader(209);in-gen-io-, N.ingenium,disposition(√gen-,beget,219);con-tāg-iōn-, N.contāgiō,touching together(√tag-,touch,227);im-berb-i-, N.imberbis,beardless(barbā-).MEANING OF COMPOUNDS.382.Determinativesare compounds in which the second part keeps its original meaning, though determined or modified by the first part. The meaning of a determinative may often be best expressed by two words.383.(1.) The first part of a determinative may be an adjective, an adverb, a preposition, or an inseparable prefix; the second part is a noun: as,lāti-fundium, i.e.lātī fundī,broad acres;prīvi-lēgium, i.e.prīva lēx,special act;alti-sonāns, i.e.altē sonāns,high-sounding;con-discipulus, i.e.cum alterō discipulus,fellow-pupil;per-magnus, i.e.valdē magnus,very great;in-dignus, i.e.nōn dignus,unworthy.384.(2.) The first part of a determinative may represent the oblique case of a noun, generally a substantive; the second part is a noun or verb stem. These compounds are calledObjectives: as,Accusative of direct object (1132),armi-ger, i.e.quī arma gerit,armour-bearer; dative of indirect object (1208),man-tēle, i.e.manibus tēla,handkerchief,napkin; genitive (1227),sōl-stitium, i.e.sōlis statiō,solstice; ablative instrumental (1300),tubi-cen, i.e.quī tubā canit,trumpeter; locative (1331),Troiu-gena, i.e.Troiae nātus,Troy-born; ablative locative (1350),nocti-vagus,night-wandering;monti-vagus,mountain-ranging.385.Possessivesare adjective compounds in which the meaning of the second part is changed. The second part of a possessive is always formed from a substantive, qualified by the noun, adverb, or inseparable prefix of the first part, and the whole expresses an attribute which somethinghas: as,longi-manus,longarms,long-armed;miseri-cors,tender-hearted;bi-linguis,two-tongued;magn-animus,greatheart,great-hearted;im-berbis,beardless.(B.) APPARENT COMPOUNDS.386.Apparent Compounds are formed:387.(1.) By two nouns combined, one with an unchanging case ending, the other with full inflections: as,aquae-ductus,aqueduct;senātūs-cōnsultum,decree of the senate;pater-familiās,father of a family;vērī-similis,like the truth; in these words,aquae,senātūs,familiās, andvērīare genitives, and remain genitives, while the other part of the compound is declinable.388.(2.) By a substantive with an adjective habitually agreeing with it, both parts being declined: as,rēs pūblica,the common-weal;rēs gestae,exploits;iūs iūrandum,oath;pecūniae repetundae,money claim.389.(3.) By nouns, chiefly substantives, in the same case placed loosely side by side and making one idea. The two words may be used: (a.) Copulatively: as,ūsus-frūctus,use and enjoyment;pactum-conventum,bargain and covenant;duo-decim,two and ten,twelve; or (b.) Appositively: one word explaining the other (1045): as,Iuppiter,Jove the Father(94;133);Mārspiter,Mars the Father, forMārs pater.390.(4.) From an original combination of an oblique case with a preposition: as,prōcōnsul,proconsul, fromprō cōnsule,for a consul;ēgregius,select, fromē grege,out of the herd;dēlīrus,astray,mad, fromdē līrā,out of the furrow.II. COMPOSITION OF VERBS.(A.) REAL COMPOUNDS.391.Real Compounds are direct compounds of a verb with a preposition; the root vowel or diphthong of the verb is often weakened (102): as,per-agere,put through,accomplish;ab-igere,drive away;ex-quīrere,seek out. The prefix, which was originally a separate adverb modifying the verb, is in poetry sometimes separated from the verb by another word; the disyllabic prepositions in particular often remain as juxtaposed adverbs (396).392.Some prepositions are inseparable, that is, used only in composition:ambi-,round,an-,up,dis-,in two,apart,por-,towards,red-,re-,back,sēd-,sē-,by oneself,away: as,amb-īre,go round to;an-hēlāre,breathe up;dis-pellere,drive apart;por-rigere,stretch forth;red-dere,give back;sē-iungere,separate.(B.) APPARENT COMPOUNDS.393.Apparent Compounds are formed by the juxtaposition of:394.(1.) A verb with a verb:faciōandfīōare added to present stems, mostly of intransitive verbs in-ēre; the-e-of the first verb is sometimes long, and sometimes short (130, 5): as,calē̆-facere,make warm(calēre);excandē̆-facere,make blaze(candēre);madē̆-facere,make wet(madēre). In these apparent compounds, the accent offaciōremains the same as in the simple verb: as,calē̆fácis.395.(2.) A substantive with a verb: as,anim-advertere,pay heed to,animum advertere;vēnum-dare, orvēndere,sell,vēnum dare;vēn-īre,be sold,vēnum īre;lucrī-facere,make gain,lucrī facere;manū-mittere,set free.396.(3.) An adverb with a verb: as,circum-dare,put round;satis-facere,satis-dare,give satisfaction;intro-īre,go inside;mālle,prefer, formagis velle(170, 2);nōlō,be unwilling, forne volō;ne-scīre,hau-scīre,not know.C. INFLECTION.397.Inflectionis the change which nouns, pronouns, and verbs undergo, to indicate their relation in a sentence.The inflection of a noun or pronoun is often calledDeclension, and that of a verb,Conjugation.(A.) INFLECTION OF THE NOUN.398.The noun or pronoun is inflected by attaching case endings to the stem.The endings, which are called case endings for brevity, indicate number as well as case, and serve also to distinguish gender words from neuters in the nominative and accusative singular of some stems, and of all plurals. These endings are nearly the same for stems of all kinds.THE STEM.399.The stem contains the meaning of the noun. Noun stems are arranged in the following order: (1.) stems in-ā-, in-o-, in a consonant, or in-i-; these are substantive, including proper names, or adjective; (2.) stems in-u-or-ē-; these are substantive only, and include no proper names.400.In some instances, a final stem vowel is retained before a case ending which begins with a vowel: as,urbi-um,ācri-a,cornu-a,portu-ī,portu-um(116,c); in others the stem vowel blends inseparably with the vowel of the case ending: as,mēnsīs,dominīs(108,a).401.Some nouns have more than one form of the stem: as,sēdēs(476);femur,iecur(489);vās,mēnsis(492);vīrus,volgus(493);iter,nix,senex, &c. (500);vīs(518);caedēs(523);famēs,plēbēs(524);domus(594);angiportus, &c. (595). Many nouns have a consonant stem in the singular, and an-i-stem in the plural: see516; most substantives in-iē-or-tiē-have a collateral form in-iā-or-tiā-(604). Some adjectives have two different stems: as,hilarus,hilara,hilarum, andhilaris,hilare;exanimusandexanimis.GENDER.402.There are two genders,MasculineandFeminine. Masculine and feminine nouns are calledGender nouns. Nouns without gender are calledNeuter.403.Gender is, properly speaking, the distinction of sex. In Latin, a great many things without life have gender in grammar, and are masculine or feminine.404.Some classes of substantives may be brought under general heads of signification, as below, like the names of rivers and winds (405), which are usually of the masculine gender, or of plants (407), which are usually of the feminine. When the gender cannot be determined thus, it must be learned from the special rules for the several stems and their nominatives.GENDER OF SOME CLASSES OF SUBSTANTIVES.MASCULINES.405.Names of male beings, rivers, winds, and mountains, are masculine: as,Caesar,Gāius,Sūlla, men’s names;pater,father;erus,master;scrība,scrivener;Tiberis,the Tiber;Aquilō,a Norther;Lūcrētilis,Mt. Lucretilis.406.The river names:Allia,Dūria,Sagra,Lēthē, andStyxare feminine. Also the mountain namesAlpēs, plural,the Alps, and some Greek names of mountains in-aor-ē: as,Aetna,Mt. Etna;Rhodopē, a Thracian range. A few are neuter, asSōracte.FEMININES.407.Names of female beings, plants, flowers, shrubs, and trees, are feminine: as,Gāia,Glycerium, women’s names;mālus,apple-tree;quercus,oak;īlex,holm-oak;abiēs,fir.408.Masculine are:bōlētus,mushroom,carduus,thistle,dūmī, plural,brambles,intibus,endive,iuncus,rush,oleaster,bastard olive,rubus,bramble,rumex,sorrel,scirpus,bulrush, and rarelyfīcus,fig. Also some of Greek origin: as,acanthus,amāracus,asparagus, andcrocus. Neuter are:apium,parsley,balsamum,balsam-tree,rōbur,heart of oak, and some names with stems in-er-(573).MOBILE, COMMON, AND EPICENE NOUNS.409.Mobile Nounshave different forms to distinguish sex: as,Iūlius, a man,Julius,Iūlia, a woman,Julia;cervus,stag,cerva,hind;socer,father-in-law,socrus,mother-in-law;victor,conqueror,victrīx,conqueress. Adjectives ‘of three endings’ (611), belong to this class.410.Some nouns have one ending, but are applicable to either sex. Such are said, to be ofCommon Gender: as,adulēscēns,young manoryoung woman;dux,leader;īnfāns,baby,child; and many other consonant stems or stems in-i-, denoting persons. Adjectives ‘of two endings’ or ‘of one ending’ (611), belong to this class.411.Epiceneshave one ending and one grammatical gender, though applicable to animals of either sex. Thus,aquila,eagle, is feminine, though it may denote ahe-eagleas well as ashe-eagle;anatēs,ducks, feminine, includesdrakes.NEUTERS.412.Infinitives, words and expressions quoted or explained, and letters of the alphabet, are neuter: as,vīvere ipsum,mere living;istūc ‘taceō,’your ‘I won’t mention;’longum vale,a long goodbye;o Graecum,Greek O. But the letters have sometimes a feminine adjective, agreeing withlitteraunderstood.VARIABLE GENDER.413.Some substantives have different genders in the two numbers; the different gender is sometimes indicated by a difference of stem: as,epulum, neuter,epulae, feminine,feast. Seebalneum,frēnum,jocus,locus,margarīta,ostrea,rāstrum, in the dictionary.NUMBER.414.There are two numbers, theSingularused of one, thePluralof more than one.415.ambō,both, andduo,two, nominative and accusative masculine and neuter, are the only remnants of an oldDualnumber, denoting two.416.Some substantives, from their meaning, have no plural.Such are: proper names: as,Cicerō,Cicero;Rōma,Rome; material and abstract substantives: as,oleum,oil,vīnum,wine,iūstitia,justice; and gerunds: as,regendī,of guiding. For the occasional use of the plural,1105-1110.417.Some substantives, from their meaning, have no singular.Such are: names of persons of a class: as,maiōrēs,ancestors;superī,the beings above;mānēs,ghosts; of feasts, sacrifices, days: as,Sāturnālia,festival of Saturn;kalendae,first of the month; of things made of parts or consisting of a series of acts: as,arma,arms;artūs,joints;quadrīgae,four-in-hand;exsequiae,funeral rites; of some places: as,Faleriī;Vēī;Pompēī;Athēnae,Athens;Alpēs,the Alps.418.Some substantives have different meanings in the two numbers: as,aedis,temple,aedēs,house;auxilium,aid,auxilia,auxiliaries;carcer,jail,carcerēs,race-barriers;Castrum,Castle,castra,camp;comitium,meeting-place,comitia,election;cōpia,abundance,cōpiae,troops;facultās,ability,facultātēs,wealth;fīnis,end,fīnēs,boundaries;grātia,favour,grātiae,thanks;impedīmentum,hindrance,impedīmenta,baggage;littera,letter (of the alphabet),litterae,epistle;rōstrum,beak,rōstra,speakers stand. See alsoaqua,bonum,fortūna,lūdus,opera,pars, in the dictionary.CASE.419.Nouns have five cases, theNominative,Genitive,Dative,Accusative, andAblative.The nominative represents a noun as subject, the accusative as object; the genitive denotes the relation ofof, the dative oftoorfor, and the ablative offrom,with,in, orby. But the meanings of the cases are best learnt from reading. All cases but the nominative and vocative (420) are calledOblique Cases.420.Town names and a few appellatives have also a case denoting the place where, called theLocative. Masculine stems in-o-and some Greek stems with other endings have still another form used in addressing a person or thing, called theVocative.421.The stem of a noun is best seen in the genitive; in the genitive plural it is preserved without change, except thatoof-o-stems is lengthened (123). In dictionaries the stem ending is indicated by the genitive singular, thus:-ae,-ī,-is,-ūs(-ĕī), indicate respectively stems in-ā-,-o-, a consonant or-i-,-u-, and-ē-, as follows:Genitive Singular.Genitive Plural.Stems in.-ae,mēnsae,table-ārum,mēnsā-rum-ā-,mēnsā-, N.mēnsa-ī,dominī,master-ōrum,dominō-rum-o-,domino-, N.dominus-is,rēgis,king-cons.um,rēg-um-consonant,rēg-, N.rēx-is,cīvis,citizen-ium,cīvi-um-i-,cīvi-, N.cīvis-ūs,portus,port-uum,portu-um-u-,portu-, N.portus(ĕ̄ī,rĕ̄ī),thing(-ērum,rē-rum)-ē,rē-, N.rēs422.Gender nominatives usually add-sto the stem: as,servo-sorservu-s,slave,rēx(164, 1),cīvi-s,portu-s,rē-s. But stems in-ā-or in a continuous consonant (-l-,-n-,-r-, or-s-) have no-s: as,mēnsa,cōnsul,consul,flāmen,special priest,pater,father,flōs,flower.423.Neuters have the nominative and accusative alike; in the singular the stem is used: asnōmen,name; or a shortened stem: as,exemplar,pattern; but stems in-o-take-m: as,aevo-moraevu-m,age. In the plural-ais always used: as,rēgna,kingdoms,nōmina,cornua,horns. For-sin adjectives ‘of one ending,’ see612.424.Gender accusatives singular add-mto the stem: as,mēnsa-m,servo-morservu-m,nāvi-m,ship,portu-m,die-m. The consonant stems have the ending-em: as,rēg-em; most substantive stems in-i-and all adjectives also drop-i-and take-em: as,nāv-em,trīst-em,sad. In the plural, gender stems add-sbefore which the vowel is long: as,mēnsā-s,servō-s,rēgē-s,nāvī-sornāvē-s,portū-s,rē-s.425.The ablative singular usually ends in the long vowel of the stem: as,mēnsā,dominō,nāvī,portū,rē. The ablative of consonant stems usually has-e(rarely-ī-, see502): as,patre,father; and that of substantive-i-stems has-emore commonly than-ī: as,nāve.426.The ablative singular of-ā-and-o-stems ended anciently in-ādand-ōdrespectively: as,PRAIDAD,PREIVATOD; that of consonant stems in-īd: as,AIRID,COVENTIONID. But-dis almost entirely confined to inscriptions and disappeared early (149).427.The genitive plural adds-rumto-ā-,-o-, and-ē-stems: as,mēnsā-rum,dominō-rum,rē-rum; and-umto consonant stems,-i-stems, and-u-stems: as,rēg-um,cīvi-um,portu-um.428.The dative and ablative plural are always alike: stems in-ā-and-o-take-is, which blends with the stem vowel (400): as,mēnsīs,dominīs; other stems have-bus, before which consonant stems are extended byi: as,rēgi-bus,nāvi-bus,portu-busorporti-bus,rē-bus.
341.Adverbs sometimes have a diminutive form: as,bellē,charmingly;paullulum,a little bit;meliusculē,a bit better(340).
V. COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.
342.Comparatives and superlatives are usually formed from the stem of the positive: as,dignior,worthier,dignissimus,worthiest, fromdigno-, stem ofdignus. A few are formed directly from roots: thus,maior,greater, andmaximus,greatest, are formed from the √mag-, and not frommagno-, stem ofmagnus.
(1.)COMPARATIVE-ior,SUPERLATIVE-issimus.
343.The nominative of comparative adjectives ends usually in-ior, and that of superlatives in-issimus: thus,
(2.)SUPERLATIVE-rimus.
344.Adjectives with the nominative in-erhave the nominative of the superlative like the nominative of the positive with-rimusadded (350): as,
mātūrrimusoccurs once (Tac.), formātūrissimus, positivemātūrus,ripe.
(3.)SUPERLATIVE-limus.
345.
humilis,difficilis, andfacilis,similis,dissimilis, andgracilis,
humilis,difficilis, andfacilis,
similis,dissimilis, andgracilis,
have the nominative of the superlative in-limus, followinglof the stem (350): as,
THE COMPARATIVE SUFFIX.
346.The comparative suffix is-iōs-, which becomes in the singular, nominative masculine and feminine,-ior(154;132), neuter nominative and accusative,-ius(107,c); in all other cases-iōr-(154).
347.Other comparative suffixes are-ro-or-ero-, and-tro-or-tero-, used in a few words, principally designating place: as,sup-erī,the upper ones,īnferī,the nether ones;ex-terī,outsiders,posterī,after-generations;alter,the other;uter,whether? which of the two?(for*quo-ter,146);dexter,right.
348.Some words designating place have a doubled comparative suffix,-er-iōr-, or-ter-iōr-: as,sup-er-ior,upper,īnferior,lower.ci-ter-ior,hither,dēterior(lower),worse,exterior,outer,interior,inner,posterior,hinder,after,ulterior,further,dexterior,more to the right,-is-tro-is used in two words which have become substantives:min-is-ter(inferior),servant, andmagister(superior),master.
THE SUPERLATIVE SUFFIX.
349.The common superlative suffix is-issimo-, nominative-issimus, with older-issumo-, nominative-issumus(28).
350.Stems which end in-ro-,-ri-, or-li-(344,345) take the suffix-issimo-(cf.-simo-,351) with syncope of its initiali(111) and assimilation of the finallorr(166, 8).
351.The suffix-timo-is further used in a few root superlatives:ci-timus,dextimus,extimus,intimus,optimus,postumus, andultimus; and-simo-inmaximus,pessimus, andproximus.
352.The suffix-mo-or-imo-is used insum-mo-, N.summus,highest(sub);min-imo-, N.minimus,least;prīmus,first,septimus,seventh,decimus,tenth.-mo-or-imo-is attached to-is-(135, 2) inplūrimusfor*plō-is-imo-s(fullest),most(99); and to-rē-or-trē-, possibly an adverbial form (705), insuprēmus,extrēmus, andpostrēmus.
PECULIARITIES OF COMPARISON.
353.Some positives have a comparative or superlative, or both, from a different form of the stem: such are,
354.iuvenior,younger, is late (Sen., Plin., Tac.).benevolēns,kindly,benevolentior,benevolentissimus, andmaledīcēns,abusive,maledīcentior(once each, Plaut.),maledīcentissimus, have usually as positivebenevolusandmaledicusrespectively.
355.Some positives have a comparative or superlative, or both, from a wholly different stem: such are,
parvushas rarelyparvissimus.
356.Four comparatives in-erioror-terior, denoting place (348), have two forms of the superlative; the nominative masculine singular of the positive is not in common use:
357.Six, denoting place, have the positive only as an adverb or preposition:
ōcior,swifter,ōcissimus, has no positive.
358.These have a superlative, but no comparative:bellus,pretty,falsus,false,inclutus,famed,invictus,unconquered,invītus,unwilling,meritus,deserving,novus,new;vetus,veterrimus,old,sacer,sacerrimus,sacred,vafer,vaferrimus,sly;malevolus,malevolentissimus(twice, Cic.),spiteful;maleficus,maleficentissimus(once, Suet.),wicked,mūnificus,mūnificentissimus(inscrr.; Cic. once),generous,mīrificus,mīrificissimus(twice, Acc., Ter.),strange. Plautus hasipsissumus,his very self.
359.Most primitives in-ilisand-bilis(292,294), have a comparative, but no superlative; but these have a superlative:facilisanddifficilis(345),easyandhard,ūtilis,useful; alsofertilis,productive,amābilis,lovable,mōbilis,movable,nōbilis,well known.
360.Many adjectives have no suffixes of comparison, and supply the place of these bymagis,more, andmaximē,most: as,mīrus,strange,magis mīrus,maximē mīrus. Many adjectives, from their meaning, do not admit of comparison.
COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE ADVERBS.
361.Adverbs derived from adjectives have as their comparative the accusative singular neuter of the comparative adjective; the superlative is formed like that of the adjective, but ends in-ē: as,
362.An older superlative ending,-ēdfor-ē, occurs in an inscription of 186B.C.:FACILVMED, i.e.facillimē. A few adverbs have superlatives in-ōor-um: as,meritissimō,most deservedly;prīmō,at first,prīmum,first;postrēmō,at last,postrēmum,for the last time.
363.If the comparison of the adjective has peculiarities, they are retained in the adverb likewise: as,bene,well,melius,optimē;male,ill,peius,pessimē;multum,much,plūs,plūrimum;mātūrē,betimes,mātūrius,mātūrissimē(Cic., Plin.), ormātūrrimē(Cic., Caes., Sall., Tac.).ōcius,swifter, nopositive,ōcissimē.minus,less, is formed by the nominal suffix-es-(236), from √min-(minuō); formagis,more, see135, 2. In poetrymagissometimes becomesmage, as if neuter of an adjective in-i-.
364.A few adverbs not derived from adjectives are compared: as,diū,long,diūtius,diūtissimē;saepe,often,saepius,saepissimē;nūper,lately, no comparative,nūperrimē;secus,otherwise,sētius,the less;temperī,betimes,temperius,earlier, no superlative.
365.Denominative verb stems have present infinitives in-āre,-ēre, or-īre(-ārī,-ērī, or-īrī), and are formed from noun stems of all endings: as,
366.These present verb stems are formed by adding the suffix-i̭o-,-i̭e-to the noun stem: as*fugā-i̭ō,I flee; thei̭between two vowels was dropped (153, 2) and the final vowel of noun stem was often contracted with the ending (118, 3). The noun stem ending is often slightly modified.
367.In a half a dozen denominatives from stems in-u-theuof the noun stem remains without modification, and is not contracted with the variable vowel (116,c): these are,acuere,sharpen(acu-),metuere,fear,statuere,set,tribuere,assign;arguere,make clear,bātuere,beat.
368.Verbs in-āreare by far the most numerous class of denominatives; they are usually transitive; but deponents often express condition, sometimes occupation: as,dominārī,lord it,play the lord;aquārī,get oneself water. Most verbs in-īrealso are transitive; those in-ēreusually denote a state: as,calēre,be warm; but some are causative: as,monēre,remind.
369.Many denominative verbs in-ārecontain a noun suffix which is not actually found in the noun itself; such suffixes are:-co-,-cin-,-lo-,-er-,-ro-,-to-, &c.: as,
-co-:albi-cāre,be white(*albi-co-);velli-cāre,pluck(*velli-co-,plucker).-cin-:latrō-cinārī,be a robber(latrōn-);sermō-cinārī,discourse(sermōn-).-lo-:grātu-lārī,give one joy(*grātu-lo-);vi-olāre,harm(*vi-olo-);heiu-lāri,cry‘heia’ (*heiu-lo-).-er-:mod-erārī,check(*mod-es-,236).-ro-:tole-rāre,endure(*tole-ro-);flag-rāre,blaze(*flag-ro-).-to-:dēbili-tāre,lame(*dēbili-to-);dubi-tāre,doubt(*dubi-to-).
370.Many denominatives in-āreare indirect compounds (377), often from compound noun stems which are not actually found. So, particularly, when the first part is a preposition, or the second is from the rootfac-,make,ag-,drive,do, orcap-,take: as,
opi-tul-ārī,bear help(opitulo-);suf-fōc-āre,suffocate(*suf-fōc-o-,fauci-);aedi-fic-āre(housebuild),build(*aedific-or*aedifico-,housebuilder);sīgni-fic-āre,give token(*sīgnifico-);fūm-ig-āre,make smoke(*fūmigo-,smoker,fūmo-, √ag-);nāv-ig-āre,sail, andrēm-ig-āre,row(nāvi-,ship, andrēmo-,oar);mīt-ig-āre,make mild(mīti-);iūr-ig-āre, commonlyiūr-g-āre,quarrel(iūr-);pūr-ig-āre, commonlypūr-g-āre,clean(pūro-);gnār-ig-āre,tell(gnāro-,narrāre,169, 2;133, 1);anti-cip-āre,take beforehand(*anticipo-,ante, √cap-);oc-cup-āre,seize(*occupo-);re-cup-er-āre,get back(*recupero-).
371.Many verbs in-tāre(-sāre), or-tārī(-sārī), express frequent, intense, or sometimes attempted action. These are calledFrequentativesorIntensives; they are formed from perfect participle stems; but stems in-ā-to-become-i-to-: as,
cant-āre,sing(canto-);cess-āre,loiter(cesso-);amplex-ārī,embrace(amplexo-);habit-āre,live(habito-);pollicit-āri,make overtures(pollicito-);dormīt-āre,be sleepy(dormīto-);neg-itāre,keep denying(for*negā-tāre, with suffix-i-tāre,910).
372.Some frequentatives in-tāreare formed from the present stem of a verb in-ere; the formative vowel before-tārebecomesi: as,
agi-tāre,shake(age-re);flui-tāre,float(flue-re);nōsci-tāre,recognize(nōsce-re);quaeri-tāre,keep seeking(quaere-re);scīsci-tārī,enquire(scīsce-re);vēndi-tāre,try to sell(vēnde-re).
373.A few frequentatives add-tā-to the perfect participle stem: as,
ācti-tāre,act often(ācto-);facti-tāre,do repeatedly(facto-);lēcti-tāre,read again and again(lēcto-);ūncti-tāre,anoint often(ūncto-). From a frequentative another frequentative is sometimes derived: as,dict-āre,dictate,dicti-tāre,keep asserting(dicto-).
374.Some verbs are found only as frequentatives: as,gust-āre,taste(*gusto-, √gus-,taste);put-āre,think(puto-, √pu-,clean);aegrōt-āre,be ill(aegrōto-).
375.A few verbs in-uriō,-urīre, express desire; such are calledDesideratives: as,ēss-urīreorēs-urīre,want to eat(edere,ēsse). A few in-ssō,-ssere, express earnest action; such are calledMeditatives: as,lacē-ssō,lacē-ssere,provoke.
376.In compounds, the fundamental word is usually the second, which has its meaning qualified by the first.
377.ADirect Compoundis one formed directly from two parts: as,con-iug-, N.coniūnx,yoke-fellow(com-,together, √iug-,yoke);con-iungere,join together(com-,iungere); anIndirect Compoundis one formed by the addition of a suffix to a direct compound: as,iūdic-io-, N.iūudicium,trial(iūdic-):iūdicā-re,judge(iūdic-).
378.AReal Compoundis a word whose stem is formed from two stems, or an inseparable prefix and a stem, fused into one stem; anApparent Compoundis formed by the juxtaposition of an inflected word with another inflected word, a preposition, or an adverb.
(A.) REAL COMPOUNDS.
FORM OF COMPOUNDS.
379.If the first part is a noun, its stem is taken: as,Ahēno-barbus,Redbeard,Barbarossa; usually with weakening of a stem vowel (103-105): as,aurifex,jeweller(auro-). On other changes of the final vowel in the first member of compounds, see174. Sometimes with disappearance of a syllable (179); as,*venēni-ficus,venē-ficus,poisoner(venēno-); or of a vowel (111): as,man-ceps,contractor(manu-); particularly before a vowel (119): as,magn-animus,great-souled(magno-). Consonant stems are often extended byibefore a consonant: as,mōri-gerus,complaisant(mōr-).
380.Stems in-s-, including those in-er-,-or-and-ōr-(236), are sometimes compounded as above (379): as,nemori-vagus,woodranger;honōri-ficus,complimentary; but usually they drop the suffix and takei: as,opi-fex,work-man(oper-);foedi-fragus,truce-breaker(foeder-);volni-ficus,wounding(volner-);mūni-ficus,generous(mūner-);terri-ficus,awe-inspiring(terrōr-);horri-fer,dreadful,horri-sonus,awful-sounding(horrōr-).
381.The second part, which often has weakening of the vowel (102), is sometimes a bare root used as a stem (199), oftener a root with a formative suffix; or a noun stem, sometimes with its stem ending modified: as,iū-dic-, N.iūdex,juror(√dic-,declare);causi-dic-o-, N.causidicus,pleader(209);in-gen-io-, N.ingenium,disposition(√gen-,beget,219);con-tāg-iōn-, N.contāgiō,touching together(√tag-,touch,227);im-berb-i-, N.imberbis,beardless(barbā-).
MEANING OF COMPOUNDS.
382.Determinativesare compounds in which the second part keeps its original meaning, though determined or modified by the first part. The meaning of a determinative may often be best expressed by two words.
383.(1.) The first part of a determinative may be an adjective, an adverb, a preposition, or an inseparable prefix; the second part is a noun: as,
lāti-fundium, i.e.lātī fundī,broad acres;prīvi-lēgium, i.e.prīva lēx,special act;alti-sonāns, i.e.altē sonāns,high-sounding;con-discipulus, i.e.cum alterō discipulus,fellow-pupil;per-magnus, i.e.valdē magnus,very great;in-dignus, i.e.nōn dignus,unworthy.
384.(2.) The first part of a determinative may represent the oblique case of a noun, generally a substantive; the second part is a noun or verb stem. These compounds are calledObjectives: as,
Accusative of direct object (1132),armi-ger, i.e.quī arma gerit,armour-bearer; dative of indirect object (1208),man-tēle, i.e.manibus tēla,handkerchief,napkin; genitive (1227),sōl-stitium, i.e.sōlis statiō,solstice; ablative instrumental (1300),tubi-cen, i.e.quī tubā canit,trumpeter; locative (1331),Troiu-gena, i.e.Troiae nātus,Troy-born; ablative locative (1350),nocti-vagus,night-wandering;monti-vagus,mountain-ranging.
385.Possessivesare adjective compounds in which the meaning of the second part is changed. The second part of a possessive is always formed from a substantive, qualified by the noun, adverb, or inseparable prefix of the first part, and the whole expresses an attribute which somethinghas: as,
longi-manus,longarms,long-armed;miseri-cors,tender-hearted;bi-linguis,two-tongued;magn-animus,greatheart,great-hearted;im-berbis,beardless.
(B.) APPARENT COMPOUNDS.
386.Apparent Compounds are formed:
387.(1.) By two nouns combined, one with an unchanging case ending, the other with full inflections: as,aquae-ductus,aqueduct;senātūs-cōnsultum,decree of the senate;pater-familiās,father of a family;vērī-similis,like the truth; in these words,aquae,senātūs,familiās, andvērīare genitives, and remain genitives, while the other part of the compound is declinable.
388.(2.) By a substantive with an adjective habitually agreeing with it, both parts being declined: as,rēs pūblica,the common-weal;rēs gestae,exploits;iūs iūrandum,oath;pecūniae repetundae,money claim.
389.(3.) By nouns, chiefly substantives, in the same case placed loosely side by side and making one idea. The two words may be used: (a.) Copulatively: as,ūsus-frūctus,use and enjoyment;pactum-conventum,bargain and covenant;duo-decim,two and ten,twelve; or (b.) Appositively: one word explaining the other (1045): as,Iuppiter,Jove the Father(94;133);Mārspiter,Mars the Father, forMārs pater.
390.(4.) From an original combination of an oblique case with a preposition: as,prōcōnsul,proconsul, fromprō cōnsule,for a consul;ēgregius,select, fromē grege,out of the herd;dēlīrus,astray,mad, fromdē līrā,out of the furrow.
(A.) REAL COMPOUNDS.
391.Real Compounds are direct compounds of a verb with a preposition; the root vowel or diphthong of the verb is often weakened (102): as,
per-agere,put through,accomplish;ab-igere,drive away;ex-quīrere,seek out. The prefix, which was originally a separate adverb modifying the verb, is in poetry sometimes separated from the verb by another word; the disyllabic prepositions in particular often remain as juxtaposed adverbs (396).
392.Some prepositions are inseparable, that is, used only in composition:ambi-,round,an-,up,dis-,in two,apart,por-,towards,red-,re-,back,sēd-,sē-,by oneself,away: as,amb-īre,go round to;an-hēlāre,breathe up;dis-pellere,drive apart;por-rigere,stretch forth;red-dere,give back;sē-iungere,separate.
(B.) APPARENT COMPOUNDS.
393.Apparent Compounds are formed by the juxtaposition of:
394.(1.) A verb with a verb:faciōandfīōare added to present stems, mostly of intransitive verbs in-ēre; the-e-of the first verb is sometimes long, and sometimes short (130, 5): as,calē̆-facere,make warm(calēre);excandē̆-facere,make blaze(candēre);madē̆-facere,make wet(madēre). In these apparent compounds, the accent offaciōremains the same as in the simple verb: as,calē̆fácis.
395.(2.) A substantive with a verb: as,anim-advertere,pay heed to,animum advertere;vēnum-dare, orvēndere,sell,vēnum dare;vēn-īre,be sold,vēnum īre;lucrī-facere,make gain,lucrī facere;manū-mittere,set free.
396.(3.) An adverb with a verb: as,circum-dare,put round;satis-facere,satis-dare,give satisfaction;intro-īre,go inside;mālle,prefer, formagis velle(170, 2);nōlō,be unwilling, forne volō;ne-scīre,hau-scīre,not know.
397.Inflectionis the change which nouns, pronouns, and verbs undergo, to indicate their relation in a sentence.
The inflection of a noun or pronoun is often calledDeclension, and that of a verb,Conjugation.
398.The noun or pronoun is inflected by attaching case endings to the stem.
The endings, which are called case endings for brevity, indicate number as well as case, and serve also to distinguish gender words from neuters in the nominative and accusative singular of some stems, and of all plurals. These endings are nearly the same for stems of all kinds.
399.The stem contains the meaning of the noun. Noun stems are arranged in the following order: (1.) stems in-ā-, in-o-, in a consonant, or in-i-; these are substantive, including proper names, or adjective; (2.) stems in-u-or-ē-; these are substantive only, and include no proper names.
400.In some instances, a final stem vowel is retained before a case ending which begins with a vowel: as,urbi-um,ācri-a,cornu-a,portu-ī,portu-um(116,c); in others the stem vowel blends inseparably with the vowel of the case ending: as,mēnsīs,dominīs(108,a).
401.Some nouns have more than one form of the stem: as,
sēdēs(476);femur,iecur(489);vās,mēnsis(492);vīrus,volgus(493);iter,nix,senex, &c. (500);vīs(518);caedēs(523);famēs,plēbēs(524);domus(594);angiportus, &c. (595). Many nouns have a consonant stem in the singular, and an-i-stem in the plural: see516; most substantives in-iē-or-tiē-have a collateral form in-iā-or-tiā-(604). Some adjectives have two different stems: as,hilarus,hilara,hilarum, andhilaris,hilare;exanimusandexanimis.
402.There are two genders,MasculineandFeminine. Masculine and feminine nouns are calledGender nouns. Nouns without gender are calledNeuter.
403.Gender is, properly speaking, the distinction of sex. In Latin, a great many things without life have gender in grammar, and are masculine or feminine.
404.Some classes of substantives may be brought under general heads of signification, as below, like the names of rivers and winds (405), which are usually of the masculine gender, or of plants (407), which are usually of the feminine. When the gender cannot be determined thus, it must be learned from the special rules for the several stems and their nominatives.
GENDER OF SOME CLASSES OF SUBSTANTIVES.
MASCULINES.
405.Names of male beings, rivers, winds, and mountains, are masculine: as,
Caesar,Gāius,Sūlla, men’s names;pater,father;erus,master;scrība,scrivener;Tiberis,the Tiber;Aquilō,a Norther;Lūcrētilis,Mt. Lucretilis.
406.The river names:Allia,Dūria,Sagra,Lēthē, andStyxare feminine. Also the mountain namesAlpēs, plural,the Alps, and some Greek names of mountains in-aor-ē: as,Aetna,Mt. Etna;Rhodopē, a Thracian range. A few are neuter, asSōracte.
FEMININES.
407.Names of female beings, plants, flowers, shrubs, and trees, are feminine: as,
Gāia,Glycerium, women’s names;mālus,apple-tree;quercus,oak;īlex,holm-oak;abiēs,fir.
408.Masculine are:bōlētus,mushroom,carduus,thistle,dūmī, plural,brambles,intibus,endive,iuncus,rush,oleaster,bastard olive,rubus,bramble,rumex,sorrel,scirpus,bulrush, and rarelyfīcus,fig. Also some of Greek origin: as,acanthus,amāracus,asparagus, andcrocus. Neuter are:apium,parsley,balsamum,balsam-tree,rōbur,heart of oak, and some names with stems in-er-(573).
MOBILE, COMMON, AND EPICENE NOUNS.
409.Mobile Nounshave different forms to distinguish sex: as,Iūlius, a man,Julius,Iūlia, a woman,Julia;cervus,stag,cerva,hind;socer,father-in-law,socrus,mother-in-law;victor,conqueror,victrīx,conqueress. Adjectives ‘of three endings’ (611), belong to this class.
410.Some nouns have one ending, but are applicable to either sex. Such are said, to be ofCommon Gender: as,adulēscēns,young manoryoung woman;dux,leader;īnfāns,baby,child; and many other consonant stems or stems in-i-, denoting persons. Adjectives ‘of two endings’ or ‘of one ending’ (611), belong to this class.
411.Epiceneshave one ending and one grammatical gender, though applicable to animals of either sex. Thus,aquila,eagle, is feminine, though it may denote ahe-eagleas well as ashe-eagle;anatēs,ducks, feminine, includesdrakes.
NEUTERS.
412.Infinitives, words and expressions quoted or explained, and letters of the alphabet, are neuter: as,
vīvere ipsum,mere living;istūc ‘taceō,’your ‘I won’t mention;’longum vale,a long goodbye;o Graecum,Greek O. But the letters have sometimes a feminine adjective, agreeing withlitteraunderstood.
VARIABLE GENDER.
413.Some substantives have different genders in the two numbers; the different gender is sometimes indicated by a difference of stem: as,epulum, neuter,epulae, feminine,feast. Seebalneum,frēnum,jocus,locus,margarīta,ostrea,rāstrum, in the dictionary.
414.There are two numbers, theSingularused of one, thePluralof more than one.
415.ambō,both, andduo,two, nominative and accusative masculine and neuter, are the only remnants of an oldDualnumber, denoting two.
416.Some substantives, from their meaning, have no plural.
Such are: proper names: as,Cicerō,Cicero;Rōma,Rome; material and abstract substantives: as,oleum,oil,vīnum,wine,iūstitia,justice; and gerunds: as,regendī,of guiding. For the occasional use of the plural,1105-1110.
417.Some substantives, from their meaning, have no singular.
Such are: names of persons of a class: as,maiōrēs,ancestors;superī,the beings above;mānēs,ghosts; of feasts, sacrifices, days: as,Sāturnālia,festival of Saturn;kalendae,first of the month; of things made of parts or consisting of a series of acts: as,arma,arms;artūs,joints;quadrīgae,four-in-hand;exsequiae,funeral rites; of some places: as,Faleriī;Vēī;Pompēī;Athēnae,Athens;Alpēs,the Alps.
418.Some substantives have different meanings in the two numbers: as,
aedis,temple,aedēs,house;auxilium,aid,auxilia,auxiliaries;carcer,jail,carcerēs,race-barriers;Castrum,Castle,castra,camp;comitium,meeting-place,comitia,election;cōpia,abundance,cōpiae,troops;facultās,ability,facultātēs,wealth;fīnis,end,fīnēs,boundaries;grātia,favour,grātiae,thanks;impedīmentum,hindrance,impedīmenta,baggage;littera,letter (of the alphabet),litterae,epistle;rōstrum,beak,rōstra,speakers stand. See alsoaqua,bonum,fortūna,lūdus,opera,pars, in the dictionary.
419.Nouns have five cases, theNominative,Genitive,Dative,Accusative, andAblative.
The nominative represents a noun as subject, the accusative as object; the genitive denotes the relation ofof, the dative oftoorfor, and the ablative offrom,with,in, orby. But the meanings of the cases are best learnt from reading. All cases but the nominative and vocative (420) are calledOblique Cases.
420.Town names and a few appellatives have also a case denoting the place where, called theLocative. Masculine stems in-o-and some Greek stems with other endings have still another form used in addressing a person or thing, called theVocative.
421.The stem of a noun is best seen in the genitive; in the genitive plural it is preserved without change, except thatoof-o-stems is lengthened (123). In dictionaries the stem ending is indicated by the genitive singular, thus:-ae,-ī,-is,-ūs(-ĕī), indicate respectively stems in-ā-,-o-, a consonant or-i-,-u-, and-ē-, as follows:
422.Gender nominatives usually add-sto the stem: as,servo-sorservu-s,slave,rēx(164, 1),cīvi-s,portu-s,rē-s. But stems in-ā-or in a continuous consonant (-l-,-n-,-r-, or-s-) have no-s: as,mēnsa,cōnsul,consul,flāmen,special priest,pater,father,flōs,flower.
423.Neuters have the nominative and accusative alike; in the singular the stem is used: asnōmen,name; or a shortened stem: as,exemplar,pattern; but stems in-o-take-m: as,aevo-moraevu-m,age. In the plural-ais always used: as,rēgna,kingdoms,nōmina,cornua,horns. For-sin adjectives ‘of one ending,’ see612.
424.Gender accusatives singular add-mto the stem: as,mēnsa-m,servo-morservu-m,nāvi-m,ship,portu-m,die-m. The consonant stems have the ending-em: as,rēg-em; most substantive stems in-i-and all adjectives also drop-i-and take-em: as,nāv-em,trīst-em,sad. In the plural, gender stems add-sbefore which the vowel is long: as,mēnsā-s,servō-s,rēgē-s,nāvī-sornāvē-s,portū-s,rē-s.
425.The ablative singular usually ends in the long vowel of the stem: as,mēnsā,dominō,nāvī,portū,rē. The ablative of consonant stems usually has-e(rarely-ī-, see502): as,patre,father; and that of substantive-i-stems has-emore commonly than-ī: as,nāve.
426.The ablative singular of-ā-and-o-stems ended anciently in-ādand-ōdrespectively: as,PRAIDAD,PREIVATOD; that of consonant stems in-īd: as,AIRID,COVENTIONID. But-dis almost entirely confined to inscriptions and disappeared early (149).
427.The genitive plural adds-rumto-ā-,-o-, and-ē-stems: as,mēnsā-rum,dominō-rum,rē-rum; and-umto consonant stems,-i-stems, and-u-stems: as,rēg-um,cīvi-um,portu-um.
428.The dative and ablative plural are always alike: stems in-ā-and-o-take-is, which blends with the stem vowel (400): as,mēnsīs,dominīs; other stems have-bus, before which consonant stems are extended byi: as,rēgi-bus,nāvi-bus,portu-busorporti-bus,rē-bus.