inquam,quoth I(760);aiō,avouch(786). See alsoapage,avaunt,get thee behind me,cedo,give,tell,fārī,to lift up one’s voice,havē̆oravē̆andsalvē,all hail,ovat,triumphs, andquaesō,prithee, in the dictionary.806.(2.) Many verbs have only the present system; such are:807.(a.)sum,am(745);ferō,carry(780);fīō,grow,become(788).808.(b.) Some verbs in-ere:angō,throttle,bītō,go,clangō,sound,claudōorclaudeō,hobble,fatīscō,gape,glīscō,wax,glūbō,peel,hīscō,gape,temnō,scorn,vādō,go,vergō,slope. Also many inceptives (834): as,dītēscō,get rich,dulcēscō,get sweet, &c., &c.809.(c.) Some verbs in-ēre:albeō,am white,aveō,long,calveō,am bald,cāneō,am gray,clueō,am called,hight,flāveō,am yellow,hebeō,am blunt,immineō,threaten,lacteō,suck,līveō,look dark,maereō,mourn,polleō,am strong,renīdeō,am radiant,squāleō,am scaly,ūmeō,am wet.810.(d.) Some verbs in-īre:balbūtiō,sputter,feriō,strike,ganniō,yelp,ineptiō,am a fool,superbiō,am stuck up,tussiō,cough. Also most desideratives (375).811.Many verbs are not attended by a perfect participle, and lack in consequence the perfect passive system, or, if deponent, the perfect active system.812.(3.) Some verbs have only the perfect system: so particularlycoepī,have begun,began(120); and with a present meaning,ōdī,have come to hate,hate; andmeminī,have called to mind,remember. The following is a synopsis of these three verbs:INDICATIVE MOOD.Active.Passive.Active.Active.Perf.coepīcoeptus sumōdīmeminīPlup.coeperamcoeptus eramōderammemineramF. P.coeperōcoeptus erōōderōmeminerōSUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.Perf.coeperimcoeptus simōderimmeminerimPlup.coepissemcoeptus essemōdissemmeminissemIMPERATIVE MOOD.Perf.——————mementō,mementōteINFINITIVE.Perf.coepissecoeptus esseōdissememinissePARTICIPLES.Perf.coeptus————Fut.coeptūrusōsūrus——813.A few forms of the present system ofcoepīoccur in old writers: as,coepiō(Plaut.),coepiam(Caec., Cato),coepiat(Plaut.),coeperet(Ter.), andcoepere(Plaut.); perfect oncecoēpit(Lucr.).ōsus sumorfuī(Plaut., C. Gracch., Gell.),exōsus sum(Verg., Sen., Curt., Gell.), andperōsus sum(Suet., Col., Quint.), are sometimes used as deponents.meminīis the only verb which has a perfect imperative active.ōdīandmeminīhave no passive.814.coeptūrusis rather rare and late (Liv. 2, Plin., Suet.), once as future infinitive (Quint.); andōsūrusis very rare (Cic., Gell.).exōsusandperōsus, as active participles,hating bitterly, are not uncommon in writers of the empire; the simpleōsusis not used as a participle.815.(4.) Impersonal verbs have usually only the third person singular, and the infinitive present and perfect: as,(a.)pluit,it rains,tonat,it thunders, and other verbs denoting the operations of nature. (b.) Also a few verbs in-ēredenoting feeling: as,miseret(ormiserētur,miserēscit),it distresses,miseritum est;paenitet,it repents,paenituit;piget,it grieves,piguitorpigitum est;pudet,it shames,puduitorpuditum est;taedet,it is a bore,taesum est.816.Some other verbs, less correctly called impersonal, with an infinitive or a sentence as subject, are likewise defective: as,lubetorlibet,it suits,lubitumorlibitum est,lubuitorlibuit;licet,it is allowed,licuitorlicitum est;oportet,it is proper,oportuit;rē fertorrēfert,it concerns,rē ferreorrēferre,rē tulitorrētulit. For the impersonal use of the third person singular passive, aspugnātur,there is fighting,pugnandum est,there must be fighting, see724.817.Of the impersonals in-ēre, some have other forms besides the third person singular and the infinitives: as,paenitēns,repenting,paenitendus,to be regretted, late;pigendus,irksome;pudēns,modest,pudendus,shameful,puditūrum,going to shame;lubēnsorlibēns,with willing mind,gladly, very common indeed; imperativeLICETO,be it allowed(inscrr. 133-111B.C.),licēns,unrestrained,licitus,allowable; gerundspudendum,pudendō,pigendum.REDUNDANT VERBS.818.(1.) Some verbs have more than one form of the present stem: thus,819.(a.) Verbs in-erehave rarely forms of verbs in-ērein the present system: as,abnueō,nod no,abnuēbunt(Enn.), forabnuō,abnuent;congruēre,to agree(Ter.), forcongruere. For verbs in-iō,-ere(or-ior,-ī), with forms of verbs in-īre(or-īrī), see791. Oncepīnsībant(Enn.).820.(b.) Some verbs in-ārehave occasionally a present stem like verbs in-ere: as,lavis,washest,lavit, &c., forlavās,lavat, &c.;sonit,sounds,sonunt, forsonat,sonant. Others have occasionally a present stem like verbs in-ēre: as,dēnseō,thicken,dēnsērī, fordēnsō,dēnsārī.821.(c.) Some verbs in-ērehave occasionally a present stem like verbs in-ere: as,fervit,boils,fervont, forfervet,fervent. See alsofulgeō,oleō,scateō,strīdeō,tergeō,tueorin the dictionary.cieō,set a going, sometimes has a present stem in-īre, particularly in compounds: as,cīmus,ciunt, forciēmus,cient.822.(d.) Some verbs in-īrehave occasionally a present stem like verbs in-ere: as,ēvenunt,turn out, forēveniunt;ēvenat,ēvenant, forēveniat,ēveniant, andadvenat,pervenat, foradveniat,perveniat(Plaut.).823.(2.) Some verbs have more than one form of the perfect stem: as,eō,go, oldīī(765), commoniī, rarelyīvī(767);pluit,it rains,pluit, sometimesplūvit. See alsopangō,parcō,clepō,vollōorvellō,intellegō,pōnō,nectō, andadnectō,saliōandīnsiliō,applicō,explicōandimplicō,dīmicōandnecōin the dictionary. Some compound verbs have a form of the perfect which is different from that of the simple verb: as,canō,make music,cecinī,concinuī,occinuī;pungō,punch,pupugī,compunxī,expunxī;legō,pick up,lēgī,dīlēxī,intellēxī,neglēxī;emō,take,buy,ēmī(adēmī,exēmī),cōmpsī,dēmpsī,prōmpsī,sūmpsī.FORMATION OF STEMS.VARIABLE VOWEL.824.The final vowel of a tense stem is said to bevariablewhen it is-o-in some of the forms, and-u-,-e-, or-i-in others.825.The sign for the variable vowel is-o|e-: thus,rego|e-, which may be read ‘rego-orrege-,’ representsrego-orregu-,rege-orregi-, as seen inrego-rorregu-nt,rege-reorregi-t.826.The variable vowel occurs in the present of verbs in-ere, except in the subjunctive, in the future in-bōor-bor, and in the future perfect, as may be seen in the paradigms. It is usually short; but in the active,ois long: as,regō,laudābō,laudāverō; and poets rarely lengtheniin the second and third person singular of the present. For the future perfect, see882.827.In old Latin, the stem vowel of the third person plural of the present waso: as,COSENTIONT;owas long retained afterv,u, orqu(107,c): as,vīvont,ruont,sequontur; or, ifowas not retained,qubecamec: as,secuntur.I. THE PRESENT SYSTEM.PRESENT INDICATIVE STEM.I. Primitives.(A.) ROOT VERBS.828.A root without addition is used as the present stem, in the present tense or parts of the present tense, in root verbs (744-781): as,es-t,is;da-t,gives;inqui-t,quoth he;i-t,goes;nequi-t,can’t;ēs-t,eats;vol-t,will;fer-t,carries. With reduplicated root (189):bibi-t,drinks;seri-t,sows;sisti-t,sets.(B.) VERBS IN-ere.829.(1.) The present stem of many verbs in-ereis formed by adding a variable vowel-o|e-, which appears in the first person singular active as-ō, to a root ending in a consonant or in two consonants: as,Present Stem.Verb.From Theme.rego|e-regō,guidereg-verto|e-vertō,turnvert-Other examples are:tegō,cover,petō,make for;mergō,dip,serpō,creep;pendō,weigh;dīcō,say,fīdō,trust,scrībō,write, with longīforei(98);dūcō,lead, with longūforeu,ou(100);lūdō,play, with longūforoi,oe(99);laedō,hit,claudō,shut;rādō,scrape,cēdō,move along,fīgō,fix,rōdō,gnaw,glūbō,peel.*furō,rave;agō,drive,alō,nurture.gignō,beget, (gen-,gn-), has reduplication, andsīdō,settle,light(sed-,sd-), is also the result of an ancient reduplication (189).830.In some present stems an original consonant has been modified: as,gerō,carry(ges-),ūrō,burn(154);trahō,draw(tragh-),vehō,cart(152); or has disappeared: as,fluō,flow(flūgu-).831.Some roots in a mute have a nasal before the mute in the present stem: as,frangō,break(frag-). Other examples are:iungō,join,linquō,leave,pangō,fix,pingō,paint;findō,cleave,fundō,pour;-cumbō,lie,lambō,lick,rumpō,break(164, 3). The nasal sometimes runs over into the perfect or perfect participle, or both.832.(2.) The present stem of many verbs in-ereis formed by adding a suffix ending in a variable vowel-o|e-, which appears in the first person singular active as-ō, to a root: thus,-nō,-scō,-tō,-iō: as,Present Stem.Verb.From Theme.lino|e-linō,besmearli-crēsco|e-crēscō,growcrē-pecto|e-pectō,combpec-capio|e-capiō,takecap-833.(a.)-nōis added to roots in a vowel, or in a continuous sound,-m-,-r-, or-l-.So regularlylinō,besmear,sinō,let;temnō,scorn,cernō,sift,spernō,spurn, only. The third persons pluraldanunt(Naev., Plaut.) fordant,prōdīnunt,redīnunt(Enn.) forprōdeunt,redeunthardly belong here; their formation is obscure. In a few verbs,-nis assimilated (166, 6): as,tollō,lift. Sometimes the doubledlruns into the perfect (855): as,vellī,fefellī.minuō,lessen, andsternuō,sneeze, have a longer suffix-nuo|e-.834.(b.)-scō, usually meaning ‘begin to,’ forms presents calledInceptivesorInchoatives.-scōis attached: first, to roots: as,nāscor,am born,nōscō,learn,pāscō,feed,scīscō,resolve; consonant roots haveī, less commonlyē,before the suffix: as,tremīscōortremēscō,fall a-trembling,nancīscor,get(831); butdiscō,learn(170, 1), andposcō,demand(170,10), are shortened; see168. Secondly, to a form of the present stem of denominative verbs, especially of those in-ēre: as,clārēscō,brighten; the stem is often assumed only, as ininveterāscō,grow old,mātūrēscō,get ripe. Many inceptives are used only in composition: as,extimēscō,get scared,obdormīscō,drop asleep.835.(c.)-tōoccurs in the following presents from guttural roots:flectō,turn,nectō,string,pectō,comb,plector,am struck,amplector,hug,complector,clasp. From a lingual rootvid-, comesvīsō,go to see,call on(153). From vowel roots:bētōorbītō,go, andmetō,mow.836.(d.)-iōis usually added to consonant roots with a short vowel; the following have presents formed by this suffix:capiō,take,cupiō,want,faciō,make,fodiō,dig,fugiō,run away,iaciō,throw,pariō,bring forth,quatiō,shake,rapiō,seize,sapiō,have sense, and their compounds; the compounds of*laciō,lure, andspeciōorspiciō,spy, and the deponentsgradior,step,morior,die, andpatior,suffer, and their compounds. For occasional forms like those of verbs in-īre(or-īrī), see791. Foraiō, see786; forfīō,788.837.A few present stems are formed by adding a variable vowel-o|e-, for an older-io|e-, to a vowel root: as,ruō,tumble down,rui-s,rui-t,rui-mus,rui-tis,ruu-nt(114). Vowel roots in-ā-,-ē-, or-ī-have a present stem like that of denominatives: as,stō,stand,stā-s,sta-t,stā-mus,stā-tis,sta-nt;fleō,weep,flē-s,fle-t,flē-mus,flē-tis,fle-nt;neō,spin, has onceneu-ntforne-nt(Tib.);sciō,know,scī-s,sci-t,scī-mus,scī-tis,sciu-nt.838.Most present stems formed by adding the suffix-iōto a root ending in-l-,-r-, or-n-, and all formed by adding-iōto a long syllable, have the form of denominatives in-īrein the present system: as,saliō,leap,salīre,aperiō,open,aperīre,veniō,come,venīre;farciō,cram,farcīre.II. Denominatives.839.The present stem of denominatives is formed by attaching a variable vowel-o|e-, for an older-io|e-, to a theme consisting of a noun stem: as,Uncontracted Present Stem.Verb.From Theme.cēnao|e-cēnō,dinecēnā-flōreo|e-flōreō,blossomflōre-vestio|e-vestiō,dressvesti-acuo|e-acuō,pointacu-The noun stem ending is often slightly modified in forming the theme: thus,laud-becomeslaudā-inlaudōfor*laudā-ō, andflōr-becomesflōre-inflōre-ō.840.In many of the forms, the final vowel of the theme is contracted with the variable vowel: as,plantō,plantās(118,3) for*plantāi̭ō,*plantāi̭es(153, 2);monēsfor*monēi̭es(118, 1),audīsfor*audīi̭es(118, 3). The longā,ē, orī, is regularly shortened in some of the forms: as,scit,arat,habet, for Plautinescīt,arāt,habēt. In a few forms no contraction occurs: as,moneō,audiō,audiu-nt,audie-ntis, &c.,audie-ndus, &c. (114). Denominatives from stems in-u-, asacuō, are not contracted, and so have the forms of verbs in-ere(367).PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.841.The suffix of the present subjunctive ofsum,am, is-ī-, which becomes-i-before-m,-t, and-nt:si-m,sī-s,si-t,sī-mus,sī-tis,si-nt(35, 2, 3). So also in the singular and in the third person plural,dui-m, &c. (756), andedi-m, &c. (769), and in all the persons,veli-m, &c. (nōli-m, &c.,māli-m, &c.). An old suffix is-iē-(-ie-), insie-m,siē-s,sie-t, andsie-nt.842.(1.) The present subjunctive stem of verbs in-ere,-ēre, and-īre, ends in-ā-, which becomes-a-in some of the persons; this suffix replaces the variable vowel of the indicative: as,rega-m,regā-s,rega-t,regā-mus,regā-tis,rega-nt;capia-m,capiā-s, &c.;monea-m,moneā-s,&c.;audia-m,audiā-s, &c.ea-m,quea-m,fera-m, and the oldfua-m(750), also have the formative subjunctive vowel.843.(2.) The present subjunctive stem of verbs in-āreends in-ē-, which becomes-e-in some of the persons: as,laude-m,laudē-s,laude-t,laudē-mus,laudē-tis,laude-nt.dō,give, also hasde-m,dē-s, &c.IMPERATIVE.844.Root verbs have a root as imperative stem (745-780): as,es, &c.,fer, &c. But the imperative ofnōlōhas a stem in-ī-, like verbs in-īre: thus,nōlī,nōlī-tō,nōlī-te,nōlī-tōte.845.The imperative stem of verbs in-ere, and of verbs in-āre,-ēre, and-īre, is the same as that of the indicative: as,rege,regi-tō,regu-ntō,rege-re;cape,capi-tō,capiu-ntō;fī;laudā, &c.;monē, &c.;audī, &c.846.The second person singular imperative active ofdīcō,dūcō, andfaciō, is usuallydīc,dūc, andfac, respectively, though the full forms,dīce, &c., are also used, and are commoner in old Latin. Compounds ofdūcōmay have the short form: as,ēdūc.ingerōhas onceinger(Catull.).sciōhas regularly the singularscī-tō, pluralscī-tōte, rarelyscī-te.IMPERFECT INDICATIVE.847.The imperfect indicative stem ends in-bā-, which becomes-ba-in some of the persons: as,daba-m,dabā-s,daba-t,dabā-mus,dabā-tis,daba-nt;ība-m;quība-m. In verbs in-ereand-ēre, the suffix is preceded by a form ending in-ē-: as,regēba-m;monēba-m; so alsovolēba-m(nōlēba-m,mālēba-m), andferēba-m; in verbs in-iō,-ere, and in-iō,-īre, by a form ending in-iē-: as,capiēba-m;audiēba-m; in verbs in-āre, by one ending in-ā-: as,laudāba-m. In verse, verbs in-īresometimes have-ī-before the suffix (Plaut., Ter., Catull., Lucr., Verg., &c.): as,audība-t.āiō,say, has sometimesa͡iba-m, &c. (787).848.The suffix of the imperfect indicative ofsum,am, is-ā-, which becomes-a-before-m,-t, and-nt(35, 2, 3)thesbecomesrbetween the vowels (154):era-m,erā-s,era-t,erā-mus,erā-tis,era-nt.IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE.849.The imperfect subjunctive stem ends in-rē-, which becomes-re-in some of the persons: as,dare-m,darē-s,dare-t,darē-mus,darē-tis,dare-nt;īre-m,fore-m,ferre-m. In verbs in-ere, the-rē-is preceded by a form ending in-e-: as,regere-m,capere-m; in verbs in-āre,-ēre, and-īre, by one ending in-ā-,-ē-, or-ī-, respectively: as,laudāre-m,monēre-m,audīre-m.850.The suffix of the imperfect subjunctive ofsum,am, is-sē-, which becomes-se-in some of the persons;esse-m,essē-s,esse-t,essē-mus,essē-tis,esse-nt; so alsoēssē-s, &c. (769).volō,wish,nōlō,won’t, andmālō,prefer, havevelle-m,nōlle-m, andmālle-mrespectively (166, 8).FUTURE.851.The future stem ofsum,am, isero|e-:erō,eri-s,eri-t,eri-mus,eri-tis,eru-nt.dōhasdabō,eōhasībō, andqueōhasquībō.852.(1.) The future stem of verbs in-ereand-īreends in-a-in the first person singular, otherwise in-ē-, which becomes-e-in some of the persons: as,rega-m,regē-s,rege-t,regē-mus,regē-tis,rege-nt;capia-m,capiē-s, &c.;audia-m,audiē-s, &c. The first person singular is not a future form, but the subjunctive present, used with a future meaning (842); forms in-emoccur in manuscripts of Plautus: as,faciem,sinem. Verbs in-īresometimes have-bo|e-, chiefly in the dramatists: as,scībō,opperībo-r(Plaut., Ter.),lēnību-nt(Prop.); rarely verbs in-ere(819): as,exsūgēbō(Plaut.). Forreddibō, instead of the usualreddam, see757.853.(2.) The future stem of verbs in-āreand-ēreends in-bo|e-, which is preceded by a form ending in long-ā-or-ē-respectively: as,laudābō,laudābi-s,laudābi-t,laudābi-mus,laudābi-tis,laudābu-nt.monēbō,monēbi-s, &c.II. THE PERFECT SYSTEM.PERFECT INDICATIVE STEM.854.There are two kinds of perfect stems: (A.) Some verbs have as perfect stem a root, generally with some modification, but without a suffix (858-866). (B.) Some perfects are formed with a suffix,-s-, or-v-or-u-(867-875).855.Some perfects of primitives are formed not from a root, but from the present stem without the formative vowel, treated as a root: as,prehendī,seized, fromprehend-(866);poposcī,asked,fefellī,deceived(858);iūnxī,joined(867).856.The first person of the perfect ends in-ī, sometimes writtenei(29, 2).-t,-stī, sometimes written-stei(29, 2),-stis, and-musare preceded by shorti;-reis always, and-runtis usually, preceded by longē: as,rēxī,rēxi-stī,rēxi-t,rēxi-mus,rēxi-stis,rēxē-runt(rēxe-runt), orrēxē-re.857.Sometimes-tis preceded by longī: as,iīt,petiīt,REDIEIT(29, 2).-runtis sometimes preceded by shorte(Plaut., Ter., Lucr., Hor., Ov., Verg., Phaedr.). This is the original form;-ē-is by analogy to-ēre.(A.) PERFECT STEM WITHOUT A SUFFIX.858.(1.) Some verbs in-ereform their perfect stem by prefixing to the root its initial consonant with the following vowel, which, ifa, is usually represented bye; this is called theReduplicated Perfect, and the first syllable is called theReduplication: as,Perfect Stem.Verb.From Theme.pu-pug-pungō,punchpug-pe-pig-pangō,fixpag-Other examples are:cadō,fall,cecidī(cad-,104,c);pariō,bring forth,peperī(par-,104,c);pellō,push,pepulī(pol-,105,h);poscō,demand,poposcī(855);fallō,deceive,fefellī(855,104,c); see also923-932.caedō,cut, hascecīdī(108,a); and a few old forms are quoted from verbs having anoor anuin the root withein the reduplication: as,memordī,pepugī.859.Four verbs with vowel roots also have a reduplicated perfect stem:dō,give,put,dare,dedī;bibō,drink,bibere,bibī;stō,stand,stāre,stetī, andsistō,set,sistere,-stitī, rarelystitī. Also four verbs in-ēre:mordeō,bite,momordī,pendeō,hang,pependī,spondeō,promise,spopondī,tondeō,clip,-totondī. In the root syllable ofspopondī,promised,stetī,stood,stitī,set, and the oldscicidī,clove, ansis dropped (173, 2).860.In compounds the reduplication is commonly dropped: as,cecidī,fell, compoundconcidī,tumbled down. Compounds ofcucurrī,ran, sometimes retain the reduplication: as,prōcucurrī. Compounds ofbibī,drank,didicī,learned,poposcī,asked,stitī,set,stetī,stood, anddedī,gave,put, retain it, the last two weakeningetoi: as,restitī,staid back.abscondidī,hid away, usually becomesabscondī; in apparent compounds,eis usually retained: as,circum stetī,stood round,vēnum dedī,put for sale. The reduplication is also lost in the simple verbstulī,carried, oldtetulī, and inscindō,split,scidī, which last is rare as a simple verb.861.Some compounds withre-drop only the vowel of the reduplication (111,a): as,reccidī,fell back;rettulī,brought back(see also781);repperī,found;rettudī,beat back. Some perfects occur only in composition: as,percellō,knock down,perculī;cōntundō,smash to pieces,contudī;diffindō,split apart,diffidī; butfidīalso occurs a couple of times as a simple verb.862.(2.) Some verbs in-erehave a perfect stem consisting of a consonant root with a long vowel (135, 1): as,Perfect Stem.Verb.From Theme.ēd-edō,eated-lēg-legō,pick up,readleg-Other examples are:fodiō,dig,fōdī;fundō,pour,fūdī;linquō,leave,līquī; see936-946. Three verbs in-ērealso have this form,sedeō,sit,sēdī,strīdeō,grate,strīdī,videō,see,vīdī; and one in-īre,veniō,come,vēnī.863.The following verbs in-erewithain the present stem, have longēin the perfect stem (145):agō,do,ēgī,frangō,break,frēgī,pangō,fix, rarelypēgī, but alwayscompēgī,impēgī,oppēgī;capiō,take,cēpī,faciō,make,fēcī,iaciō,throw,iēcī. So also the oldco-ēpī,began, commoncoepī.864.Two verbs in-āreand some in-ērehave a perfect stem consisting of a root which ends in-v-and has a long vowel:iuvō,help,iuvāre,iūvī,lavō,wash,lavāreorlavere,lāvī;caveō,look out,cavēre,cāvī; see996.865.Verbs in-uō,-uere, both primitives and denominatives, have usually a perfect stem in shortuof the theme (124): as,luō,pay,luī;acuō,sharpen,acuī: see947,948. Forms with longūare old and rare (126): as,fūī,adnūī,cōnstitūī,īnstitūī.fluō,flow, andstruō,pile, haveflūxīandstrūxi(830).866.(3.) Some verbs in-erefrom roots ending in two consonants have a perfect stem consisting of the root: as,Perfect Stem.Verb.From Theme.mand-mandō,chewmand-pand-pandō,openpand-Other examples are:vortōorvertō,turn,vortīorvertī;scandō,climb,-scendī;prehendō,seize,prehendī(855);vollōorvellō,pluck,vollīorvellī; see949-951. Similarlyferveō,boil,fervereorfervēre, hasfervīorferbuī(823), andprandeō,lunch,prandēre, hasprandī.(B.) PERFECT STEM IN-s-, OR IN-v-OR-u-.PERFECT STEM IN-s-.867.Many verbs in-ereform their perfect stem by adding the suffix-s-to a root, which generally ends in a mute: as,Perfect Stem.Verb.From Theme.carp-s-carpō,pluckcarp-scalp-s-scalpō,digscalp-ges-s-gerō,bearges-dīx-dīcō,saydīc-Other examples are:dūcō,lead,dūxī(100);fingō,mould,fīnxī(855);lūdō,play,lūsī(166, 2);scrībō,write,scrīpsī(164, 1);struō,pile,strūxī(164, 1);vīvō,live,vīxī(98). Some verbs with a short vowel in the present, have a long vowel in the perfect: as,regō,guide,rēxī(135);intellegō,understand,intellēxī(823);tegō,cover,tēxī;iungō,join,iūnxī(855). And some verbs with a long vowel in the present, have a short vowel in the perfect: as,ūrō,burn,ussī(830). See952-961.868.Some verbs in-ērealso have a perfect in-s-: asalgeō,am cold,alsī(170, 3);haereō,stick,haesī(166, 2): see999,1000. Also some in-īre: as,sarciō,patch,sarsī(170, 3): see1014,1015.PERFECT STEM IN-v-OR-u-.869.(1.) Some verbs in-ere, with vowel roots, and almost all verbs in-āreor-īre, form their perfect stem by adding the suffix-v-to a theme ending in a long vowel: as,Perfect Stem.Verb.From Theme.crē-v-crēscō,growcrē-laudā-v-laudō,praiselaudā-audī-v-audiō,hearaudī-For other verbs in-erewith a perfect stem in-v-, and particularlyterō,cernō,spernō, andsternō, see962-970.870.A few verbs in-erehave a perfect stem in-v-attached to a presumed theme in longī: as,cupiō,want,cupīvī;petō,aim at,petīvī;quaerō,inquire,quaesīvī;arcēssō,fetch,arcēssīvī; see966-970.871.A few verbs in-ērealso have a perfect stem in-v-: as,fleō,weep,flēre,flēvī; see1001-1003. And three verbs in-ēscerehave a perfect stem in-v-attached to a presumed theme in longē:-olēscō,grow,-olēvī;quiēscō,get quiet,quiēvī;suēscō,get used,suēvī.872.One verb in-āscerehas a perfect stem in-v-attached to a presumed theme in longā:advesperāscit,it gets dusk,advesperāvit.873.(2.) Many verbs in-ereform their perfect stem by adding the suffix-u-to a consonant root: as,Perfect Stem.Verb.From Theme.al-u-alō,nurtureal-gen-u-gignō,begetgen-Other examples are:colō,cultivate,coluī;cōnsulō,consult,cōnsuluī;-cumbō,lie,-cubuī;fremō,roar,fremuī;ēliciō,draw out,ēlicuī;molō,grind,moluī;rapiō,snatch,rapuī;serō,string,-seruī;stertō,snore,-stertuī;strepō,make a racket,strepuī;texō,weave,texuī;volō,will,voluī;compescō,check,compescuī(855); see971-976.874.Some verbs in-ārealso have a perfect stem in-u-: as,crepō,rattle,crepāre,crepuī(993); and many in-ēre: as,moneō,warn,monēre,monuī: see1004-1006; also four in-īre: as,saliō,leap,salīre,saluī(1019).875.The perfectpotuīto the presentpossum(751) is from a lost present*poteō,*potēre(922).pōnere(for*po-sinere,112;170, 2) forms an old perfectposīvī(964), laterposuī, as ifpos-were the stem.PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE.876.The perfect subjunctive stem ends in-erī-, for which-eri-is sometimes used (35, 2, 3): as,rēxeri-m,rēxerī-s,rēxeri-t,rēxerī-mus,rēxerī-tis,rēxeri-nt.877.In the perfect subjunctive, longīis found before the person endings-s,-mus, and-tis, some 25 times, as follows:-īs, 18 times (Plaut. 3, Pac., Enn., Ter., Hor., Tib., Sen., inscr., once each, Ov. 8),-īmus, 4 times (Plaut. 3, Ter. 1),-ītis, 3 times (Plaut. 2, Enn. 1).878.In the perfect subjunctive, shortiis found, as in the future perfect, some 9 times, thus:-is, 8 times (Plaut. in anapests 3, Verg. 2, Hor. 3),-imusonce (Verg.). But before-tis, shortiis not found.PERFECT IMPERATIVE.879.One verb only,meminī,remember, has a perfect imperative; in this imperative, the person endings are not preceded by a vowel, thus:memen-tō,memen-tōte.PLUPERFECT INDICATIVE.880.The pluperfect indicative stem ends in-erā-, which becomes-era-in some of the persons: as,rēxera-m,rēxerā-s,rēxera-t,rēxerā-mus,rēxerā-tis,rēxera-nt.PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE.881.The pluperfect subjunctive stem ends in-issē-, which becomes-isse-in some of the persons: as,rēxisse-m,rēxissē-s,rēxisse-t,rēxissē-mus,rēxissē-tis,rēxisse-nt.
inquam,quoth I(760);aiō,avouch(786). See alsoapage,avaunt,get thee behind me,cedo,give,tell,fārī,to lift up one’s voice,havē̆oravē̆andsalvē,all hail,ovat,triumphs, andquaesō,prithee, in the dictionary.
806.(2.) Many verbs have only the present system; such are:
807.(a.)sum,am(745);ferō,carry(780);fīō,grow,become(788).
808.(b.) Some verbs in-ere:angō,throttle,bītō,go,clangō,sound,claudōorclaudeō,hobble,fatīscō,gape,glīscō,wax,glūbō,peel,hīscō,gape,temnō,scorn,vādō,go,vergō,slope. Also many inceptives (834): as,dītēscō,get rich,dulcēscō,get sweet, &c., &c.
809.(c.) Some verbs in-ēre:albeō,am white,aveō,long,calveō,am bald,cāneō,am gray,clueō,am called,hight,flāveō,am yellow,hebeō,am blunt,immineō,threaten,lacteō,suck,līveō,look dark,maereō,mourn,polleō,am strong,renīdeō,am radiant,squāleō,am scaly,ūmeō,am wet.
810.(d.) Some verbs in-īre:balbūtiō,sputter,feriō,strike,ganniō,yelp,ineptiō,am a fool,superbiō,am stuck up,tussiō,cough. Also most desideratives (375).
811.Many verbs are not attended by a perfect participle, and lack in consequence the perfect passive system, or, if deponent, the perfect active system.
812.(3.) Some verbs have only the perfect system: so particularlycoepī,have begun,began(120); and with a present meaning,ōdī,have come to hate,hate; andmeminī,have called to mind,remember. The following is a synopsis of these three verbs:
ōdī
813.A few forms of the present system ofcoepīoccur in old writers: as,coepiō(Plaut.),coepiam(Caec., Cato),coepiat(Plaut.),coeperet(Ter.), andcoepere(Plaut.); perfect oncecoēpit(Lucr.).ōsus sumorfuī(Plaut., C. Gracch., Gell.),exōsus sum(Verg., Sen., Curt., Gell.), andperōsus sum(Suet., Col., Quint.), are sometimes used as deponents.meminīis the only verb which has a perfect imperative active.ōdīandmeminīhave no passive.
814.coeptūrusis rather rare and late (Liv. 2, Plin., Suet.), once as future infinitive (Quint.); andōsūrusis very rare (Cic., Gell.).exōsusandperōsus, as active participles,hating bitterly, are not uncommon in writers of the empire; the simpleōsusis not used as a participle.
815.(4.) Impersonal verbs have usually only the third person singular, and the infinitive present and perfect: as,
(a.)pluit,it rains,tonat,it thunders, and other verbs denoting the operations of nature. (b.) Also a few verbs in-ēredenoting feeling: as,miseret(ormiserētur,miserēscit),it distresses,miseritum est;paenitet,it repents,paenituit;piget,it grieves,piguitorpigitum est;pudet,it shames,puduitorpuditum est;taedet,it is a bore,taesum est.
816.Some other verbs, less correctly called impersonal, with an infinitive or a sentence as subject, are likewise defective: as,
lubetorlibet,it suits,lubitumorlibitum est,lubuitorlibuit;licet,it is allowed,licuitorlicitum est;oportet,it is proper,oportuit;rē fertorrēfert,it concerns,rē ferreorrēferre,rē tulitorrētulit. For the impersonal use of the third person singular passive, aspugnātur,there is fighting,pugnandum est,there must be fighting, see724.
817.Of the impersonals in-ēre, some have other forms besides the third person singular and the infinitives: as,
paenitēns,repenting,paenitendus,to be regretted, late;pigendus,irksome;pudēns,modest,pudendus,shameful,puditūrum,going to shame;lubēnsorlibēns,with willing mind,gladly, very common indeed; imperativeLICETO,be it allowed(inscrr. 133-111B.C.),licēns,unrestrained,licitus,allowable; gerundspudendum,pudendō,pigendum.
818.(1.) Some verbs have more than one form of the present stem: thus,
819.(a.) Verbs in-erehave rarely forms of verbs in-ērein the present system: as,abnueō,nod no,abnuēbunt(Enn.), forabnuō,abnuent;congruēre,to agree(Ter.), forcongruere. For verbs in-iō,-ere(or-ior,-ī), with forms of verbs in-īre(or-īrī), see791. Oncepīnsībant(Enn.).
820.(b.) Some verbs in-ārehave occasionally a present stem like verbs in-ere: as,lavis,washest,lavit, &c., forlavās,lavat, &c.;sonit,sounds,sonunt, forsonat,sonant. Others have occasionally a present stem like verbs in-ēre: as,dēnseō,thicken,dēnsērī, fordēnsō,dēnsārī.
821.(c.) Some verbs in-ērehave occasionally a present stem like verbs in-ere: as,fervit,boils,fervont, forfervet,fervent. See alsofulgeō,oleō,scateō,strīdeō,tergeō,tueorin the dictionary.cieō,set a going, sometimes has a present stem in-īre, particularly in compounds: as,cīmus,ciunt, forciēmus,cient.
822.(d.) Some verbs in-īrehave occasionally a present stem like verbs in-ere: as,ēvenunt,turn out, forēveniunt;ēvenat,ēvenant, forēveniat,ēveniant, andadvenat,pervenat, foradveniat,perveniat(Plaut.).
823.(2.) Some verbs have more than one form of the perfect stem: as,
eō,go, oldīī(765), commoniī, rarelyīvī(767);pluit,it rains,pluit, sometimesplūvit. See alsopangō,parcō,clepō,vollōorvellō,intellegō,pōnō,nectō, andadnectō,saliōandīnsiliō,applicō,explicōandimplicō,dīmicōandnecōin the dictionary. Some compound verbs have a form of the perfect which is different from that of the simple verb: as,canō,make music,cecinī,concinuī,occinuī;pungō,punch,pupugī,compunxī,expunxī;legō,pick up,lēgī,dīlēxī,intellēxī,neglēxī;emō,take,buy,ēmī(adēmī,exēmī),cōmpsī,dēmpsī,prōmpsī,sūmpsī.
824.The final vowel of a tense stem is said to bevariablewhen it is-o-in some of the forms, and-u-,-e-, or-i-in others.
825.The sign for the variable vowel is-o|e-: thus,rego|e-, which may be read ‘rego-orrege-,’ representsrego-orregu-,rege-orregi-, as seen inrego-rorregu-nt,rege-reorregi-t.
826.The variable vowel occurs in the present of verbs in-ere, except in the subjunctive, in the future in-bōor-bor, and in the future perfect, as may be seen in the paradigms. It is usually short; but in the active,ois long: as,regō,laudābō,laudāverō; and poets rarely lengtheniin the second and third person singular of the present. For the future perfect, see882.
827.In old Latin, the stem vowel of the third person plural of the present waso: as,COSENTIONT;owas long retained afterv,u, orqu(107,c): as,vīvont,ruont,sequontur; or, ifowas not retained,qubecamec: as,secuntur.
PRESENT INDICATIVE STEM.
I. Primitives.
(A.) ROOT VERBS.
828.A root without addition is used as the present stem, in the present tense or parts of the present tense, in root verbs (744-781): as,
es-t,is;da-t,gives;inqui-t,quoth he;i-t,goes;nequi-t,can’t;ēs-t,eats;vol-t,will;fer-t,carries. With reduplicated root (189):bibi-t,drinks;seri-t,sows;sisti-t,sets.
(B.) VERBS IN-ere.
829.(1.) The present stem of many verbs in-ereis formed by adding a variable vowel-o|e-, which appears in the first person singular active as-ō, to a root ending in a consonant or in two consonants: as,
Other examples are:tegō,cover,petō,make for;mergō,dip,serpō,creep;pendō,weigh;dīcō,say,fīdō,trust,scrībō,write, with longīforei(98);dūcō,lead, with longūforeu,ou(100);lūdō,play, with longūforoi,oe(99);laedō,hit,claudō,shut;rādō,scrape,cēdō,move along,fīgō,fix,rōdō,gnaw,glūbō,peel.*furō,rave;agō,drive,alō,nurture.gignō,beget, (gen-,gn-), has reduplication, andsīdō,settle,light(sed-,sd-), is also the result of an ancient reduplication (189).
830.In some present stems an original consonant has been modified: as,gerō,carry(ges-),ūrō,burn(154);trahō,draw(tragh-),vehō,cart(152); or has disappeared: as,fluō,flow(flūgu-).
831.Some roots in a mute have a nasal before the mute in the present stem: as,frangō,break(frag-). Other examples are:iungō,join,linquō,leave,pangō,fix,pingō,paint;findō,cleave,fundō,pour;-cumbō,lie,lambō,lick,rumpō,break(164, 3). The nasal sometimes runs over into the perfect or perfect participle, or both.
832.(2.) The present stem of many verbs in-ereis formed by adding a suffix ending in a variable vowel-o|e-, which appears in the first person singular active as-ō, to a root: thus,-nō,-scō,-tō,-iō: as,
833.(a.)-nōis added to roots in a vowel, or in a continuous sound,-m-,-r-, or-l-.
So regularlylinō,besmear,sinō,let;temnō,scorn,cernō,sift,spernō,spurn, only. The third persons pluraldanunt(Naev., Plaut.) fordant,prōdīnunt,redīnunt(Enn.) forprōdeunt,redeunthardly belong here; their formation is obscure. In a few verbs,-nis assimilated (166, 6): as,tollō,lift. Sometimes the doubledlruns into the perfect (855): as,vellī,fefellī.minuō,lessen, andsternuō,sneeze, have a longer suffix-nuo|e-.
834.(b.)-scō, usually meaning ‘begin to,’ forms presents calledInceptivesorInchoatives.
-scōis attached: first, to roots: as,nāscor,am born,nōscō,learn,pāscō,feed,scīscō,resolve; consonant roots haveī, less commonlyē,before the suffix: as,tremīscōortremēscō,fall a-trembling,nancīscor,get(831); butdiscō,learn(170, 1), andposcō,demand(170,10), are shortened; see168. Secondly, to a form of the present stem of denominative verbs, especially of those in-ēre: as,clārēscō,brighten; the stem is often assumed only, as ininveterāscō,grow old,mātūrēscō,get ripe. Many inceptives are used only in composition: as,extimēscō,get scared,obdormīscō,drop asleep.
835.(c.)-tōoccurs in the following presents from guttural roots:flectō,turn,nectō,string,pectō,comb,plector,am struck,amplector,hug,complector,clasp. From a lingual rootvid-, comesvīsō,go to see,call on(153). From vowel roots:bētōorbītō,go, andmetō,mow.
836.(d.)-iōis usually added to consonant roots with a short vowel; the following have presents formed by this suffix:
capiō,take,cupiō,want,faciō,make,fodiō,dig,fugiō,run away,iaciō,throw,pariō,bring forth,quatiō,shake,rapiō,seize,sapiō,have sense, and their compounds; the compounds of*laciō,lure, andspeciōorspiciō,spy, and the deponentsgradior,step,morior,die, andpatior,suffer, and their compounds. For occasional forms like those of verbs in-īre(or-īrī), see791. Foraiō, see786; forfīō,788.
837.A few present stems are formed by adding a variable vowel-o|e-, for an older-io|e-, to a vowel root: as,
ruō,tumble down,rui-s,rui-t,rui-mus,rui-tis,ruu-nt(114). Vowel roots in-ā-,-ē-, or-ī-have a present stem like that of denominatives: as,stō,stand,stā-s,sta-t,stā-mus,stā-tis,sta-nt;fleō,weep,flē-s,fle-t,flē-mus,flē-tis,fle-nt;neō,spin, has onceneu-ntforne-nt(Tib.);sciō,know,scī-s,sci-t,scī-mus,scī-tis,sciu-nt.
838.Most present stems formed by adding the suffix-iōto a root ending in-l-,-r-, or-n-, and all formed by adding-iōto a long syllable, have the form of denominatives in-īrein the present system: as,saliō,leap,salīre,aperiō,open,aperīre,veniō,come,venīre;farciō,cram,farcīre.
II. Denominatives.
839.The present stem of denominatives is formed by attaching a variable vowel-o|e-, for an older-io|e-, to a theme consisting of a noun stem: as,
The noun stem ending is often slightly modified in forming the theme: thus,laud-becomeslaudā-inlaudōfor*laudā-ō, andflōr-becomesflōre-inflōre-ō.
840.In many of the forms, the final vowel of the theme is contracted with the variable vowel: as,
plantō,plantās(118,3) for*plantāi̭ō,*plantāi̭es(153, 2);monēsfor*monēi̭es(118, 1),audīsfor*audīi̭es(118, 3). The longā,ē, orī, is regularly shortened in some of the forms: as,scit,arat,habet, for Plautinescīt,arāt,habēt. In a few forms no contraction occurs: as,moneō,audiō,audiu-nt,audie-ntis, &c.,audie-ndus, &c. (114). Denominatives from stems in-u-, asacuō, are not contracted, and so have the forms of verbs in-ere(367).
PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.
841.The suffix of the present subjunctive ofsum,am, is-ī-, which becomes-i-before-m,-t, and-nt:si-m,sī-s,si-t,sī-mus,sī-tis,si-nt(35, 2, 3). So also in the singular and in the third person plural,dui-m, &c. (756), andedi-m, &c. (769), and in all the persons,veli-m, &c. (nōli-m, &c.,māli-m, &c.). An old suffix is-iē-(-ie-), insie-m,siē-s,sie-t, andsie-nt.
842.(1.) The present subjunctive stem of verbs in-ere,-ēre, and-īre, ends in-ā-, which becomes-a-in some of the persons; this suffix replaces the variable vowel of the indicative: as,
rega-m,regā-s,rega-t,regā-mus,regā-tis,rega-nt;capia-m,capiā-s, &c.;monea-m,moneā-s,&c.;audia-m,audiā-s, &c.ea-m,quea-m,fera-m, and the oldfua-m(750), also have the formative subjunctive vowel.
843.(2.) The present subjunctive stem of verbs in-āreends in-ē-, which becomes-e-in some of the persons: as,
laude-m,laudē-s,laude-t,laudē-mus,laudē-tis,laude-nt.dō,give, also hasde-m,dē-s, &c.
IMPERATIVE.
844.Root verbs have a root as imperative stem (745-780): as,es, &c.,fer, &c. But the imperative ofnōlōhas a stem in-ī-, like verbs in-īre: thus,nōlī,nōlī-tō,nōlī-te,nōlī-tōte.
845.The imperative stem of verbs in-ere, and of verbs in-āre,-ēre, and-īre, is the same as that of the indicative: as,
rege,regi-tō,regu-ntō,rege-re;cape,capi-tō,capiu-ntō;fī;laudā, &c.;monē, &c.;audī, &c.
846.The second person singular imperative active ofdīcō,dūcō, andfaciō, is usuallydīc,dūc, andfac, respectively, though the full forms,dīce, &c., are also used, and are commoner in old Latin. Compounds ofdūcōmay have the short form: as,ēdūc.ingerōhas onceinger(Catull.).sciōhas regularly the singularscī-tō, pluralscī-tōte, rarelyscī-te.
IMPERFECT INDICATIVE.
847.The imperfect indicative stem ends in-bā-, which becomes-ba-in some of the persons: as,
daba-m,dabā-s,daba-t,dabā-mus,dabā-tis,daba-nt;ība-m;quība-m. In verbs in-ereand-ēre, the suffix is preceded by a form ending in-ē-: as,regēba-m;monēba-m; so alsovolēba-m(nōlēba-m,mālēba-m), andferēba-m; in verbs in-iō,-ere, and in-iō,-īre, by a form ending in-iē-: as,capiēba-m;audiēba-m; in verbs in-āre, by one ending in-ā-: as,laudāba-m. In verse, verbs in-īresometimes have-ī-before the suffix (Plaut., Ter., Catull., Lucr., Verg., &c.): as,audība-t.āiō,say, has sometimesa͡iba-m, &c. (787).
848.The suffix of the imperfect indicative ofsum,am, is-ā-, which becomes-a-before-m,-t, and-nt(35, 2, 3)thesbecomesrbetween the vowels (154):era-m,erā-s,era-t,erā-mus,erā-tis,era-nt.
IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE.
849.The imperfect subjunctive stem ends in-rē-, which becomes-re-in some of the persons: as,
dare-m,darē-s,dare-t,darē-mus,darē-tis,dare-nt;īre-m,fore-m,ferre-m. In verbs in-ere, the-rē-is preceded by a form ending in-e-: as,regere-m,capere-m; in verbs in-āre,-ēre, and-īre, by one ending in-ā-,-ē-, or-ī-, respectively: as,laudāre-m,monēre-m,audīre-m.
850.The suffix of the imperfect subjunctive ofsum,am, is-sē-, which becomes-se-in some of the persons;esse-m,essē-s,esse-t,essē-mus,essē-tis,esse-nt; so alsoēssē-s, &c. (769).volō,wish,nōlō,won’t, andmālō,prefer, havevelle-m,nōlle-m, andmālle-mrespectively (166, 8).
FUTURE.
851.The future stem ofsum,am, isero|e-:erō,eri-s,eri-t,eri-mus,eri-tis,eru-nt.dōhasdabō,eōhasībō, andqueōhasquībō.
852.(1.) The future stem of verbs in-ereand-īreends in-a-in the first person singular, otherwise in-ē-, which becomes-e-in some of the persons: as,
rega-m,regē-s,rege-t,regē-mus,regē-tis,rege-nt;capia-m,capiē-s, &c.;audia-m,audiē-s, &c. The first person singular is not a future form, but the subjunctive present, used with a future meaning (842); forms in-emoccur in manuscripts of Plautus: as,faciem,sinem. Verbs in-īresometimes have-bo|e-, chiefly in the dramatists: as,scībō,opperībo-r(Plaut., Ter.),lēnību-nt(Prop.); rarely verbs in-ere(819): as,exsūgēbō(Plaut.). Forreddibō, instead of the usualreddam, see757.
853.(2.) The future stem of verbs in-āreand-ēreends in-bo|e-, which is preceded by a form ending in long-ā-or-ē-respectively: as,
laudābō,laudābi-s,laudābi-t,laudābi-mus,laudābi-tis,laudābu-nt.monēbō,monēbi-s, &c.
PERFECT INDICATIVE STEM.
854.There are two kinds of perfect stems: (A.) Some verbs have as perfect stem a root, generally with some modification, but without a suffix (858-866). (B.) Some perfects are formed with a suffix,-s-, or-v-or-u-(867-875).
855.Some perfects of primitives are formed not from a root, but from the present stem without the formative vowel, treated as a root: as,prehendī,seized, fromprehend-(866);poposcī,asked,fefellī,deceived(858);iūnxī,joined(867).
856.The first person of the perfect ends in-ī, sometimes writtenei(29, 2).-t,-stī, sometimes written-stei(29, 2),-stis, and-musare preceded by shorti;-reis always, and-runtis usually, preceded by longē: as,
rēxī,rēxi-stī,rēxi-t,rēxi-mus,rēxi-stis,rēxē-runt(rēxe-runt), orrēxē-re.
857.Sometimes-tis preceded by longī: as,iīt,petiīt,REDIEIT(29, 2).-runtis sometimes preceded by shorte(Plaut., Ter., Lucr., Hor., Ov., Verg., Phaedr.). This is the original form;-ē-is by analogy to-ēre.
(A.) PERFECT STEM WITHOUT A SUFFIX.
858.(1.) Some verbs in-ereform their perfect stem by prefixing to the root its initial consonant with the following vowel, which, ifa, is usually represented bye; this is called theReduplicated Perfect, and the first syllable is called theReduplication: as,
Other examples are:cadō,fall,cecidī(cad-,104,c);pariō,bring forth,peperī(par-,104,c);pellō,push,pepulī(pol-,105,h);poscō,demand,poposcī(855);fallō,deceive,fefellī(855,104,c); see also923-932.caedō,cut, hascecīdī(108,a); and a few old forms are quoted from verbs having anoor anuin the root withein the reduplication: as,memordī,pepugī.
859.Four verbs with vowel roots also have a reduplicated perfect stem:dō,give,put,dare,dedī;bibō,drink,bibere,bibī;stō,stand,stāre,stetī, andsistō,set,sistere,-stitī, rarelystitī. Also four verbs in-ēre:mordeō,bite,momordī,pendeō,hang,pependī,spondeō,promise,spopondī,tondeō,clip,-totondī. In the root syllable ofspopondī,promised,stetī,stood,stitī,set, and the oldscicidī,clove, ansis dropped (173, 2).
860.In compounds the reduplication is commonly dropped: as,
cecidī,fell, compoundconcidī,tumbled down. Compounds ofcucurrī,ran, sometimes retain the reduplication: as,prōcucurrī. Compounds ofbibī,drank,didicī,learned,poposcī,asked,stitī,set,stetī,stood, anddedī,gave,put, retain it, the last two weakeningetoi: as,restitī,staid back.abscondidī,hid away, usually becomesabscondī; in apparent compounds,eis usually retained: as,circum stetī,stood round,vēnum dedī,put for sale. The reduplication is also lost in the simple verbstulī,carried, oldtetulī, and inscindō,split,scidī, which last is rare as a simple verb.
861.Some compounds withre-drop only the vowel of the reduplication (111,a): as,reccidī,fell back;rettulī,brought back(see also781);repperī,found;rettudī,beat back. Some perfects occur only in composition: as,percellō,knock down,perculī;cōntundō,smash to pieces,contudī;diffindō,split apart,diffidī; butfidīalso occurs a couple of times as a simple verb.
862.(2.) Some verbs in-erehave a perfect stem consisting of a consonant root with a long vowel (135, 1): as,
Other examples are:fodiō,dig,fōdī;fundō,pour,fūdī;linquō,leave,līquī; see936-946. Three verbs in-ērealso have this form,sedeō,sit,sēdī,strīdeō,grate,strīdī,videō,see,vīdī; and one in-īre,veniō,come,vēnī.
863.The following verbs in-erewithain the present stem, have longēin the perfect stem (145):
agō,do,ēgī,frangō,break,frēgī,pangō,fix, rarelypēgī, but alwayscompēgī,impēgī,oppēgī;capiō,take,cēpī,faciō,make,fēcī,iaciō,throw,iēcī. So also the oldco-ēpī,began, commoncoepī.
864.Two verbs in-āreand some in-ērehave a perfect stem consisting of a root which ends in-v-and has a long vowel:iuvō,help,iuvāre,iūvī,lavō,wash,lavāreorlavere,lāvī;caveō,look out,cavēre,cāvī; see996.
865.Verbs in-uō,-uere, both primitives and denominatives, have usually a perfect stem in shortuof the theme (124): as,luō,pay,luī;acuō,sharpen,acuī: see947,948. Forms with longūare old and rare (126): as,fūī,adnūī,cōnstitūī,īnstitūī.fluō,flow, andstruō,pile, haveflūxīandstrūxi(830).
866.(3.) Some verbs in-erefrom roots ending in two consonants have a perfect stem consisting of the root: as,
Other examples are:vortōorvertō,turn,vortīorvertī;scandō,climb,-scendī;prehendō,seize,prehendī(855);vollōorvellō,pluck,vollīorvellī; see949-951. Similarlyferveō,boil,fervereorfervēre, hasfervīorferbuī(823), andprandeō,lunch,prandēre, hasprandī.
(B.) PERFECT STEM IN-s-, OR IN-v-OR-u-.
PERFECT STEM IN-s-.
867.Many verbs in-ereform their perfect stem by adding the suffix-s-to a root, which generally ends in a mute: as,
Other examples are:dūcō,lead,dūxī(100);fingō,mould,fīnxī(855);lūdō,play,lūsī(166, 2);scrībō,write,scrīpsī(164, 1);struō,pile,strūxī(164, 1);vīvō,live,vīxī(98). Some verbs with a short vowel in the present, have a long vowel in the perfect: as,regō,guide,rēxī(135);intellegō,understand,intellēxī(823);tegō,cover,tēxī;iungō,join,iūnxī(855). And some verbs with a long vowel in the present, have a short vowel in the perfect: as,ūrō,burn,ussī(830). See952-961.
868.Some verbs in-ērealso have a perfect in-s-: asalgeō,am cold,alsī(170, 3);haereō,stick,haesī(166, 2): see999,1000. Also some in-īre: as,sarciō,patch,sarsī(170, 3): see1014,1015.
PERFECT STEM IN-v-OR-u-.
869.(1.) Some verbs in-ere, with vowel roots, and almost all verbs in-āreor-īre, form their perfect stem by adding the suffix-v-to a theme ending in a long vowel: as,
For other verbs in-erewith a perfect stem in-v-, and particularlyterō,cernō,spernō, andsternō, see962-970.
870.A few verbs in-erehave a perfect stem in-v-attached to a presumed theme in longī: as,cupiō,want,cupīvī;petō,aim at,petīvī;quaerō,inquire,quaesīvī;arcēssō,fetch,arcēssīvī; see966-970.
871.A few verbs in-ērealso have a perfect stem in-v-: as,fleō,weep,flēre,flēvī; see1001-1003. And three verbs in-ēscerehave a perfect stem in-v-attached to a presumed theme in longē:-olēscō,grow,-olēvī;quiēscō,get quiet,quiēvī;suēscō,get used,suēvī.
872.One verb in-āscerehas a perfect stem in-v-attached to a presumed theme in longā:advesperāscit,it gets dusk,advesperāvit.
873.(2.) Many verbs in-ereform their perfect stem by adding the suffix-u-to a consonant root: as,
Other examples are:colō,cultivate,coluī;cōnsulō,consult,cōnsuluī;-cumbō,lie,-cubuī;fremō,roar,fremuī;ēliciō,draw out,ēlicuī;molō,grind,moluī;rapiō,snatch,rapuī;serō,string,-seruī;stertō,snore,-stertuī;strepō,make a racket,strepuī;texō,weave,texuī;volō,will,voluī;compescō,check,compescuī(855); see971-976.
874.Some verbs in-ārealso have a perfect stem in-u-: as,crepō,rattle,crepāre,crepuī(993); and many in-ēre: as,moneō,warn,monēre,monuī: see1004-1006; also four in-īre: as,saliō,leap,salīre,saluī(1019).
875.The perfectpotuīto the presentpossum(751) is from a lost present*poteō,*potēre(922).pōnere(for*po-sinere,112;170, 2) forms an old perfectposīvī(964), laterposuī, as ifpos-were the stem.
PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE.
876.The perfect subjunctive stem ends in-erī-, for which-eri-is sometimes used (35, 2, 3): as,
rēxeri-m,rēxerī-s,rēxeri-t,rēxerī-mus,rēxerī-tis,rēxeri-nt.
877.In the perfect subjunctive, longīis found before the person endings-s,-mus, and-tis, some 25 times, as follows:-īs, 18 times (Plaut. 3, Pac., Enn., Ter., Hor., Tib., Sen., inscr., once each, Ov. 8),-īmus, 4 times (Plaut. 3, Ter. 1),-ītis, 3 times (Plaut. 2, Enn. 1).
878.In the perfect subjunctive, shortiis found, as in the future perfect, some 9 times, thus:-is, 8 times (Plaut. in anapests 3, Verg. 2, Hor. 3),-imusonce (Verg.). But before-tis, shortiis not found.
PERFECT IMPERATIVE.
879.One verb only,meminī,remember, has a perfect imperative; in this imperative, the person endings are not preceded by a vowel, thus:memen-tō,memen-tōte.
PLUPERFECT INDICATIVE.
880.The pluperfect indicative stem ends in-erā-, which becomes-era-in some of the persons: as,
rēxera-m,rēxerā-s,rēxera-t,rēxerā-mus,rēxerā-tis,rēxera-nt.
PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE.
881.The pluperfect subjunctive stem ends in-issē-, which becomes-isse-in some of the persons: as,
rēxisse-m,rēxissē-s,rēxisse-t,rēxissē-mus,rēxissē-tis,rēxisse-nt.