LATIN
GRAMMAR1.Latin Grammar has two parts. I. The first part treats of words: (A.)
their sound; (B.) their formation; (C.) their inflection. II. The second
part shows how words are joined together in sentences.PART FIRST ❧ WORDSPARTS OF
SPEECH.2.The principal kinds of words orParts of
SpeechareNouns,Verbs, andConjunctions.3.I.NounsareSubstantiveorAdjective.4.(A.)Nouns Substantive, otherwise
called Substantives, are divided, as to meaning, intoConcreteandAbstract.5.(1.)Concrete Substantivesdenote
persons or things. Concrete Substantives are subdivided intoProper
Names, which denote individual persons or things: as,Cicerō,Cicero;Rōma,Rome; andCommon Names,
otherwise calledAppellatives, which denote one or more of a
class: as,homo,man;taurus,bull.6.Appellatives which denote a collection of single things are calledCollectives: as,turba,crowd;exercitus,army. Appellatives which denote stuff, quantity, material, things
not counted, but having measure or weight, are calledMaterial
Substantives: as,vīnum,wine;ferrum,iron;faba,horsebeans.7.(2.)Abstract Substantivesdenote
qualities, states, conditions: as,rubor,redness;aequitās,fairness;sōlitūdō,loneliness.8.(B.)Nouns Adjective, otherwise called
Adjectives, attached to substantives, describe persons or things: as,ruber,red;aequus,fair;sōlus,alone.9.Pronounsare words of universal
application which serve as substitutes for nouns.Thus,taurus,bull, names, andruber,red, describes, particular things; butego,I, is universally applicable to any speaker, andmeus,mine, to anything belonging to any speaker.10.Adverbsare mostly cases of nouns used
to denote manner, place, time or degree: as,subitō,suddenly;forās,out of doors;diū,long;valdē,mightily,very.11.Prepositionsare adverbs which are used
to modify as prefixes the meaning of verbs, or to define more nicely the
meaning of cases: as,vocō,I call,ēvocō,I
call out;ex urbe,from town.12.II.Verbsare words which denote
action, including existence or condition: as,regit,he
guides;est,he is;latet,he is
hid.13.III.Conjunctionsconnect sentences,
nouns, or verbs: as,et,and;sed,but.14.Interjectionsare cries which express
feeling, and are not usually a part of the sentence: as,ā,ah;heu,alas.15.There is noArticlein Latin: thus,mēnsamay denotetable,a table, orthe
table.A. SOUND.ALPHABET.16.In Cicero’s time, the sounds of the Latin language were denoted by
twenty-one letters (DN.2, 93).CharacterNamepronouncedAaahBbebayCcekayDdedayEeehFefefGgegayHhahahIieeKkakahLelelMememNenenOooPpepayQqukooRerairSesessTtetayVuooXixeexThe names given above are those employed by Roman
grammarians. The sound indicated by-ayis only approximate; the
true sound is that of the Frenchêinfête; see39. The names of the letters are indeclinable; for their
gender, see412.17.Two other letters were also in use to represent Greek sounds in Greek
words; these were always called by their Greek names, and were placed at
the end of the alphabet; they areY, namedü(42), andZ, namedzēta(71).18.Origin of the Alphabet.The Latin
alphabet, which originally consisted of capitals only, was adapted from
the alphabet of Chalcidian colonies in Italy.19.Spelling.The signs for the Greek
sounds denoted by φ and χ, and perhaps also that for θ, these three
sounds being unknown in Latin, were used as numerals (2407). In words borrowed from the Greek the Romans at
first represented θ byt, φ byp, and χ byc: as,tūs,incense, forθύος;Poenī,Punians, forΦοίνικες;calx,chalk,
forχάλιξ. Occasionally
also the Latin mute was doubled: as,struppus,strap, forστρόφος. Later, about
the middle of the second centuryB.C.,th,ph, andchbegin to be used: as,cothurnus,boot, forκόθορνος;amphora,jar, forἀμφόρα;AchaeaforἈχαιά. In some instances these
aspirates were next introduced even into words purely Latin: as,chommodus,affable, forcommodus, an affectation
ridiculed by Catullus (Cat. 84) and disapproved by Quintilian
(1, 5, 20). Butpulcher,pretty, is the usual
spelling forpulcer(formed by the suffix-cro-from the stem of the verbpoliō,I
polish). Even Cicero (O.160) aspirated thecin this
word as a concession to popular usage, as he did thetinCethēgus,Karthāgō, and thepintriumphus,
while he retained the unaspirated explosive in the proper namesOrcīvius,name of a ‘gens,’Matō,Otō,Caepiō, and insepulcrum,tomb;corōna,crown; andlacrima,tear. In a similar manner Greek
ρ was at first transcribed byr: as,rumpia,a kind of
weapon, forῥομφαία; but later byrh: as,rhētor,rhetorician, forῥητωρ.20.The lettersC(first written<) andKwere at an
early period used promiscuously, andCstood for both unvoicedkand voicedg: as,VIRCO,virgō,virgin. AfterwardsKdropped out of general use except in the abbreviationsK.orKal.forkalendae,first of the month,
andK.for the proper nameKaesō(Quint. 1, 7, 10).
About 300B.C.the sign 1.Latin Grammar has two parts. I. The first part treats of words: (A.)
their sound; (B.) their formation; (C.) their inflection. II. The second
part shows how words are joined together in sentences. 2.The principal kinds of words orParts of
SpeechareNouns,Verbs, andConjunctions. 3.I.NounsareSubstantiveorAdjective. 4.(A.)Nouns Substantive, otherwise
called Substantives, are divided, as to meaning, intoConcreteandAbstract. 5.(1.)Concrete Substantivesdenote
persons or things. Concrete Substantives are subdivided intoProper
Names, which denote individual persons or things: as,Cicerō,Cicero;Rōma,Rome; andCommon Names,
otherwise calledAppellatives, which denote one or more of a
class: as,homo,man;taurus,bull. 6.Appellatives which denote a collection of single things are calledCollectives: as,turba,crowd;exercitus,army. Appellatives which denote stuff, quantity, material, things
not counted, but having measure or weight, are calledMaterial
Substantives: as,vīnum,wine;ferrum,iron;faba,horsebeans. 7.(2.)Abstract Substantivesdenote
qualities, states, conditions: as,rubor,redness;aequitās,fairness;sōlitūdō,loneliness. 8.(B.)Nouns Adjective, otherwise called
Adjectives, attached to substantives, describe persons or things: as,ruber,red;aequus,fair;sōlus,alone. 9.Pronounsare words of universal
application which serve as substitutes for nouns. Thus,taurus,bull, names, andruber,red, describes, particular things; butego,I, is universally applicable to any speaker, andmeus,mine, to anything belonging to any speaker. 10.Adverbsare mostly cases of nouns used
to denote manner, place, time or degree: as,subitō,suddenly;forās,out of doors;diū,long;valdē,mightily,very. 11.Prepositionsare adverbs which are used
to modify as prefixes the meaning of verbs, or to define more nicely the
meaning of cases: as,vocō,I call,ēvocō,I
call out;ex urbe,from town. 12.II.Verbsare words which denote
action, including existence or condition: as,regit,he
guides;est,he is;latet,he is
hid. 13.III.Conjunctionsconnect sentences,
nouns, or verbs: as,et,and;sed,but. 14.Interjectionsare cries which express
feeling, and are not usually a part of the sentence: as,ā,ah;heu,alas. 15.There is noArticlein Latin: thus,mēnsamay denotetable,a table, orthe
table. 16.In Cicero’s time, the sounds of the Latin language were denoted by
twenty-one letters (DN.2, 93). The names given above are those employed by Roman
grammarians. The sound indicated by-ayis only approximate; the
true sound is that of the Frenchêinfête; see39. The names of the letters are indeclinable; for their
gender, see412. 17.Two other letters were also in use to represent Greek sounds in Greek
words; these were always called by their Greek names, and were placed at
the end of the alphabet; they areY, namedü(42), andZ, namedzēta(71). 18.Origin of the Alphabet.The Latin
alphabet, which originally consisted of capitals only, was adapted from
the alphabet of Chalcidian colonies in Italy. 19.Spelling.The signs for the Greek
sounds denoted by φ and χ, and perhaps also that for θ, these three
sounds being unknown in Latin, were used as numerals (2407). In words borrowed from the Greek the Romans at
first represented θ byt, φ byp, and χ byc: as,tūs,incense, forθύος;Poenī,Punians, forΦοίνικες;calx,chalk,
forχάλιξ. Occasionally
also the Latin mute was doubled: as,struppus,strap, forστρόφος. Later, about
the middle of the second centuryB.C.,th,ph, andchbegin to be used: as,cothurnus,boot, forκόθορνος;amphora,jar, forἀμφόρα;AchaeaforἈχαιά. In some instances these
aspirates were next introduced even into words purely Latin: as,chommodus,affable, forcommodus, an affectation
ridiculed by Catullus (Cat. 84) and disapproved by Quintilian
(1, 5, 20). Butpulcher,pretty, is the usual
spelling forpulcer(formed by the suffix-cro-from the stem of the verbpoliō,I
polish). Even Cicero (O.160) aspirated thecin this
word as a concession to popular usage, as he did thetinCethēgus,Karthāgō, and thepintriumphus,
while he retained the unaspirated explosive in the proper namesOrcīvius,name of a ‘gens,’Matō,Otō,Caepiō, and insepulcrum,tomb;corōna,crown; andlacrima,tear. In a similar manner Greek
ρ was at first transcribed byr: as,rumpia,a kind of
weapon, forῥομφαία; but later byrh: as,rhētor,rhetorician, forῥητωρ. 20.The lettersC(first written<) andKwere at an
early period used promiscuously, andCstood for both unvoicedkand voicedg: as,VIRCO,virgō,virgin. AfterwardsKdropped out of general use except in the abbreviationsK.orKal.forkalendae,first of the month,
andK.for the proper nameKaesō(Quint. 1, 7, 10).
About 300B.C.the sign 21.Before the introduction ofYandZ(17),uwas used for the Greekυ: as,Burrus, laterPyrrhus(Cic.O.160); ands,
or, as a medial,ss, forζ: as,sōna,belt,
laterzōna;massa,lump, forμᾶζα;malacissō,I soften, forμαλακίζω. By a blunder,ywas occasionally introduced in words of Latin origin: as,lacryma,tear, forlacrima, which was wrongly
supposed to be derived from Greekδάκρυ. 22.The charactersIandVrepresent not only the two vowelsiandu, but also their cognate semivowels (52)i̭andṷ(83),
called commonlyconsonantiandu, but with less
ambiguityunsyllabiciandu(82;83). They are equivalent to
the Englishyandwrespectively. 23.In words likemaior, simpleiwas commonly written for the
sound ofi̭i̭(153, 2;82;83). But Cicero in such
cases wroteii: as,aiiō,I say,Maiia,Troiia(Quint. 1, 4, 11). In the same way Lucretius spelledGraiiugenārum,of Greek-born men, andEIIVS,of him,CVIIVS,whose, occur in inscriptions.
Sometimes the same sound is represented by a taller letter,
‘i longa,’ especially in the imperial age: as,maIor,greater. There are also cases in which
the two designations were confounded, a doubleibeing
written, and one or the other letter made taller: as,eiIvsoreIivs,of him. 24.The talli,I longa, was used not only to represent
unsyllabici(22), but, beginning with
Sulla’s time, also for long voweli(29, 2,b): as,sIgna,signs;qvInqve,five. It also represents sometimes
doublei: as,vIsforviīs,in the roads. At the beginning
of words it occurs without reference to quantity for both short and longi, and, by mistake,Iis elsewhere found for shorti. 25.The emperor Claudius (A.D.41-54)
introduced a separate sign for unsyllabicu(22), restricting the signvto the vowelu(Quint. 1, 7, 26; Ta. 11, 14); but it did not become current. 26.In schoolbooks and most texts of the authors, the voweluis
printedU,u, and the consonantV,v. A
character,J,j, was introduced in the 17th century, to
indicate the consonanti. But this character is no longer usual
in editions of the authors or in schoolbooks. 27.The distinction betweenuandvis not always made very
consistently:qhas regularly, andgandshave
sometimes, an aftersound ofw, best represented byv; but
the usual practice is to writeu, as in the following
disyllables:quōrum,of whom;anguis,snake;suāvis,sweet.quis always counted as a single
sound (177). See also2504. 28.For the intermediate sound (103) betweeniandu, as in the first syllable oflubet,libet,it pleases, and in the second syllable ofoptimus,optumus,best(Quint. 1, 4, 8;
7, 21), the emperor Claudius invented a separate character. It
failed of acceptance, as did also the sign which he attempted to
introduce forps. 29.The same characters were ordinarily used to denote both long and short
vowels. But at different periods long vowels were sometimes indicated in
inscriptions thus: (1.)
Longa,e, oruwas sometimes doubled: as,AARA,altar;PAASTORES,shepherds;LEEGE,by law;IVVS,right. This doubling, which was never
frequent, seems to have been introduced into Latin from the Oscan by the
poet Accius. It occurs most frequently in inscriptions about the year
150B.C., but sporadically much later:
as,CONVENTVVS,of the
assembly;ARBITRATVV,by the
decree; and in other stems in-u-(593). (2.)
Longiwas often denoted (a.) By the spellingei(after the pronunciation of this diphthong had been changed toī,98): as,DAREI,be given;REDIEIT,hath come back;INTERIEISTI,hast died. Some Roman
grammarians prescribed this spelling for every longi; others
tried to regulate the use ofeiforīby special rules. At
the end of the republic, the spellingEIhad given way to uniformI. (b.) Since the time of Sulla, by a
taller letter (‘i longa’): as,fIxa,fastened(23,24). (3.)
A mark called anapex([three apices]) was often put over a long vowel:
as,FE͆CIT,made;HORTE͆NSIVS;DVV͆MVIRATVS,duumvirate. The apex was
written ´ in the imperial age; the form -, which occurs in an
inscription, was adopted by the grammarians, and is still in use to mark
the long vowels. It may be mentioned that inscriptions which employ the
apex are by no means consistent in its use, and that late inscriptions
have it over short and long vowels, apparently for decorative purposes.
Quintilian 1, 7, 2 prescribes it only for cases which otherwise
might be ambiguous: as,MÁLVS(mālus),mast, to distinguish it fromMALVS(malus),bad. 30.In schoolbooks, a long vowel is indicated by a horizontal line over it:
as,āra,altar;mēnsis,month;ōrdō,series. A short vowel is sometimes indicated by a curved
mark: as,pĕr,through;dŭx,leader; but
this mark is unnecessary if long vowels are systematically marked.
Usually the quantity of the vowels in each word is definitely fixed; but
in a few cases the same vowel may be now short, now long, as in English
theeeofbeenis pronounced long by some (bean),
short by others (bin). Thus (2446)mihi,ibiwere sometimes pyrrhics (⏖,2522), sometimes iambi (⏑-,2521). See for other cases134,2443,2452,2453. Such vowels of variable quantity are termedcommonand marked ⏓ or ⏒: asmihī̆,to me(2514). 31.The pronunciation of Latin sounds may be approximately determined:
(a) from the description of the native grammarians and incidental
allusions in other Latin authors; (b) from variations in
spelling; (c) from the Greek transliteration of Latin words;
(d) from the Latin transliteration of foreign words;
(e) from the development of the sounds in languages derived
from the Latin. 32.Vowels are sounds which are produced by the vibrations of the vocal
chords (this may be easily felt by placing a finger on the throat at the
Adam’s apple) and without any audible friction or any obstruction
anywhere in the passage above the vocal chords. The difference in the
sound of the vowels is due to the different shape which the position of
the tongue and the lips gives in each case to the cavity of the mouth.
During the pronunciation of pure vowels no air escapes through the
nose. 33.The simple vowels,a,e,i,o,u(y), are eitherlongorshort. The sound of a long
vowel is considered to be twice the length of that of a short. 34.That a long vowel is equal to two shorts is a rule of metrical theory
(see2515). In actual pronunciation, there were
undoubtedly various degrees of length, as in English: e.g.,sea,seize(long),cease(half-long). The quantity of vowels must in general be learned by
observation; but some convenient helps for the memory may be found in2429; and the quantity of many vowels may be
ascertained by the general principles given in35and36. Except in the case ofHidden
Quantity(2459), the quantity of vowels is
in general ascertained from verse. But some information may also be
gleaned from such rhetorical prose as exhibits well defined habits in
the rhythmical endings selected for sentences (clausulae, Cic.O.191-226). (A.) SHORT
VOWELS. 35.A vowel is short: (1.)
Before another vowel orh(124): as,eōs,ēvehō; comparetaceōwithtacēre. For
exceptions in classical Latin, see127; for
exceptions in early Latin see126. (2.)
Beforentandnd(128) if not the
result of contraction: as,calendae,centum; compareamant,amandus, withamāre. (3.)
Before finaltandm, and, in words of more than one
syllable, before finalrandl(132): compareamat,amem, withamāsandamēs. (B.) LONG
VOWELS. 36.All vowels are long which are: (1)
Weakened from a diphthong (96-101;108), or which are the result of contraction (118): as,concīdōfromcaedō;cōgōfromco-agō. (2)
Lengthened by compensation (121): as,quīnīfor*quincnī. (3)
Beforenf,ns, often beforencfollowed by a
consonant, and, in some cases, beforegn(122). 37.The following English sounds come nearest to the Latin pronunciation of
the vowels: 38.Long vowels.āhad the sound ofainfather;ēthat ofainfate(but
see39);īthat ofiinmachine;ōthat ofointone;ūthat
ofuinrule. 39.It must be noted, however, that all English long vowels, saveaas infather, are more or less diphthongal, that is, they become
gradually closer (46);ainfateends in a vanishing sound ofee(not heard in theêof
Frenchfête), andoinnoends in the sound ofoo. Similarly the longesound inhebecomes closer
and ends in a sound similar to theyinyear. In Latin all
long vowels had one sustained sound. 40.Short vowels.asounded
approximately like the Englishain the first syllable ofaha;e,i,o, andusounded likeeinstep,iinpit,oinobey, anduinpullrespectively. 41.Latin shortadid not differ, except in quantity, from longā; it never had the ‘flat’ sound of Englishainpat. In the case of the other vowels,i,e,o, andu, the long vowels were closer (46) than the short ones. This is the same difference which
the English shows inkeen(long and close) andkin(short
and open);pool(long and close) andpull(short and
open). For this reason, openiis sometimes represented byein inscriptions: as,ANEMAforanima,soul; andveawas the rustic
pronunciation forvia,road(Varro,R. R.1,
2, 14). 42.Y, which was a sound borrowed from the Greek (17), sounded like Germanü. The sound, which is
missing in English, is formed with the tongue in position fori(inkin) and the lips rounded as foroo(inmoon). 43.Vowels are divided according to the position of the tongue. Latiniandeare calledfront vowels, because the front
part of the tongue is elevated. This elevation is greater forithan fore. Latinoanduare calledback
vowels, because they require an elevation of the rear part of the
tongue. This elevation is greater foruthan foro. Latinaholds an intermediate position, no part of the tongue being
raised, while the front part is depressed. 44.In the formation ofiande, the tongue approaches the
hard palate; hence these two vowels are also calledpalatal
vowels. Similarly,oanduare calledvelarorguttural vowels, because in their formation the tongue approaches
the soft palate (vēlum palātī). 45.oandurequire a rounding of the lips (labia);
hence they are calledlabial vowels. The same is true fory. 46.Comparing the vowels in Englishkeenandkin, it will be
noted that the passage between the tongue and the hard palate is
narrower in the former than in the latter case. Theeeinkeenis therefore said to be anarroworclosevowel, while theiinkiniswideoropen.
See41. 47.Two unlike (43-46) vowels pronounced under one
stress and as one syllable form aDiphthong. All diphthongs are
long. In all diphthongs the transition from one vowel to
the other is gradual. A diphthong is, therefore, not formed simply
by pronouncing two vowels in succession, but the vocal organs pass
through all the intermediate positions and consequently the sound is
constantly changing. 48.In their origin diphthongs are of two kinds: (a.) primitive
diphthongs: as infoedus,treaty;aurum,gold; or (b.) secondary diphthongs, the result of
vowels meeting in formation, composition, or inflection: see120. 49.The diphthongs which occur in classical Latin areau,ae,oe, and the rareuiandeu. ausounded likeouinhouse.aehad the sound of short Latinarapidly combined with
the sound ofein Englishmen. But it is the common
practice now to give toaethe sound ofayoraiinay,aisle, although the difference between Latinaeand the earlieraifrom which it descended is thus obliterated.oehad the sound of short Latinorapidly followed by the
sound ofein Englishmen. But it is now customary not to
distinguish between Latinoeandoi, and to give to both
the sound ofoiinboil.uiis pronounced by
combining Latin shortuandi(40,41) with the stress on theilike Frenchoui;euby combining Latin shorteanduwith stress on theu. 50.Besides these, the following diphthongs occur in the older inscriptions:aipronounced asaiinaisle;eiaseiineight;oiasoiinboil; andouwhich sounded very much like the finaloinno,go, which is really a diphthong (see39). 51.Consonants are formed by stopping the breath somewhere in the cavity of
the mouth or by squeezing it through a narrow channel or aperture. 52.Semivowels.There is no sharp line of
demarcation between consonants and vowels. Some vowels in unsyllabic
function (82,83)
notablyi(i̭) andu(ṷ) (corresponding to
Englishyandw), though usually classed as consonants,
are so closely related to the vowels that they are termed semivowels (2504). To these may be added also the liquidslandr. Contact of the semivowelsianduwith their corresponding vowelsianduis avoided in
classical times. See for-vu-107,c; for-quu-157; and for-i̭i-104,c(onobi̭iciō);458(Bōīfor*Bōi̭ī). See153, 3. 53.Most of the consonants are pronounced as in English. The following
points must be noticed: 54.bbeforeasurd, assort, has the sound ofp. The spellingbis here simply etymological: as,abs, pronouncedaps(thebretained in spelling
because ofab);urbs, pronouncedurps(thebretained because of the oblique casesurbis,urbī, etc.);obterō, pronouncedopterō(Quint. 1, 7, 7), where the
spelling of the prepositionobwas kept (164). 55.chas always the sound of Englishk. 56.dbefore the surdsis pronouncedt; the spellingdis preserved for etymological reasons only: as,adsum,
pronouncedatsum. 57.galways has the sound of Englishgingo, never
that ofgingentle.gu, when it makes one syllable
with the following vowel, is pronounced like Englishgw: as,sanguinelikesanguine. 58.hhas a weak sound ashin British English (Southern), and
by some was not counted as a consonant. Consequently the same
uncertainty existed as to initialh. The omission of initialhis recognized in classical Latin forānser(originally*hānser). Elsewhere the omission of initialhin spelling,
asostiaforhostia, is rare until the third centuryA.D. Very rarelyhis written between two vowels
to denote that each should be pronounced separately (like our diaeresis
incoëxtensive): as,ahēneus,bronze, withaēseparate (116a); butaes,bronze, with diphthongalae. 59.Unsyllabic (22) or consonantihas the
sound of Englishyinyear. 60.There were two varieties ofl. One was like the Englishl,
guttural in character, because in its pronunciation not only the blade
(front part) of the tongue touched the gums, but in addition to this the
rear part of the tongue was elevated toward the soft palate. The otherlwas purely dental, and formed without such back elevation. This
second variety appeared in the combinationll, or wheneverlwas followed by the front vowels (43)eori, or when it was final. Elsewherelwas
guttural. 61.From the earliest times final m in unaccented syllables had a faint
sound or was even inaudible (Quint. 9, 4, 39). Consequently it is
often omitted in writing in the older inscriptions both before an
initial vowel or consonant: as,POCOLOforpōcolom;OINOforoinom(ūnum), and the grammarian Verrius Flaccus proposed
to write only half anMfor finalmbefore a vowel. In
prosody, therefore, finalmdid not prevent elision (2493). The same is seen in prose in cases likeanimadvertō,I pay heed to, fromanimumadvertō,I turn my mind toward(395);vēnīre,to be soldforvēnumīre,to
go to sale(1165). But in monosyllables
wheremcloses the accented syllable, it did not vanish (2494,2495), and this
difference in the treatment of finalmis reflected in the
Romance languages. 62.nstands for two sounds. It represents the dental nasal, asnin Englishnow. But before the gutturalsk,c,g,q, and the compoundx (= cs), it represents the guttural nasal which is
writtenngin Englishsing,wrong. This second n is
sometimes calledn adulterīnumor ‘spuriousn,’ thus:nc(inavunculus) as inuncle;ng(inangulus) as inangle;ngu(insanguine) as insanguine;nqu(ininquit) asinkwininkwiper;nx(inpīnxit) as inlynx. 63.Dentalnbeforeshad a reduced sound, and is therefore
sometimes omitted in writing: as,CESORforcēnsor;COSOLforcōnsul, in older inscriptions; andfōrmōsusby the side offōrmōnsus;vīcēsimusby the
side ofvīcēnsimus, Cicero omitted thenin the adjective
suffix-ēnsis: as,forēsia,of the
forum;hortēsia,garden plants. 64.q, in classical Latin, appears only in the combinationqu,
sounded like Englishquorkw(27).rwas trilled. 65.s, in classical Latin was always unvoiced (surd,75) like Englishsinso,sin, never
voiced (sonant,75) as Englishsinease.su, when it makes one syllable with the following
vowel, is likeswinsweet(27). 66.In old Latin, finalsafter a short vowel and before a consonant
seems to have been reduced in sound or to have disappeared altogether.
In the older inscriptions it is often omitted in the ending of the
nominative singular-us, and in the
pre-Ciceronian poets finalsoften does not make position (2468). But such omission was considered vulgar in
Cicero’s time (Cic.O.161; Quint. 9, 4, 38). 67.In the archaic period Latinsstood also for the voiced sibilant
(Englishsinease,zinzeal), as inASA,altar(154). 68.tis always sounded as intime, never as innation.
The pronunciation ofciandtiwith thecandtas sibilants (as in Englishcinder,nation)
is very late. 69.vis like the Englishw. 70.xis a compound consonant, standing forcs, and so
sounded, never as Englishgsorgz. 71.z, being a Greek sound, should have retained its Greek
pronunciation. This differed in the different dialects; in the Attic of
the fourth centuryB.C.it was
approximately that of Englishzinzeal, while its earlier
value waszd. The Romans had great difficulty in pronouncing this
sound (Quint. 12, 10, 27 f.), but the grammarian Velius Longus
expressly states that it should not be pronounced as a compound sound
(zd). 72.About 100B.C.the combinationsch,ph, andthwere introduced in Greek words to
represent χ, φ, and θ; asPhilippus, for the olderPILIPVS. Somewhat later these combinations were in
general use in some Latin words (19).chis thought to have been pronounced likekhinblockhead,phas inuphill, andthas inhothouse. But
in practicechis usually sounded as in the Germanmachenorich,phas ingraphic, andthas inpathos. 73.Explosives.Consonants which are formed
by stopping the breath in the oral cavity and then suddenly removing the
obstruction are calledexplosives. They cannot be prolonged in
sound. They are:c,k,q,g;t,d;p,b. These are often calledmutes. 74.Continuants.Consonants which may be
prolonged in sound are calledcontinuants. They are: unsyllabic
(83)i(59) andu(66);l(60),r;l,s,f;n(62),m. 75.VoicedandUnvoiced. If during the emission of breath the vocal
chords vibrate (32), the consonant is said to bevoicedorsonant:g;d;b;n(62),m;l(60),r; unsyllabic (83)i(59) andu(69); otherwise it is said to beunvoicedorsurd:c,k,q;t;p;h,s,f. 76.Nasals.In the majority of consonants,
the breath escapes through the cavity of the mouth, and the cavity of
the nose is closed in the rear by means of the raised soft palate. Those
consonants in which the breath escapes through the nose, while the oral
cavity is closed, are callednasals: as,n,m,n
adulterīnum(see62). 77.Classification according to place offormation.Consonants are further divided according to the place where the breath
is stopped or squeezed. (1.) If the breath is stopped by the lips,
as inp,b,m, or squeezed through the lips, as inv(Englishw), we speak oflabials. (2.) If
the breath is forced through an opening between the upper teeth and the
lower lip, as inf, we speak of alabiodental.
(3.) Sounds which are produced by the point of the tongue touching
the upper gums and teeth, ast,d,n,r, or
by the formation of a narrow median channel in the same place, likes, or of a lateral channel, likel(60), are calleddentals. (4.)Palatalsare formed by an elevation of the front part of the tongue against the
forward section of the palate, likeiconsonant (Englishy). (5.) If the back of the tongue touches or
approaches the rear part of the palate as ink,q,c,g,n adulterīnum(Englishnginsing), andl(60), we speak ofgutturals(velars); see44. 78.Spirants.Sounds which are produced by
friction of the breath are calledspirants: as,s,f, andh. 79.Sibilants.On account of its hissing
sound,sis called a sibilant. Englishs,z,thare sibilants. 80.Doubling of Consonants.In English,
double consonants as thett,nn,pp,mminmotto,Anna,tapping,grammar, are sounded
exactly like the corresponding single consonants incot,pan,tap,ram. In Latin, on the other hand, double
consonants (geminātae) were pronounced as they are in modern
Italian. In the case of explosives (73), as inmitto, after the tongue had come in contact with the roof of the
mouth (= firstt) a short pause ensued before the explosion took
place (= secondt). In the case of continuants (74), as insummus,Apollo, themmorllwas sounded appreciably longer than a singlemorl, and at the beginning of the second half of the long continuant
there was a slight increase of force. 81.Consonants were not doubled in writing till after 200B.C.: as,FVISEforfuisse,to have been, and for more than a century
afterward the usage is variable: as, in the same inscription,ESSENT,they might be, by the side ofSVPERASES,thou mayest have
conquered; but it must not be inferred that they were pronounced as
single consonants. 82.Whenever two or more sounds are combined in a syllable, one of them
excels in acoustic prominence: as,ain Englishpat;nin the grouppndinopnd(opened);lin the grouptldinbottld(bottled); andsin the grouppst. This sound is said to havesyllabic
functionor to besyllabic; in the examples given,a,n,l, andsare respectively syllabic. All the
other members of each group are termedunsyllabic. 83.Vowels are almost always used in syllabic function. When, in rare cases,
they are unsyllabic, this fact is usually indicated in phonetic works by
an inverted half-circle, ̭, placed under the vowel; so in the case of
diphthongs to indicate the subordinate member: asai̭,oḙ,ṷi(49). Latinomniaand Englishglorious, when pronounced as words of two syllables,
would be writtenomni̭a(2503),glori̭ous. When sounds other than vowels have, in rare cases,
syllabic function, this fact is noted in phonetic works by a point, . ,
or circle, ˳ , under the letter: as, Latin*agṛs,*agr̥s(111,b), Englishopṇd,opn̥d. 84.The relative force with which the different syllables of a word are
uttered varies. Such variation in emphasis is calledstress
accentuation. The degrees of stress are really infinite, but for
practical purposes it is sufficient to distinguish between (1.) the
strongest stress (chief accent); (2.) a weaker stress
(secondary accent); and (3.) absence of stress (atonic syllable).
In the Englishcontradict, the last syllable has the chief
accent, a secondary accent falls on the first, and the second
syllable is unstressed. 85.It is not customary to indicate the place of accents in Latin by special
signs. When, for special reasons, signs are used, ´ denotes the chief
accent, ` the secondary accent, while the unstressed syllables are left
unmarked. 86.In classical Latin the place of the chief accent may be determined by
the following rules. (1.) Words of two syllables have the accent on the
penult (175): as, hómo;ā́cer. (2.) Words of
more than two syllables have the accent on the penult when that syllable
is long (177); otherwise on the antepenult:
as, palū́ster,onústus(177);mulíebris,génetrīx(178);árborēs,árbutus,gladíolus. 87.A short penult retains the accent in the genitive and vocative with a
singleīfrom stems in-io-(456,459): as, genitive,cōnsílī;impérī; genitive or vocative,Vergílī;Valérī;Mercúrī. Forcalefácis, &c., see394. 88.In a few words which have lost a syllable the accent is retained on the
last syllable; such are (1.) compounds of the imperativesdīcanddūc(113): as,ēdū́c;
(2.) nominatives of proper names in-āsand-īsfor-ātisand-ītis: as,Arpīnā́s, forArpīnā́tis;Laenā́s;Maecēnā́s;Quirī́s;Samnī́s; alsonostrā́s,vostrā́s; (3.) words compounded with the
abbreviated (113) enclitics-cfor-ceand-nfor-ne: as,illī́c;tantṓn;audīstī́n(for the shortening of the final
syllable: as,vidén,dost see?, see129); (4.)audī́t, contracted fromaudīvit(154,893). The Latin grammarians prescribe the circumflex (90) for all these long syllables. 89.In the preliterary period of the Latin language, the accent tended to go
as far from the end of the word as possible (recessive accent).
Thus, while the classical accentuation isinimī́cus, the older
period accentedínimīcus. In literary Latin this early recessive
accent has survived, only in Plautus’s accentuation of words of the form
⏑ ⏑ ⏑ ⏓ (proceleusmatic or fourth paeon, see2521), in which he stresses the first syllable: as,fácilius(classicalfacílius);vóluerat(classicalvolúerat). But in many instances the early recessive accent may
be traced in literary Latin by the phonetic changes which it produced
(102 ff.). 90.Musical element.The native Latin
grammarians slight the stress accentuation and pay much attention
instead to the variations in pitch. But they are so greatly dependent on
their Greek models that they are unsafe guides in this matter. It is,
however, probable that a stressed vowel was uttered on a higher key
(acute) than an unstressed vowel (grave), and that in certain syllables
the long, accented vowel showed a rise and fall (circumflex): as,illîc(88). 91.The force of the Latin stress accent must have varied at different
periods and in different localities, as it now varies in the Romance
countries. The early recessive accent seems to have been fairly
emphatic; but the stress in classical Latin was probably weak and the
difference between accented and unaccented syllables was much less
marked than it is in English. 92.Procliticsare unaccented words which are pronounced as a part of
the following word; they are: (1.) The relative and indefinite pronouns
and their derivatives; (2.) Prepositions. (a.)
Thus,quō diē, pronouncedquōdíē;quī vīxit,quīvī́xit;genus unde Latīnum,génus undeLatī́num.
Similarlyquamdíū,as long as;iamdíū,this long
time. A distinction is thus made between the interrogativequālis(1526), which is accented, and
the relativequālis(1831) which is
proclitic (Quint. 1, 5, 26); cf. the Englishwho, which is
accented when interrogative, and proclitic whenrelative.(b.)circum lītora, pronouncedcircumlī́tora;ab ōrīs, pronouncedabōrīs(Quint. 1, 5, 27); in
inscriptions and manuscripts prepositions are often united in writing
with the following word. Phrases likeextemplō,suddenly,invicem(94),in turn, are commonly
written and accented as one word. But the preposition is accented when
it is followed by a monosyllabic unemphatic (and therefore enclitic)
personal pronoun: as,ín mē;ábs tē(butabs tḗ,
iftēis emphatic). All prepositions used as adverbs (1402) have an independent accent.
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