MALAY MANUAL.PART I.Theobject of this work is to facilitate the acquisition of an elementary knowledge of the Malay language. It is believed also that some of the hints and suggestions which it contains will be of use to those who already have a colloquial knowledge of Malay, especially if this has been acquired from Indian or Chinese settlers in the Straits of Malacca, not from Malays themselves.The Roman character is used throughout, but a knowledge of the native character can hardly be dispensed with by those who aim at a thorough acquaintance with the language. As it abounds in idiomatic expressions, the study of native compositions is most important, and these are generally to be found only in the Malay character. Little attempt is made at scientific arrangement. In dealing with the various parts of speech, technical terms are as far as possible avoided, and reliance is placed rather on illustrations than abstract rules. The student should divest himself of the expectation that sentences may be formed in Malay on principles of construction which govern composition in European languages. An elementary knowledge of Malay is so easily acquired that a learner soon begins to construct sentences, and the tendency, of course, is to reproduce the phrases of his own language with words of the new one. He may thus succeed in making himself intelligible, but it need hardly be said that he does not speak the language of the natives. Correctness ofexpression cannot be entirely learnt from grammars. In this manual cautions and hints will be given, and, where possible, absolute rules will be laid down, but these must not be regarded as complete. Instruction derived from books must be supplemented by constant practice in speakingwith Malays—not with Malay-speaking Asiatics of other nationalities—before idioms can be mastered. Until some facility in framing sentences according to native idioms has been attained, and it has been perceived how shades of meaning may be conveyed by emphasis, or by the position of a word in the sentence, the European will find it difficult to convey his ideas in Malay, even with a considerable vocabulary of words at his disposal. A Dutch author justly remarks:— “Malay is called a poor language, and so it is, but not so much so as is often imagined, certainly not as far as its vocabulary is concerned. That it is often unable to furnish us with words for abstract ideas is a deficiency which it has in common with all languages of the Indian Archipelago, or rather with all races who have not yet risen to the height of our civilisation and development. Its richness or poverty, however, must not be judged by the existing dictionaries, or by the contents of those manuscripts which are known to us. When Malays are seated together talking about various topics of everyday life, they are not in want of words, and such conversations would, if noted down, provide our present dictionaries with a good many supplements, additions, corrections, and appendices.”1I. THE ARTICLE.There is no article in Malay, that is, there is no word which corresponds exactly with our definite articlethe, or indefinite articlea,an.Kuda, horse, andorang, man, signify equally “thehorse” and “theman.” When it is desired to specify particular objects, the pronounsini, this,itu, that, andyang,this which, or that which, are used.Sisometimes supplies the place of the definite article when a person is spoken of; assi-laki-laki, the man;si-perampuan, the woman;si-mati, the deceased;si-bongkok, the cripple.The numeralsatu, one, is often used as the indefinite article; asada sa’ orang di negri Kedah, there was a man in the state of Kedah;ini satu kuda chantek, this is a beautiful horse.II. SUBSTANTIVES.A difficulty which attends the classification of Malay words into various parts of speech, according to the system applied to European languages, consists in the number of words which, while yet unmodified by particles, are either verb or substantive, substantive or adjective, adjective or adverb, according to the context.Baniak, as an adverb, means much, as an adjective, many;jalanis either a road or to walk;panjangeither long, tall, or length, height. The same thing occurs in English in a minor degree; but with us thedifferencebetweencoldanda cold, or betweento brushanda brush, is rendered distinct by the use of the articleaand the particleto. Many Malay words must thus be treated as now substantive, now adjective, now verb, according to the position they occupy in the sentence.The noun undergoes no change to denote number, gender, or case.Number.The plural, if not sufficiently made plain from the context, is often indicated by the use of such words asbaniak, many,sumua,sa-kali-an, andsagala, all.It is also expressed sometimes by repeating the noun; asraja, a king,raja-raja, kings;tuan, master,tuan-tuan, masters.Allnouns are not capable of this duplication. As a general rule, it may be said to be mainly confined to nouns expressing persons or animate objects.When there is nothing to show whether singular or plural is meant, the number remains indefinite, but may generally be assumed to be plural. In such phrases asmenembak burong, to shoot birds,membĕli hayam, to buy fowls, the substantives are clearly plural, though nothing marks them as such. To restrict the number, and show thatone birdorone fowlis meant, it would be necessary to use the wordsatu, one, with the idiomatic termekor(lit.tail), which is always used in enumerating the lower animals; asmenembak sa’ekor burong, to shoot a bird;membĕli sa’ekor hayam, to buy a fowl.Gender.Inflexion is unknown in Malay, and gender has no place in the grammar of the language. Most nouns which signify animate things are of both genders, and the sexes are distinguished by the addition, in the case of persons, of the wordslaki-laki, male, andperampuan, female, and in other cases of the wordsjantan, male, andbetina, female.Jantanandbetinaare also applied vulgarly to persons. If an apparent exception is found in such words asputra, a prince, andputri, a princess, derivation from a foreign language may be suspected. The inflexion in the word just cited is due to the rules of Sanskrit grammar.Declension.There is nothing in the Malay language which corresponds with thecasesof a Latin, Greek, or Sanskrit noun, which are formed by changes of termination, or of a Hindustani noun, which are formed by postpositions. In Malay the cases are expressed, as in English, by prepositions:—To,ka,kepada,sama.For,akan.With,dengan,sama.From,deri,deri-pada.By,uleh.The genitive or possessive case is expressed either by the use of the wordpunyaafter the noun, or by placing the noun which signifies the possessor immediately after the thing possessed; assahaya, I;sahaya punya, of me, mine;rumah, house;rumah punya, of the house;sahaya punya rumah, orrumah sahaya, my house.The employment of the genitive withpunyais to be avoided. It is more idiomatic to sayrumah sahayathansahaya punya rumah.Substantives are of five classes:—1. Those which in their primitive form are substantives; asorang, person;rumah, house;kuda, horse;bapa, father.2. Those which are formed from verbs by prefixing the inseparable particlepe; aspe-lari, a runaway;peng-asuh, a nurse;pem-buru, a hunter;pen-churi, a thief;penyapu, a broom.3. Those which are formed by affixing the termination-anto verbs, adjectives, prepositions, and to other substantives; asmakan-an, food;manis-an, sweetness;hampir-an, proximity;trus-an, a channel;buah-an, fruit in general;laut-an, the ocean.4. Those which are formed by prefixing the particlepeand adding the termination-an; aspe-layar-an, a voyage;peng-ajar-an, instruction;pem-bunoh-an, slaying, execution;pen-dapat-an, acquisition;pel-ajar-an, lesson;per-uleh-an, possession;per-main-an, amusement.5. Those which are formed by prefixing the particleka-and adding the termination-an; aska-jadi-an, creation, origin;ka-baniak-an, generality;ka-puji-an, praise;ka-salah-an, guilt, offence;ka-korang-an, want, deficiency.III. ADJECTIVES.Adjectives, like nouns, are indeclinable. They are always placedaftertheir substantives; askuda baik, a good horse;orang jahat, a bad man; notbaik kuda,jahat orang.IV. PRONOUNS.The proper use of the personal pronouns and of the nouns which are used for them presents some difficulty.The following words may be used to express the first person singular,I:—1.Aku, I.2.Sahaya(lit. companion, slave; Sansk.sahâya).3.Hamba(lit. slave), orhamba tuan(lit. master’s slave).4.Perhamba(lit. lowest slave).5.Beta(lit. slave).6.Patek(lit. slave).7.Tĕman(lit. companion).The appropriate use of these pronouns is dependent upon the relative positions of the persons between whom communication takes place.Akuis generally used by natives among themselves. Its use implies familiarity and equality. It should not be used by Europeans addressing natives, or by natives addressing Europeans.Sahayais the ordinary polite form used by Europeans in conversation with natives of all classes, and by natives of the upper class in addressing Europeans.Ha ba,ha ba tuan, andperhambaare used by persons of inferior rank when addressing superiors.Hamba, if used by a chief or native of high rank, implies a certain affectation of modesty.The use ofbetais confined to literary composition, and it is incorrect to employ the word colloquially. It may be used by Europeans and natives.Patekis used only by natives, and by them only when addressing a person of royal blood.Tĕmanis used only in intercourse between natives of the upper class and of approximately equal rank.The first person plural iskitaorkami, we.Kitais usedwhen the person addressed is intended to be included.Kami, on the contrary, like the royal “we” in English, excludes the person addressed.Sometimes the wordorangis added without changing the signification; askita orang, we.Other forms are also in use, but they are generally provincialisms confined to particular states or districts.Sahaya apa,kita apa, andhamba tuan apaare used in Kedah, andsahaya-main Perak, forkita orang.Colloquially the personal pronouns are often omitted to avoid repetition. This is done especially in narration or description; as, for example, in the following sentence:Lepas itu jalan pula ka-kampong singgah di rumah Haji Ismail hari pun sudah pĕtang langsong pulang ka-rumah maka nasi— Afterwards (I started) again (and) walked to thekampong, (and) stopped at the house of Haji Ismail, (and then), as it was evening, (I) went straight home (and) had my dinner.Here the personal pronounIis understood throughout.The second person singular isangkau, you. Each syllable of this word may be used separately for the whole.Angorhangis much employed in Kedah and Perak, andkauin other parts of the peninsula and in Borneo. In Perakmika, in Malaccaawah, in Borneokita, and in Bataviakweh, are also used. The preceding words are used by a superior addressing an inferior, or by the common people in ordinary (not in polite) conversation.In polite conversation the use ofangkau, or of most of the words given above, must be avoided, as it is considered by Malays to be vulgar or harsh. In addressing servants or followers, the name of the individual addressed is often inserted in the sentence instead of the pronounyou; as, in addressing Ismail: When you were at the bazaar just now who was with you?—Apabila Ismail di pekan tadi siapa sama?In the same waytuan, sir, master, is employed in addressing a haji or sayyid;tuan-kuortunku, my lord, in addressing a raja;datoh, grandfather, in addressing a chief orpenghulu.Other words similarly employed are—Abang(elder brother) orwah(uncle), to a man older than the speaker.Kakak(elder sister), to a woman older than the speaker.Adek(younger brother).Inche(sir or madam), to respectable persons of either sex.Examples.When did you arrive? (to a haji)—Bila-mana tuan sudah tiba?I must ask one thing of you (to a raja)—Sahaya handak minta satu kapada tunku.If you give the order (to a chief)—Jikalau datoh suroh.Do not be angry (to an elderly man)—Jangan abang marah.Please help yourselves to water (to guests of various ranks)—Datoh-datoh, tuan-tuan, inche-inche sakalian, sila berayer.The use of the wordlu, a form of the second person singular, derived from the Chinese, and generally used by Europeans, is offensive to Malays of all classes, and is altogether to be avoided.In the pluralkamu, ye, corresponds toangkau, you, in the singular; that is to say, it is used by a superior addressing inferiors. It is found in its contracted formmuin literary composition, but seldom colloquially; aska-tahu-i uleh-mu, be it known unto ye.Kamuis sometimes used in the singular also.Third Person Singular.Diaoriya, he, she, it.Diaandiyaare used indifferently, but perhapsdiais more common in conversation andiyain literature.The plural isdia orang(and sometimes, though less commonly,iya orang), they.Another form of the third person plural ismarika-itu, they, these, or those persons; but it is found in literary compositions only, and is not used in conversation.A pronoun of the third person only used in conjunction with other words is-nia, a contraction ofinia, he, she, it.The indefinite form “one” (the French “on” and German “man”) is expressed in Malay byorang; asorang tiada bĕrani pergi sana, one dare not go there;kalau orang handak kawin, if one is about to marry.POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.The possessive pronouns,my,thy,his,our,your,their, are usually denoted by placing the personal pronoun after the word expressing the object possessed; asrumah sahaya, my house;pada pikir-an hamba, in my opinion;apa pen-chari-an angkau?what is your occupation?apa nama dia?what is his name?Possessive pronouns are also formed by the wordpunyaorampunya(lit. owning, owned) placed after the personal pronoun; asaku punya, my or mine;tuan punya suka, as you please (your pleasure);yang ampunya tanah, (he) whose land it is.Singular.Plural.My, mine,sahaya punya.Thy, thine,angkau punya.His, hers, its,dia punya.Ours,kita punya.Yours,kamu punya.Theirs,dia-orang punya.Frequently where the word “your” would be used in English Malays leave out the pronoun altogether. “Bring your gun with you,” would be correctly rendered in Malay,bawa snapang sama(lit. bring gun together), notbawa angkau punya snapang sama angkau.In literary compositionkuandmu(abbreviated forms ofakuandkamu) are affixed to the noun denoting the thing possessed; asrumah-ku, my house;bapa-mu, your father.The affix-niais used in the sense ofhis,hers, orits, as well as the other forms of the possessive pronoun; aspatah kaki-nia, his leg was broken;bauh-nia terlalu wangi, its smell is very sweet.DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.Ini, this, these.Itu, that, those.The demonstrative pronouns, like adjectives, follow the word to which they belong; asrumah ini, this house;hari ini, this day, to-day;aku ini, I myself;sakarang ini, this moment;orang itu, that man or those men;waktu itu, that time;iya itu, that is to say. It is not unusual to heariniandituplaced before the noun, but this is not idiomatic.The INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS areSiapa, who?Apa, what?Mana, who? what?Examples.Apa mahu?— What do you want?Rumah ini siapa?— Whose house is this?Siapa panggil?— Who called?Gajah mana ini?— What elephant is this?Siapa akan tahu?— Who knows?The RELATIVE PRONOUN isYang, who, which.Examples.Burong yang liyar, a bird that is wild.Raja yang adil, a king who is just.Ada yang tuah, ada yang muda, some are old and some are young (lit. there are who are old, &c.).The Menangkabau word isnen. This is often found in composition, but is seldom used in the dialect spoken in the Straits of Malacca. Example:Patek nen fakir— I who am but a beggar.REFLECTIVE PRONOUNS.Diri,sendiri, orkendiri, self, are used with or without the personal pronouns to signify myself, yourself, himself, ourselves, &c.Examples.Bunoh diri, to kill oneself.Meng-ajar diri, to take oneself to task.Hamba sendiri handak pergi, I shall go myself.Baik tuan sendiri suroh, you had better order it yourself.Kemdian turun-lah raja sendiri, afterwards the king himself descended.Dia lari masok hutan membawa diri-nia, she escaped to the jungle with her life (lit. taking herself with her).Biar-lah hamba sa-orang diri me-lawan dia, let me fight him myself alone.V. VERBS.Verbs are either primitive or derivative; the former are those which in their original signification are verbs; the latter are formed from primitive verbs, or from substantives, adjectives, or adverbs, by the application of particles.Examples of primitive verbs arepukul, to strike;makan, to eat;lari, to run; of derivative verbs,ber-kaki, to have feet, fromkaki, a foot;panjang-kan, to lengthen or make long, frompanjang, long.The primitive verb, which is generally a dissyllable, is either transitive, astangkap, to seize, or intransitive, astidor, to sleep; but a transitive sense may be given to an intransitive verb by the addition of the particle-kan, aslari,me-lari, to run;me-lari-kan, to carry off.Though the examples of primitive verbs given above are translated for the sake of convenience by our infinitive, their signification is not necessarily rendered by that mood. Favre translates them by the past participle (asambil, taken,buang, thrown2), but this is rather fanciful than accurate. The factis, that the meaning of the radical or primitive is indefinite, and depends for its precise signification on its position (with respect to other words) in the sentence, or on the particles which may be added before or after it. Thuslarimeans simply run, though syntax will show that it may mean to run, I run, he runs, run thou, &c., according to its position in the sentence.Marsden distinguishes the following moods—the imperative, the indicative or assertive, the conditional, and the infinitive or indefinite—“which admit, for the most part, of being expressed in the present, the past, and the future tenses or times.”It is not proposed, in an elementary work like the present, to go deeply into a scientific arrangement, which, however well suited to the Latin and Greek languages, is adapted with less propriety to uncultivated languages like Malay. It is believed that an explanation of the use of auxiliaries and particles, and a paradigm showing the most common changes of which the verb is susceptible, will be sufficient, and that the student may be left to gain further knowledge as to the mode of expressing variations of mood and tense as he advances in the study of the language.3Use of Particles.The inseparable affix-kanalways denotes a verb used in atransitivesense; asmen-jalan-kan, to cause to walk. It is an abbreviation of the prepositionakan. Thusbuat-kan(to do) means to do somethingto(akan) something or somebody.The inseparable affix-ialso denotes the transitive sense; askras-i, to oppress (fromkras, hard);halus-i, to treat carefully (fromhalus, fine, close).The inseparable prefixber-(bel-,be-) is the mark of a verb which expresses a state or condition of being; asber-jalan, to walk, or to be in the act of walking;ber-wang, to have money;ber-misei, to wear moustaches;ber-pukul, to strike,i.e., to be in the act or condition of striking (not to strike another,transitive, which would be expressed bypukul-orme-mukul-kan).The inseparable prefixme-(in all its various forms,mem,meng,men, andmeny) is the mark of a verb which expresses an action; asmen-jalan-kan, to cause to walk,mem-buat, to make;menyakit-kan, to afflict (fromsakit);meng-ambil, to take.According as the primitive verb has a transitive or intransitive sense, the derivative verbs formed from it will takeber-orme-as the case may be. Thus fromadu, to sleep, is formedber-adu, notmeng-adu; while fromadu, to complain, is formedmeng-adu, notber-adu.Often both particles may be used, and both transitive and intransitive derivative verbs may be formed from the same primitive. Thus fromtaroh, to put, are formedmenaroh, to put (the act of a person who puts), andber-taroh, to bet (the condition of a person who stakes). Fromtidor, to sleep, are formedmenidor-kan, to put to sleep, andber-tidor, to be sleeping or lying down; and fromajar, instruct,meng-ajar, to teach (impart instruction), andbel-ajar, to learn (get instruction).Mem-bawa, to bring,mem-bunoh, to kill, andme-makan, to eat, are formed frombawa,bunoh, andmakanrespectively, which, as they express actions, not states, do not take the prefixber-.Ber-gantongis to hang (intransitive), that is, to be in a state or condition of hanging;meng-gantong-kanis to hang (transitive), that is, to perform the action of hanging something.The particleper-(Sansk.pra), a prefix used with transitive verbs, does not seem always to effect a change in the sense.It is used more generally in literature than in the colloquial dialects, and seems to be introduced frequently for the sake of euphony only. The difference, for instance, betweenmeng-himpun-kan, to assemble, to collect persons together, andmem-per-himpun-kan, to cause persons to collect together, is not very marked. No general rule applicable to all transitive verbs can be laid down for the use of this form withmem-per-; practice and experience must form the only guide.Auxiliaries.The auxiliary verbs and adverbs are—Ada, is, was, are, were.Sudah, was, did, has been.Tĕlah, was, did, has been.Mahu, will, shall, would, must.Handak, will, shall, would, must, is, was, or were about to.Jadi, is, was, become, became.PARADIGMS.Tidor, sleep.Sahaya tidor, I sleep, or I was sleeping.Tidor-lah dia, he was sleeping or slept.Ber-tidor, asleep, sleeping.Sahaya sudah tidor, I have slept.Dia telah tidor, he had slept.Sahaya maku tidor, I will sleep, or I want to sleep.Sahaya handak tidor, I shall sleep, or I am about to sleep.Dia akan tidor, he will sleep or is going to sleep.Tidor-lah, sleep thou.Mahu-lak angkau tidor, you must sleep.Biar iya tidor, let him sleep.Handak-lah di-tidor-nia, it must be slept by him,i.e., he intends to sleep.Menidor-kanormenidor-i, to lay down (transitive).Mem-per-tidor-kanormem-per-tidor-i, to cause to sleep.Penidor, a soporific; that which causes to sleep.Penidor-an, act of causing to sleep.Per-tidor-an, that which belongs to sleep; a bed.Ka-tidor-an, the act of sleeping; there was sleeping on the part of——.Sa-ka-tidor-an, the act of sleeping with another; there was sleeping with——.Si-tidor, the sleeper.Ter-tidor, gone to sleep.Lari, run.Sahaya lari, I run, or I was running.Lari-lah dia, he ran, or was running.Ber-lari, run, running.Ber-lari-lari, running about incessantly.Sahaya sudah lari, I have or had run.Dia telah lari, he had run.Sahaya mahu lari, I will run, or I want to run.Sahaya handak lari, I will run, or I am about to run.Dia akan lari, he will run.Lari-lah, run thou.Mahu lah angkau lari, you must run.Biar iya lari, let him run.Handak-lah di lari-nia, it must be run by him,i.e., he intends to run.Me-lari-kan, to carry off (transitive).Lari-an, a running, a course.Ber-lari-an, the act of running; there was running on the part of——.Ber-lari-lari-an, incessant running; running to and fro; there was incessant running on the part of——.Ka-lari-an, flight; act of running.Pe-lari, a runaway, a fugitive.Pe-lari-an, flight.Di-lari-kan(passive), is, are, was, were, have, has, or had been run away with.Di-lari-kan-nia, is, are, was, were, have, has, or had been run away with by him, her, or them.Ter-lari, run, run away (past).Bawa lari, to carry off, run off with. (Herelariis the past participle afterbawa, to take, bring, and may be used with that verb in all its forms.)Ada, be.Sahaya ada, I am or was.Ber-ada, have (possess.), has or had.Meng-ada, to cause to be, to make, invent.Sudah ada, have got, have been.Telah ada, was, have been.Mahu ada, must be.Meng-ada-ngada, to make or invent repeatedly.Meng-ada kan, to create, to cause to exist.Ber-ada-kan, possess, own.Mem-per-ada-kan, to produce, to cause to exist.Ter-ada-kan, produced, created.Ada-an, being, existence.Ka-ada-an, state, existence.Bawa, bring.Sahaya bawa, I bring or was bringing.Mem-bawa, bring, to bring.Sudah bawa, has brought.Telah bawa, had brought.Mahu bawa, will or must bring.Aku handak bawa, I will bring, or am about to bring.Bawa-lah, bring thou.Biar iya bawa, let him bring.Mem-bawa-kanormem-bawa-i, to cause to be brought or taken.Pem-bawa, a bringer.Bawa-an, that which is brought; a burden.Pem-bawa-an, act of bringing, transport.Di-bawaanddi-bawa-kan, brought, passive.Di-bawa-niaanddi-bawa-kan-nia, is, are, was, were, have, has, or had been brought by him, her, or them.Ter-bawa, brought.Ambil, take.Sahaya ambil, I take.Meng ambil, take, to take.Sudah ambil, has or had taken.Telah ambil, had taken.Mahu ambil, will or must take.Handak ambil, shall take or about to take.Ambil-lah, take thou.Mahu-lah angkau ambil, you must take.Biar iya ambil, let him take.Handak-lah di ambil-nia, he must take or intends to take.Meng-ambil-kan, to take or cause to take.Ambil-an, a thing taken.Peng-ambil-an, the act of taking.Di-ambilordi-ambil-kan, is or was, &c., taken (passive).Di-ambil-niaordi-ambil-kan-nia, is or was. &c., taken by him, her, or them.Ter-ambil, taken, having been taken.Suroh, order.Sehaya suroh, I order.Menyuroh, order, to order.Sudah suroh, has ordered.Telah suroh, had ordered.Mahu suroh, will or must order.Handak suroh, shall order or about to order.Suroh-lah, order thou.Mahu-lah angkau suroh, you must order.Biar iya suroh, let him order.Handak-lah di suroh-nia, he must order or intends to order.Menyuroh-kan, to issue orders, to commission.Pe-surohandpenyuroh, one who is commissioned; a messenger.Penyuroh-an, an order, command; the act of commanding.Suroh-suroh-an, people who are at the orders or command of another.Suroh-menyuroh, to issue orders incessantly.Di-surohordi-suroh-kan, is or was, &c., ordered.Di-suroh-niaordi-suroh-kan-nia, is, or was, &c., ordered by him, her, or them.Ter-suroh, ordered, having been ordered.The facts to be derived from a careful study of the foregoing examples may be summarised as follows:—1st. The tense of the verb standing alone is indefinite. It may be present, imperfect, present or past, &c., according to the context; asdia ada, he is;tatkala sahaya ada di sana,when I was there;kalau sahaya ada dĕkat, if I am, should be, were, or had been near. This applies equally to the forms created by prefixingber-andme-,mem-,men-,meng-,meny-to the radical. Examples:kita ber-jalan, weareorwerewalking;nanti sampei sahaya ber-balik, wait till Ishall havereturned;mati-mati ber-minyak, if youshoulduse oil;raja meng-angkat kalmarin dahulu, the rajasetout the day before yesterday.2d. The Imperfect may sometimes be expressed by making the verb, followed by the particle-lah, precede the pronoun; asdiam-lah dia orang, they were silent;maka pergi-lah raja kapada tuan putri, and the king went to the princess.3d.Past.— Though the past may be expressed by the primitive verb, as shown above, if the context shows that the act spoken of is past, it is, nevertheless, more emphatically marked by the use of the auxiliariessudahandtĕlah, has or had; asdia sudah tidor, he has gone to sleep;telah lari-lah pe-rompah sumua, the pirates have (or had) all run away.4th.Future.— The verb standing alone may express the future when there is something in the sentence which indicates that a future tense is meant, such as the word “to-morrow” or “hereafter;” asesok hari kita ber-pĕrang pula, to-morrow we shall be fighting again.The future is also expressed by the auxiliariesmahuandhandak; asdia mahu jual, he will sell it;tiada mahu dia datang, he would not come;kapal handak masok sungei, a ship is about to enter the river;di-panggil-nia orang-besar-besar mushawarat handak di-buat meligei, he summoned the chiefs to consult about building a palace.Another mode of forming the future is by the wordnanti(lit. wait), placed, like the French verballer, before the verb; assahaya nanti chahari,je vais chercher, I am going to seek, orj’irai chercher, I shall go to seek.The prepositionakan, in order to, in order that, is sometimes used to convey the sense of the future; aspenyakit itu tiada akan semboh, that disease is not to be cured;siapa akantahu?who shall know? (= who can tell?);jikalau raja yang anyaya naraka akan tampat-nia, if a king is unjust hell will be his place hereafter.5th.Imperative.— To convey an order or command the radical is used either by itself or with the affix-lah;kamu, thou, being either expressed or understood. The particle adds additional emphasis to the command. Examples:pergi, go;pergi-lah, be off, get away;ka-luarorka-luar-lah, go out;ka-luar-kan-lah, take (it) out, or turn (him) out.Mahuandhandakwith the affix-lahsignify must; asmahu-lah kamu turut, ye must obey;handak-lah ayam yang puteh, there must be a fowl that is white, or, the fowl must be a white one;handak-lah segala pegawei raja itu duduk dengan adab dan diam, the king’s officers must sit with reverence and in silence.The third person of the imperative mood, which we express by “let him,” may be rendered in Malay by the use of the wordbiarorbiar-lah, with the verb in the manner shown by the following examples:—Biar-lah dia masok, let him come in;biar-lah aku mati, let me die.6th. From many verbs are formed verbal nouns by prefixing the particlepe-(peng,pem,pen,peny) to the radical. This prefix operates like the syllable-erin such words as robber, purchaser, teacher; aschuri, to steal;pen-churi, a robber;bĕli, to buy;pem-bĕli, a purchaser;ajar, to teach;peng-ajar, a teacher. Substantives of this kind and others formed from the verb with the particleska-and-anhave already been noticed under the head of the Substantive. But the form arrived at by prefixing to the simple verb the particleka-and annexing the particle-anis not merely a noun, but, as Marsden says, “a gerund in form as well as in sense, being in fact a verbal noun infinitively applied in construction;” as,ka-dengar-an sampei Sayong, it was to be heard as far as Sayong;tiada ka-tahu-an, not to be understood;mata-hari tiada ka-lihat-an sebab ka-lindong-an-lah sayap-nia, the sun was not to be seen by reason of the shadowing of its wings.7th.Passive.—In Malay the passive voice is denoted by the particledi-prefixed to the verb. The place of the nouns which express the agent and subject respectively will be understood from the following examples:—Hamba di-pukul orang, I was beaten by men.Orang di-pukul hamba, the men were beaten by me.Rumah di-makan api, the house was consumed by fire.Api di-padam-kan orang, the fire was extinguished by men.Here the personal pronoun or other agent follows the verb and the subject precedes it.Sometimes the preposition “by” finds an equivalent in Malay, the wordulehbeing expressed instead of being understood (as in the preceding sentences). Examples:—Maka uleh baginda pun di-sambut dengan seperti‘adat, they were received by the king with the customary ceremony.Di-titah-kan-lah uleh baginda, it was commanded by the king.The passive participle is formed by prefixing to the verb the inseparable particleter-; aster-pukul, struck;ter-tulis, written. Whenter-precedesper-, one of the particles drops its final letter; aste-per-sayang, compassionated;ter-pe-lanting, sent flying.Other forms of the Verb.— In the preceding paradigms generally those changes have been inserted which result from the application of inseparable particles. But there are moods and tenses of the English verb which are translatable in Malay, though they are not included above because they involve the use of other words, which, though united to the verb in construction, do not form part of it.Conditional or Potential.— In expressing a conditional or potential sense the verb undergoes no change, though following such conjunctions as “if,” “provided that,” “in order that;” asjika tuan datang, if you come;kalau raja me-larang, if the king should forbid;dapat kami ber-untong, provided we are successful;sapaya jangan hamba kĕna rugi, in order that I may not incur a loss;agar sapaya anak-nia menjadi ‘alim, in order that his children may become learned.Optative.— An optative sense is generally indicated by suchwords asapa-lah,apa-lah kira-nia, prithee, expressions of entreaty, orgarangan, forsooth, conveying the notion of a doubt or query; asbarang di-sampei-kan Allah apa-lah kira-nia, may God in his goodness cause it to arrive. But sometimes these are understood; asdi-bri Allah kamarau sadikit, may God grant a little fair weather.Participle Present.— Continuity or existing duration of action is often expressed by the use of such words aslagi, still more,sambil,seraya, andserla, whilst at the same time the verb remains unaltered in form; aslagi datang, coming;lagi tidor, sleeping or still asleep;ber-jalan sambil ber-sinnyum, walked on smiling;meniambah serta meniapu ayer mata-nia, made obeisance, at the same time wiping away her tears.Tengah, half, middle, is often used with the verb in a similar way; asdia tengah makan nasi, he was in the act of eating his dinner.VI. ADVERBS.Adverbs in Malay are not distinguished by any prevailing termination corresponding to the English-lyor the French-ment. Many adjectives and some prepositions are used adverbially.The following are some of the most useful adverbs:—Adverbs of Time.sakarang, now.tadi, just now.dahulu, before, formerly.sa’buntar, presently.bĕlum, not yet.pagi-pagi, early.esok,besok, to-morrow.kalmarin,4yesterday.tatkala,sa-katika, when (relative).kemdian, afterwards.pernah, ever.ta’pernah, never.sĕdang, while.kadang, sometimes.apa-bila,apa-kala,bila-mana,bila, when? (interrogative).kalmarin dahulu, the day before yesterday.lusa, the day after to-morrow.tulat, the third day from this.Adverbs of Place.sini,ka-mari, here.situ,sana,nun, there.mana, where, wherever (rel.).di-mana, where? (inter.).hampir, near, nearly.luar, outside.dalam, inside.sabĕrang, across.jauh, far.atas, above.bawah, below.sabĕlah, beside.balik, behind.dĕkat, near.Miscellaneous.bagini, like this.bagitu, like that.bageimana, how?ya, yes.bukan, no, not.sahaja, only.makin, so much the more.naschaya, certainly.tidak, no.tentu, certainly.Adverbs expressing intensity will be found enumerated in Lesson 4.Among the examples above given several are also prepositions, and will be found under that heading.VII. PREPOSITIONS.The principal prepositions of place and motion aredi, at, in, on;ka, to, towards;deri, from. A great many so-called prepositions are formed from these three compounded with certain other words, such as:—di-atas, on the top of.ka-atas, to the top of.deri-atas, from the top of.di-dalam, in the interior of.ka-dalam, to the interior of.deri-dalam, from the interior of.di-bĕlakang, at the back of.ka-bĕlakang, to the back of.deri-bĕlakang, from the back of.di-sabĕrang, on the farther side of.ka-sabĕrang, to the farther side of.deri-sabĕrang, from the farther side of.di-bawah, at the bottom of.ka-bawah, to the bottom of.deri-bawah, from the bottom of.di-hadap-an, in front of.ka-hadap-an, to the front of.deri-hadap-an, from the front of.di-luar, at the outside of.ka-luar, to the outside of.deri-luar, from the outside of.These twenty-one words are used like prepositions, and are often classified as such, but the true prepositions are the three initial words.Atas,bawah,dalam,hadap-an,bĕlakang,luar, andsabĕranghere are really substantives governed by the prepositionsdi,ka, andderi. Some of these words aptly illustrate the difficulty of classifying Malay words according to the parts of speech usually recognised by grammarians.Dalam, for instance, has already been classified in the preceding section as an adverb. It is also substantive, adjective, and preposition.Dalam(subs.), interior, depth; aspenghulu dalam, the guardian of the interior (inner apartments);dalam-nia tiga depa, its depth is three fathoms.Dalam(adj.), deep; aster-lalu dalam sungei ini, this river is very deep.Dalam(adv.), inside; asada orang dalam, there are people inside.Dalam(prep.), in; askain yang dalam gĕdong itu, cloth in that warehouse.In Malay a substantive in the possessive case immediately follows the substantive denoting the possessor (supra, p. 47). In the sentencesbĕlakang gunong, the back of the mountain;hadap-an raja, the presence of the king;sabĕrang sungei, the farther side of the river, all the words are substantives,gunong,raja, andsungeibeing in the possessive case.Now let the prepositionsdi,ka, andderibe added to these sentences.Di-bĕlakang gunong, at the back of the mountain, may be more shortly translatedbehindthe mountain; soka-hadap-an rajamay be renderedbeforethe king, andderi-sabĕrang sungeifrom beyondthe river.Here, though the purport of the Malay phrasesdi-bĕlakang,ka-hadap-an, andderi-sabĕrangare correctly rendered by Englishprepositions, only the first portion of each phrase is a Malay preposition.Of the remaining prepositions the following are the chief:—pada,kapada, at, to, on, towards.deri-pada, from, than.akan, to, for, as to, as for.uleh, by.atas, on, upon.datang,sampei,hingga,until, as far as.antara, between.samantara, until.ganti, instead of.balik, behind.serta, with.sama, with, to.dengan, with.dalam, in, into.lĕpas, after.karana,krana,sebab,on account of.sa-kadar, according to.demei, by.dĕkat, near.tentang, concerning, opposite.bagi, to.trus, through.VIII. CONJUNCTIONS.The following list includes the most useful of the conjunctions in Malay:—dan, and.kalau,jika,jikalau,if.antah,kunun,perhaps.sapaya, in order that.pula, also, again.sambil,selang,whilst.seraya, at the same time.tambah-an, furthermore.karana,sĕbab,because.serta, and, also.asal-kan, provided that.atau, or.tĕtapi, but.me-lain-kan, except.hania, but, except.yang, that.kĕlak, forsooth.juga,jua, also.sahaja, only.lagi, again, even.lagi pula, again, too.lagi pun, besides, also.saperti, as, like.laksana,bagei,like.iya-itu, that is to say.lamun-kan, although.There are also a number of conjunctions which are met with almost exclusively in the written language, and which it would be pedantic to use in conversation. Of such are:—maka,bahwa,ḥata,shahadan, seldom necessary to the sense, and not always requiring translation. They answer in some degree to such words as “now,” “next,” “but,” “then,” “again,” “so.”sa-ber-mula, first, now.sa-bagei-lagi, further, again.arkian, now, then.agar, in order that.y‘ani, that is to say.wab‘adahu,5and then, afterwards.walakin(Arab.wa, andlakin, but), but, though, nevertheless.IX. INTERJECTIONS.The interjections in most common use are:—hei!O!ya!O! (Arabic).aho!O! (Sansk.).aduh!aduhi!oh! alas! (pain, lamentation).niah!niah-lah!be off! begone!ai!wah!oh! alas! (astonishment or affliction).ayo!ayohi!ah! (affection).cheh!fie!wayi!alas!demei Allah!by God!nah!there! take it!jum!6forwards!Many other words are used like interjections; such askasi-han(lit. affection), what a pity!sayang(lit. concern), ’tis pity! alas!karam(lit. wrecked), woe to thee!me-rachun(may I be poisoned), no! (emphatic denial), &c., &c.A number of Arabic expressions common to all Muhammadans in all parts of the world are used by Malays, such asIn sháa-lláh, if it be the will of God;Alláhu a‘alam, God is all-knowing;Astaghfir alláh, I beg forgiveness of God;Wa-llahiandWa-llah, by God!Yá rabb, O Lord!Bi-smi-llah, in the name of God!El-ḥamdu li-llah, praise be to God!Alláhu akbar, God is most great.X. NUMERALS.The numerals in Malay are exceedingly simple. The first ten are:—1.sa,satu,suatu, one.2.dua, two.3.tiga, three.4.ampat, four.5.lima, five.6.anam, six.7.tujoh, seven.8.dĕlapan, eight.9.sambilan, nine.10.sapuloh, ten.From eleven to nineteen inclusive the numerals are formed from the digits with the terminationbĕlas:—11.sa-bĕlas, eleven.12.dua-bĕlas, twelve.13.tiga-bĕlas, thirteen.14.ampat-bĕlas, fourteen.15.lima-bĕlas, fifteen.16.anam-bĕlas, sixteen.17.tujoh-bĕlas, seventeen.18.dĕlapan-bĕlas, eighteen.19.sambilan-bĕlas, nineteen.20.dua-puloh, twenty.Multiples of ten up to ninety inclusive have the terminationpuloh, ten:—20.dua-puloh, twenty.30.tiga-puloh, thirty.40.ampat-puloh, forty.50.lima-puloh, fifty.60.anam-puloh, sixty.70.tujoh-puloh, seventy.80.dĕlapan-puloh, eighty.90.sambilan-puloh, ninety.The intermediate numbers are formed simply by adding the units; as—21.dua-puloh-satu, twenty-one.32.tiga-puloh-dua, thirty-two.43.ampat-puloh-tiga, forty-three.54.lima-puloh-ampat, fifty-four.65.anam-puloh-lima, sixty-five.76.tujoh-puloh-anam, seventy-six.87.dĕlapan-puloh-tujoh, eighty-seven.98.sambilan-puloh-dĕlapan, ninety-eight.Above a hundred the numbers proceed with equal regularity:—100.sa-ratus, one hundred.200.dua-ratus, two hundred.300.tiga-ratus, three hundred.400.ampat-ratus, four hundred.1000.sa-ribu, one thousand.2000.dua-ribu, two thousand.3000.tiga-ribu, three thousand.4000.ampat-ribu, four thousand.Any sum, however great, may be expressed by the numerals in juxtaposition without the insertion of a conjunction; as,sa-ribu-dĕlapan-ratus-tujoh-puloh-sambilan, one thousand eight hundred (and) seventy nine, 1879.Certain terms for high numbers have been borrowed from the Sanskrit language and misapplied in adoption, namely,laḳsa(Sansk.laksha, 100,000),keti(Sansk.koṭi, 10,000,000), andjuta(Sansk.ayuta, 10,000).The numbers represented by these words in Malay aresa-laḳsa, ten thousand;sa-keti, one hundred thousand;sa-juta, one million.In reckoning the numbers from 20 to 30,lekor, a score, is sometimes used instead ofdua-puloh(especially in mentioning dates), but in that case the unit precedes instead of following the decimal; assa-lekor, twenty-one;dua-lekor, twenty-two;tiga-lekor, twenty-three, &c.To express a quantity which approaches what we call a round number, it is sometimes convenient to state the latter qualified by the figure in which it is deficient, as is done in the old-fashioned phrase “forty stripes save one.” Thus, instead ofsambilan-puloh-dĕlapan, ninety-eight, the phrasekorang dua sa-ratus, one hundred save two, may be used.The use of the wordtengah, half, before a numeral serves in the same way to reduce it by half of one. Thus,tengah duasignifies “one and a half,” or “two, less half a one,” as if the full phrase werekorang sa-tengah dua; sotengah tiga-puloh, twenty-five (lit. “three tens save half”);tengah lima ratus, four hundred and fifty (lit. “five hundreds save half”).Ordinal Numbers.pertama(Sansk.prathama), first.ka-dua, second.ka-tiga, third.ka-sa-bĕlas, eleventh.ka-dua-puloh, twentieth.ka-sa-ratus, hundredth.The wordyangplaced before ordinals corresponds to the definite article in English; asyang pertama, the first;yang ka-dua, the second;yang ka-sa-ribu, the thousandth.Fractional Numbers.Tengah,sa-tengah, half;suku,sa-suku, quarter;sa-per-dua, one-half;sa-per-tiga, one-third;dua-per-tiga, two-thirds;tiga-per-ampat, three-fourths. Similar fractions may be formed with other numbers by placing the particleperbetween the dividend and the divisor.Collective Numbers.Phrases like “a score,” “a dozen,” “a couple,” are formed in Malay by the use of the particleberwith the numeral; as—ber-dua, the two, or the pair.ber-tiga, the three.ber-puloh-puloh, by tens.be-ratus-ratus, by hundreds.be-ribu-ribu, by thousands.The wordganda, which in Hindustani is a collective numeral meaning “a four,” is used in Malay in conjunction with numerals in a sense corresponding to the English word “times;” asdua-ganda, double, twice;tiga-ganda, triple, three times.Numeral Co-Efficients.In Malay, as in Burmese, Siamese, and Chinese, “there exists a set of specific and technical terms, called by the grammariansnumeral affixes, some one or other of which is always used as a co-efficient to the numeral, the term being selected according to the class under which the object falls.”7The use of these terms will be best understood by comparing it with the analogous use in English of such phrases as so manyheadof cattle; so manyfileof soldiers; so manysailof ships; so manystandof rifles.1.Orang(person or persons) is introduced in the enumeration of mankind; asChina tiga orang, Malayu sa’orang, three Chinese and a Malay;budak dua orang, two children.2.Ekor(tail) is employed in speaking of animals; assa-ekor kuching, a cat;kuda bĕlang dua ekor, two piebald horses;ikan kechil-kechil barang lima anam ekor, about five or six small fish.3.Buah(fruit) is applied to fruit, houses, ships, places, &c.; assa-buah rumah, a house;sa-buah nĕgri, a town or kingdom;lima buah kapal, five ships.4.Biji(seed) is applied to small objects more or less round; asbuah manggis lima-puloh biji, fifty mangostins;ampat biji telor, four eggs;nior muda sa-biji, one green cocoa-nut.5.Haleiorlei, to tenuous objects, such as hair, feathers, leaves, wearing apparel, &c.; asbulu sa-lei, a feather;kain Palembang sa-puloh halei, ten Palembang sarongs.6.Batang(stem), to long objects; aslembing dua batang, two spears;tiang ampat batang, four posts.7.Puchuk(young shoot), to letters, muskets, cannon, elephants’ tusks, &c.; astiga puchuk surat, three letters;sa-puchuk gading, one tusk:snapang lima puchuk, five muskets.8.Keping(piece, slice), to pieces of wood, metal, &c.; aspapan sa-keping, a plank;timah tiga-puloh keping, thirty slabs of tin.9.Tangga(ladder) andpintu(door), to houses; asrumah dua tangga, two houses;rumah batu anam pintu, six brick houses.10.Lapis(fold), to clothing; askapan sa-lapis, a shroud.11.Rawan, to nets and cordage; aspukut sa-rawan, a seine net;jala dua rawan, two casting nets.12.Bilah, to cutting weapons; askris sa-bilah, one kris;pĕdang lima bilah, five swords.13.Buntoh, to rings, fish-hooks, &c.; askail sa-buntoh, a fish-hook;chinchin tiga buntoh, three rings.14.Bidang, to things spread out; asdestar sa-bidang, one head-cloth.15.Butir, to fruit, seeds, and other small round objects; asnior sa-butir, a cocoa-nut;mutiara sa-butir, a pearl.There are many other similar idiomatic terms, examples of which will be given in the more advanced lessons farther on.XI.PARTICLES.Most of the particles have been noticed in speaking of the verb, but there are three or four which require special mention.Lahis affixed to words of all kinds, sometimes merely for the sake of euphony, but more frequently as a particle of intensity.In the sentenceada-lah kapada suatu hari, it happened on a certain day,lahis simply expletive; but in the sentencedia-lah yang buat, it washewho did it, the particle serves to emphasise the worddia. The latter use of the particlelahis exemplified by its frequent employment to emphasise a command; asmari-lah, come;pergi-lah, go.Kahis the interrogative particle. When affixed to words it is the sign of a question or a doubt; asitu-kah atau lain-kah?is it that or another?Antah sunggoh-kah atau tidak, it is doubtful whether it be true or not.Tahis also an interrogative particle, but of less general use thankah.Apa-tah?what else? is a common phrase indicating assent.Punis annexed to all kinds of words, sometimes merely to give roundness to a phrase, sometimes with the sense of “too,” or “also” (where the sentence is affirmative), or “nor,” “neither” (where it is negative); asmaka iya-pun datang, then he came;aku pun mahu, I too want it;siyang pun tidak malam pun tidak, it was neither day nor night.Part I: Footnotes1.Klinkert, Eenige ophelderingen omtrent de Maleische Spreekwoorden en spreekwijzen.2.Grammaire de la Langue Malaise, 56.3.“It is difficult to eradicate the belief that the forms in which we think are identical with the thought itself; and it is only linguistic science that enables us to see that many of the forms of grammar which we imagine necessary and universal are, after all, but accidental and restricted in use. The cases of Latin and Greek do not exist in the majority of languages; the Polynesian dialects have no true verbs; and the Esquimaux gets on well enough without ‘the parts of speech’ that figure so largely in our own grammars.” —Sayce, Introduction to the Science of Language, ii. 328.4.In Perakkalmarinmeans “formerly.”Pĕtangis “yesterday.”5.Arabicwa, and,b‘adahu, afterwards—often used by a pleonasm withkemdian, afterwards;wab‘adahu kemdian deri-pada itu, and after that.6.This is a Kedah word.Mah!is used in the same sense in Perak.7.Col. Yule, Journ. Anthropol. Inst. Feb. 1880. This peculiarity in the Indo-Chinese languages has attracted much attention among ethnologists. See Peschel, Races of Man, 117; Tylor, Early History of Mankind, 208; Bunsen’s Universal History, i. 409.PART II.COMPOSITION OF SENTENCES.Owing to the absence of inflexion, the composition of simple sentences in Malay offers few difficulties. The phrases and exercises which will be given in this Part are simple and elementary, serving thus as a preparation for others of progressive difficulty to be reached at a later stage.LESSON I.Substantives.person (man, woman, or child),orang.man,laki-laki.woman,per-ampu-an.child,anak.house,rumah.water,ayer.fire,api.wind,angin.wood,kayu.carriage,kreta.horse,kuda.ship,kapal.steamer,kapal-api.boat,sampan.cow, ox,lumbu.dog,anjing.bird,burong.snake,ular.fish,ikan.sun,mata-hari.moon,bulan.star,bintang.sea,laut.river,sungei.cloth,kain.Adjectives.good,baik.new,băharu.naughty, wicked,jahat.beautiful,bagus.pretty,chantek.wise,pandei.stupid,bodoh.large,bĕsar.small,kĕchil.deep,dalam.swift,laju.high,tinggi.round,bulat.old,tuah.young,muda.cold,sĕjuk.hot,panas.far,jauh.near,dĕkat.coarse,kasar.fine,halus.Adverbs.very,baniak.exceedingly,sangat.Before showing how sentences may be constructed with these words by means of the verbada, and with the aid of the personal pronouns, two of the hints already given are here repeated:—1. Adjectives follow their substantives.2. The verbadais frequently omitted and left to be understood.Examples.
MALAY MANUAL.PART I.Theobject of this work is to facilitate the acquisition of an elementary knowledge of the Malay language. It is believed also that some of the hints and suggestions which it contains will be of use to those who already have a colloquial knowledge of Malay, especially if this has been acquired from Indian or Chinese settlers in the Straits of Malacca, not from Malays themselves.The Roman character is used throughout, but a knowledge of the native character can hardly be dispensed with by those who aim at a thorough acquaintance with the language. As it abounds in idiomatic expressions, the study of native compositions is most important, and these are generally to be found only in the Malay character. Little attempt is made at scientific arrangement. In dealing with the various parts of speech, technical terms are as far as possible avoided, and reliance is placed rather on illustrations than abstract rules. The student should divest himself of the expectation that sentences may be formed in Malay on principles of construction which govern composition in European languages. An elementary knowledge of Malay is so easily acquired that a learner soon begins to construct sentences, and the tendency, of course, is to reproduce the phrases of his own language with words of the new one. He may thus succeed in making himself intelligible, but it need hardly be said that he does not speak the language of the natives. Correctness ofexpression cannot be entirely learnt from grammars. In this manual cautions and hints will be given, and, where possible, absolute rules will be laid down, but these must not be regarded as complete. Instruction derived from books must be supplemented by constant practice in speakingwith Malays—not with Malay-speaking Asiatics of other nationalities—before idioms can be mastered. Until some facility in framing sentences according to native idioms has been attained, and it has been perceived how shades of meaning may be conveyed by emphasis, or by the position of a word in the sentence, the European will find it difficult to convey his ideas in Malay, even with a considerable vocabulary of words at his disposal. A Dutch author justly remarks:— “Malay is called a poor language, and so it is, but not so much so as is often imagined, certainly not as far as its vocabulary is concerned. That it is often unable to furnish us with words for abstract ideas is a deficiency which it has in common with all languages of the Indian Archipelago, or rather with all races who have not yet risen to the height of our civilisation and development. Its richness or poverty, however, must not be judged by the existing dictionaries, or by the contents of those manuscripts which are known to us. When Malays are seated together talking about various topics of everyday life, they are not in want of words, and such conversations would, if noted down, provide our present dictionaries with a good many supplements, additions, corrections, and appendices.”1I. THE ARTICLE.There is no article in Malay, that is, there is no word which corresponds exactly with our definite articlethe, or indefinite articlea,an.Kuda, horse, andorang, man, signify equally “thehorse” and “theman.” When it is desired to specify particular objects, the pronounsini, this,itu, that, andyang,this which, or that which, are used.Sisometimes supplies the place of the definite article when a person is spoken of; assi-laki-laki, the man;si-perampuan, the woman;si-mati, the deceased;si-bongkok, the cripple.The numeralsatu, one, is often used as the indefinite article; asada sa’ orang di negri Kedah, there was a man in the state of Kedah;ini satu kuda chantek, this is a beautiful horse.II. SUBSTANTIVES.A difficulty which attends the classification of Malay words into various parts of speech, according to the system applied to European languages, consists in the number of words which, while yet unmodified by particles, are either verb or substantive, substantive or adjective, adjective or adverb, according to the context.Baniak, as an adverb, means much, as an adjective, many;jalanis either a road or to walk;panjangeither long, tall, or length, height. The same thing occurs in English in a minor degree; but with us thedifferencebetweencoldanda cold, or betweento brushanda brush, is rendered distinct by the use of the articleaand the particleto. Many Malay words must thus be treated as now substantive, now adjective, now verb, according to the position they occupy in the sentence.The noun undergoes no change to denote number, gender, or case.Number.The plural, if not sufficiently made plain from the context, is often indicated by the use of such words asbaniak, many,sumua,sa-kali-an, andsagala, all.It is also expressed sometimes by repeating the noun; asraja, a king,raja-raja, kings;tuan, master,tuan-tuan, masters.Allnouns are not capable of this duplication. As a general rule, it may be said to be mainly confined to nouns expressing persons or animate objects.When there is nothing to show whether singular or plural is meant, the number remains indefinite, but may generally be assumed to be plural. In such phrases asmenembak burong, to shoot birds,membĕli hayam, to buy fowls, the substantives are clearly plural, though nothing marks them as such. To restrict the number, and show thatone birdorone fowlis meant, it would be necessary to use the wordsatu, one, with the idiomatic termekor(lit.tail), which is always used in enumerating the lower animals; asmenembak sa’ekor burong, to shoot a bird;membĕli sa’ekor hayam, to buy a fowl.Gender.Inflexion is unknown in Malay, and gender has no place in the grammar of the language. Most nouns which signify animate things are of both genders, and the sexes are distinguished by the addition, in the case of persons, of the wordslaki-laki, male, andperampuan, female, and in other cases of the wordsjantan, male, andbetina, female.Jantanandbetinaare also applied vulgarly to persons. If an apparent exception is found in such words asputra, a prince, andputri, a princess, derivation from a foreign language may be suspected. The inflexion in the word just cited is due to the rules of Sanskrit grammar.Declension.There is nothing in the Malay language which corresponds with thecasesof a Latin, Greek, or Sanskrit noun, which are formed by changes of termination, or of a Hindustani noun, which are formed by postpositions. In Malay the cases are expressed, as in English, by prepositions:—To,ka,kepada,sama.For,akan.With,dengan,sama.From,deri,deri-pada.By,uleh.The genitive or possessive case is expressed either by the use of the wordpunyaafter the noun, or by placing the noun which signifies the possessor immediately after the thing possessed; assahaya, I;sahaya punya, of me, mine;rumah, house;rumah punya, of the house;sahaya punya rumah, orrumah sahaya, my house.The employment of the genitive withpunyais to be avoided. It is more idiomatic to sayrumah sahayathansahaya punya rumah.Substantives are of five classes:—1. Those which in their primitive form are substantives; asorang, person;rumah, house;kuda, horse;bapa, father.2. Those which are formed from verbs by prefixing the inseparable particlepe; aspe-lari, a runaway;peng-asuh, a nurse;pem-buru, a hunter;pen-churi, a thief;penyapu, a broom.3. Those which are formed by affixing the termination-anto verbs, adjectives, prepositions, and to other substantives; asmakan-an, food;manis-an, sweetness;hampir-an, proximity;trus-an, a channel;buah-an, fruit in general;laut-an, the ocean.4. Those which are formed by prefixing the particlepeand adding the termination-an; aspe-layar-an, a voyage;peng-ajar-an, instruction;pem-bunoh-an, slaying, execution;pen-dapat-an, acquisition;pel-ajar-an, lesson;per-uleh-an, possession;per-main-an, amusement.5. Those which are formed by prefixing the particleka-and adding the termination-an; aska-jadi-an, creation, origin;ka-baniak-an, generality;ka-puji-an, praise;ka-salah-an, guilt, offence;ka-korang-an, want, deficiency.III. ADJECTIVES.Adjectives, like nouns, are indeclinable. They are always placedaftertheir substantives; askuda baik, a good horse;orang jahat, a bad man; notbaik kuda,jahat orang.IV. PRONOUNS.The proper use of the personal pronouns and of the nouns which are used for them presents some difficulty.The following words may be used to express the first person singular,I:—1.Aku, I.2.Sahaya(lit. companion, slave; Sansk.sahâya).3.Hamba(lit. slave), orhamba tuan(lit. master’s slave).4.Perhamba(lit. lowest slave).5.Beta(lit. slave).6.Patek(lit. slave).7.Tĕman(lit. companion).The appropriate use of these pronouns is dependent upon the relative positions of the persons between whom communication takes place.Akuis generally used by natives among themselves. Its use implies familiarity and equality. It should not be used by Europeans addressing natives, or by natives addressing Europeans.Sahayais the ordinary polite form used by Europeans in conversation with natives of all classes, and by natives of the upper class in addressing Europeans.Ha ba,ha ba tuan, andperhambaare used by persons of inferior rank when addressing superiors.Hamba, if used by a chief or native of high rank, implies a certain affectation of modesty.The use ofbetais confined to literary composition, and it is incorrect to employ the word colloquially. It may be used by Europeans and natives.Patekis used only by natives, and by them only when addressing a person of royal blood.Tĕmanis used only in intercourse between natives of the upper class and of approximately equal rank.The first person plural iskitaorkami, we.Kitais usedwhen the person addressed is intended to be included.Kami, on the contrary, like the royal “we” in English, excludes the person addressed.Sometimes the wordorangis added without changing the signification; askita orang, we.Other forms are also in use, but they are generally provincialisms confined to particular states or districts.Sahaya apa,kita apa, andhamba tuan apaare used in Kedah, andsahaya-main Perak, forkita orang.Colloquially the personal pronouns are often omitted to avoid repetition. This is done especially in narration or description; as, for example, in the following sentence:Lepas itu jalan pula ka-kampong singgah di rumah Haji Ismail hari pun sudah pĕtang langsong pulang ka-rumah maka nasi— Afterwards (I started) again (and) walked to thekampong, (and) stopped at the house of Haji Ismail, (and then), as it was evening, (I) went straight home (and) had my dinner.Here the personal pronounIis understood throughout.The second person singular isangkau, you. Each syllable of this word may be used separately for the whole.Angorhangis much employed in Kedah and Perak, andkauin other parts of the peninsula and in Borneo. In Perakmika, in Malaccaawah, in Borneokita, and in Bataviakweh, are also used. The preceding words are used by a superior addressing an inferior, or by the common people in ordinary (not in polite) conversation.In polite conversation the use ofangkau, or of most of the words given above, must be avoided, as it is considered by Malays to be vulgar or harsh. In addressing servants or followers, the name of the individual addressed is often inserted in the sentence instead of the pronounyou; as, in addressing Ismail: When you were at the bazaar just now who was with you?—Apabila Ismail di pekan tadi siapa sama?In the same waytuan, sir, master, is employed in addressing a haji or sayyid;tuan-kuortunku, my lord, in addressing a raja;datoh, grandfather, in addressing a chief orpenghulu.Other words similarly employed are—Abang(elder brother) orwah(uncle), to a man older than the speaker.Kakak(elder sister), to a woman older than the speaker.Adek(younger brother).Inche(sir or madam), to respectable persons of either sex.Examples.When did you arrive? (to a haji)—Bila-mana tuan sudah tiba?I must ask one thing of you (to a raja)—Sahaya handak minta satu kapada tunku.If you give the order (to a chief)—Jikalau datoh suroh.Do not be angry (to an elderly man)—Jangan abang marah.Please help yourselves to water (to guests of various ranks)—Datoh-datoh, tuan-tuan, inche-inche sakalian, sila berayer.The use of the wordlu, a form of the second person singular, derived from the Chinese, and generally used by Europeans, is offensive to Malays of all classes, and is altogether to be avoided.In the pluralkamu, ye, corresponds toangkau, you, in the singular; that is to say, it is used by a superior addressing inferiors. It is found in its contracted formmuin literary composition, but seldom colloquially; aska-tahu-i uleh-mu, be it known unto ye.Kamuis sometimes used in the singular also.Third Person Singular.Diaoriya, he, she, it.Diaandiyaare used indifferently, but perhapsdiais more common in conversation andiyain literature.The plural isdia orang(and sometimes, though less commonly,iya orang), they.Another form of the third person plural ismarika-itu, they, these, or those persons; but it is found in literary compositions only, and is not used in conversation.A pronoun of the third person only used in conjunction with other words is-nia, a contraction ofinia, he, she, it.The indefinite form “one” (the French “on” and German “man”) is expressed in Malay byorang; asorang tiada bĕrani pergi sana, one dare not go there;kalau orang handak kawin, if one is about to marry.POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.The possessive pronouns,my,thy,his,our,your,their, are usually denoted by placing the personal pronoun after the word expressing the object possessed; asrumah sahaya, my house;pada pikir-an hamba, in my opinion;apa pen-chari-an angkau?what is your occupation?apa nama dia?what is his name?Possessive pronouns are also formed by the wordpunyaorampunya(lit. owning, owned) placed after the personal pronoun; asaku punya, my or mine;tuan punya suka, as you please (your pleasure);yang ampunya tanah, (he) whose land it is.Singular.Plural.My, mine,sahaya punya.Thy, thine,angkau punya.His, hers, its,dia punya.Ours,kita punya.Yours,kamu punya.Theirs,dia-orang punya.Frequently where the word “your” would be used in English Malays leave out the pronoun altogether. “Bring your gun with you,” would be correctly rendered in Malay,bawa snapang sama(lit. bring gun together), notbawa angkau punya snapang sama angkau.In literary compositionkuandmu(abbreviated forms ofakuandkamu) are affixed to the noun denoting the thing possessed; asrumah-ku, my house;bapa-mu, your father.The affix-niais used in the sense ofhis,hers, orits, as well as the other forms of the possessive pronoun; aspatah kaki-nia, his leg was broken;bauh-nia terlalu wangi, its smell is very sweet.DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.Ini, this, these.Itu, that, those.The demonstrative pronouns, like adjectives, follow the word to which they belong; asrumah ini, this house;hari ini, this day, to-day;aku ini, I myself;sakarang ini, this moment;orang itu, that man or those men;waktu itu, that time;iya itu, that is to say. It is not unusual to heariniandituplaced before the noun, but this is not idiomatic.The INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS areSiapa, who?Apa, what?Mana, who? what?Examples.Apa mahu?— What do you want?Rumah ini siapa?— Whose house is this?Siapa panggil?— Who called?Gajah mana ini?— What elephant is this?Siapa akan tahu?— Who knows?The RELATIVE PRONOUN isYang, who, which.Examples.Burong yang liyar, a bird that is wild.Raja yang adil, a king who is just.Ada yang tuah, ada yang muda, some are old and some are young (lit. there are who are old, &c.).The Menangkabau word isnen. This is often found in composition, but is seldom used in the dialect spoken in the Straits of Malacca. Example:Patek nen fakir— I who am but a beggar.REFLECTIVE PRONOUNS.Diri,sendiri, orkendiri, self, are used with or without the personal pronouns to signify myself, yourself, himself, ourselves, &c.Examples.Bunoh diri, to kill oneself.Meng-ajar diri, to take oneself to task.Hamba sendiri handak pergi, I shall go myself.Baik tuan sendiri suroh, you had better order it yourself.Kemdian turun-lah raja sendiri, afterwards the king himself descended.Dia lari masok hutan membawa diri-nia, she escaped to the jungle with her life (lit. taking herself with her).Biar-lah hamba sa-orang diri me-lawan dia, let me fight him myself alone.V. VERBS.Verbs are either primitive or derivative; the former are those which in their original signification are verbs; the latter are formed from primitive verbs, or from substantives, adjectives, or adverbs, by the application of particles.Examples of primitive verbs arepukul, to strike;makan, to eat;lari, to run; of derivative verbs,ber-kaki, to have feet, fromkaki, a foot;panjang-kan, to lengthen or make long, frompanjang, long.The primitive verb, which is generally a dissyllable, is either transitive, astangkap, to seize, or intransitive, astidor, to sleep; but a transitive sense may be given to an intransitive verb by the addition of the particle-kan, aslari,me-lari, to run;me-lari-kan, to carry off.Though the examples of primitive verbs given above are translated for the sake of convenience by our infinitive, their signification is not necessarily rendered by that mood. Favre translates them by the past participle (asambil, taken,buang, thrown2), but this is rather fanciful than accurate. The factis, that the meaning of the radical or primitive is indefinite, and depends for its precise signification on its position (with respect to other words) in the sentence, or on the particles which may be added before or after it. Thuslarimeans simply run, though syntax will show that it may mean to run, I run, he runs, run thou, &c., according to its position in the sentence.Marsden distinguishes the following moods—the imperative, the indicative or assertive, the conditional, and the infinitive or indefinite—“which admit, for the most part, of being expressed in the present, the past, and the future tenses or times.”It is not proposed, in an elementary work like the present, to go deeply into a scientific arrangement, which, however well suited to the Latin and Greek languages, is adapted with less propriety to uncultivated languages like Malay. It is believed that an explanation of the use of auxiliaries and particles, and a paradigm showing the most common changes of which the verb is susceptible, will be sufficient, and that the student may be left to gain further knowledge as to the mode of expressing variations of mood and tense as he advances in the study of the language.3Use of Particles.The inseparable affix-kanalways denotes a verb used in atransitivesense; asmen-jalan-kan, to cause to walk. It is an abbreviation of the prepositionakan. Thusbuat-kan(to do) means to do somethingto(akan) something or somebody.The inseparable affix-ialso denotes the transitive sense; askras-i, to oppress (fromkras, hard);halus-i, to treat carefully (fromhalus, fine, close).The inseparable prefixber-(bel-,be-) is the mark of a verb which expresses a state or condition of being; asber-jalan, to walk, or to be in the act of walking;ber-wang, to have money;ber-misei, to wear moustaches;ber-pukul, to strike,i.e., to be in the act or condition of striking (not to strike another,transitive, which would be expressed bypukul-orme-mukul-kan).The inseparable prefixme-(in all its various forms,mem,meng,men, andmeny) is the mark of a verb which expresses an action; asmen-jalan-kan, to cause to walk,mem-buat, to make;menyakit-kan, to afflict (fromsakit);meng-ambil, to take.According as the primitive verb has a transitive or intransitive sense, the derivative verbs formed from it will takeber-orme-as the case may be. Thus fromadu, to sleep, is formedber-adu, notmeng-adu; while fromadu, to complain, is formedmeng-adu, notber-adu.Often both particles may be used, and both transitive and intransitive derivative verbs may be formed from the same primitive. Thus fromtaroh, to put, are formedmenaroh, to put (the act of a person who puts), andber-taroh, to bet (the condition of a person who stakes). Fromtidor, to sleep, are formedmenidor-kan, to put to sleep, andber-tidor, to be sleeping or lying down; and fromajar, instruct,meng-ajar, to teach (impart instruction), andbel-ajar, to learn (get instruction).Mem-bawa, to bring,mem-bunoh, to kill, andme-makan, to eat, are formed frombawa,bunoh, andmakanrespectively, which, as they express actions, not states, do not take the prefixber-.Ber-gantongis to hang (intransitive), that is, to be in a state or condition of hanging;meng-gantong-kanis to hang (transitive), that is, to perform the action of hanging something.The particleper-(Sansk.pra), a prefix used with transitive verbs, does not seem always to effect a change in the sense.It is used more generally in literature than in the colloquial dialects, and seems to be introduced frequently for the sake of euphony only. The difference, for instance, betweenmeng-himpun-kan, to assemble, to collect persons together, andmem-per-himpun-kan, to cause persons to collect together, is not very marked. No general rule applicable to all transitive verbs can be laid down for the use of this form withmem-per-; practice and experience must form the only guide.Auxiliaries.The auxiliary verbs and adverbs are—Ada, is, was, are, were.Sudah, was, did, has been.Tĕlah, was, did, has been.Mahu, will, shall, would, must.Handak, will, shall, would, must, is, was, or were about to.Jadi, is, was, become, became.PARADIGMS.Tidor, sleep.Sahaya tidor, I sleep, or I was sleeping.Tidor-lah dia, he was sleeping or slept.Ber-tidor, asleep, sleeping.Sahaya sudah tidor, I have slept.Dia telah tidor, he had slept.Sahaya maku tidor, I will sleep, or I want to sleep.Sahaya handak tidor, I shall sleep, or I am about to sleep.Dia akan tidor, he will sleep or is going to sleep.Tidor-lah, sleep thou.Mahu-lak angkau tidor, you must sleep.Biar iya tidor, let him sleep.Handak-lah di-tidor-nia, it must be slept by him,i.e., he intends to sleep.Menidor-kanormenidor-i, to lay down (transitive).Mem-per-tidor-kanormem-per-tidor-i, to cause to sleep.Penidor, a soporific; that which causes to sleep.Penidor-an, act of causing to sleep.Per-tidor-an, that which belongs to sleep; a bed.Ka-tidor-an, the act of sleeping; there was sleeping on the part of——.Sa-ka-tidor-an, the act of sleeping with another; there was sleeping with——.Si-tidor, the sleeper.Ter-tidor, gone to sleep.Lari, run.Sahaya lari, I run, or I was running.Lari-lah dia, he ran, or was running.Ber-lari, run, running.Ber-lari-lari, running about incessantly.Sahaya sudah lari, I have or had run.Dia telah lari, he had run.Sahaya mahu lari, I will run, or I want to run.Sahaya handak lari, I will run, or I am about to run.Dia akan lari, he will run.Lari-lah, run thou.Mahu lah angkau lari, you must run.Biar iya lari, let him run.Handak-lah di lari-nia, it must be run by him,i.e., he intends to run.Me-lari-kan, to carry off (transitive).Lari-an, a running, a course.Ber-lari-an, the act of running; there was running on the part of——.Ber-lari-lari-an, incessant running; running to and fro; there was incessant running on the part of——.Ka-lari-an, flight; act of running.Pe-lari, a runaway, a fugitive.Pe-lari-an, flight.Di-lari-kan(passive), is, are, was, were, have, has, or had been run away with.Di-lari-kan-nia, is, are, was, were, have, has, or had been run away with by him, her, or them.Ter-lari, run, run away (past).Bawa lari, to carry off, run off with. (Herelariis the past participle afterbawa, to take, bring, and may be used with that verb in all its forms.)Ada, be.Sahaya ada, I am or was.Ber-ada, have (possess.), has or had.Meng-ada, to cause to be, to make, invent.Sudah ada, have got, have been.Telah ada, was, have been.Mahu ada, must be.Meng-ada-ngada, to make or invent repeatedly.Meng-ada kan, to create, to cause to exist.Ber-ada-kan, possess, own.Mem-per-ada-kan, to produce, to cause to exist.Ter-ada-kan, produced, created.Ada-an, being, existence.Ka-ada-an, state, existence.Bawa, bring.Sahaya bawa, I bring or was bringing.Mem-bawa, bring, to bring.Sudah bawa, has brought.Telah bawa, had brought.Mahu bawa, will or must bring.Aku handak bawa, I will bring, or am about to bring.Bawa-lah, bring thou.Biar iya bawa, let him bring.Mem-bawa-kanormem-bawa-i, to cause to be brought or taken.Pem-bawa, a bringer.Bawa-an, that which is brought; a burden.Pem-bawa-an, act of bringing, transport.Di-bawaanddi-bawa-kan, brought, passive.Di-bawa-niaanddi-bawa-kan-nia, is, are, was, were, have, has, or had been brought by him, her, or them.Ter-bawa, brought.Ambil, take.Sahaya ambil, I take.Meng ambil, take, to take.Sudah ambil, has or had taken.Telah ambil, had taken.Mahu ambil, will or must take.Handak ambil, shall take or about to take.Ambil-lah, take thou.Mahu-lah angkau ambil, you must take.Biar iya ambil, let him take.Handak-lah di ambil-nia, he must take or intends to take.Meng-ambil-kan, to take or cause to take.Ambil-an, a thing taken.Peng-ambil-an, the act of taking.Di-ambilordi-ambil-kan, is or was, &c., taken (passive).Di-ambil-niaordi-ambil-kan-nia, is or was. &c., taken by him, her, or them.Ter-ambil, taken, having been taken.Suroh, order.Sehaya suroh, I order.Menyuroh, order, to order.Sudah suroh, has ordered.Telah suroh, had ordered.Mahu suroh, will or must order.Handak suroh, shall order or about to order.Suroh-lah, order thou.Mahu-lah angkau suroh, you must order.Biar iya suroh, let him order.Handak-lah di suroh-nia, he must order or intends to order.Menyuroh-kan, to issue orders, to commission.Pe-surohandpenyuroh, one who is commissioned; a messenger.Penyuroh-an, an order, command; the act of commanding.Suroh-suroh-an, people who are at the orders or command of another.Suroh-menyuroh, to issue orders incessantly.Di-surohordi-suroh-kan, is or was, &c., ordered.Di-suroh-niaordi-suroh-kan-nia, is, or was, &c., ordered by him, her, or them.Ter-suroh, ordered, having been ordered.The facts to be derived from a careful study of the foregoing examples may be summarised as follows:—1st. The tense of the verb standing alone is indefinite. It may be present, imperfect, present or past, &c., according to the context; asdia ada, he is;tatkala sahaya ada di sana,when I was there;kalau sahaya ada dĕkat, if I am, should be, were, or had been near. This applies equally to the forms created by prefixingber-andme-,mem-,men-,meng-,meny-to the radical. Examples:kita ber-jalan, weareorwerewalking;nanti sampei sahaya ber-balik, wait till Ishall havereturned;mati-mati ber-minyak, if youshoulduse oil;raja meng-angkat kalmarin dahulu, the rajasetout the day before yesterday.2d. The Imperfect may sometimes be expressed by making the verb, followed by the particle-lah, precede the pronoun; asdiam-lah dia orang, they were silent;maka pergi-lah raja kapada tuan putri, and the king went to the princess.3d.Past.— Though the past may be expressed by the primitive verb, as shown above, if the context shows that the act spoken of is past, it is, nevertheless, more emphatically marked by the use of the auxiliariessudahandtĕlah, has or had; asdia sudah tidor, he has gone to sleep;telah lari-lah pe-rompah sumua, the pirates have (or had) all run away.4th.Future.— The verb standing alone may express the future when there is something in the sentence which indicates that a future tense is meant, such as the word “to-morrow” or “hereafter;” asesok hari kita ber-pĕrang pula, to-morrow we shall be fighting again.The future is also expressed by the auxiliariesmahuandhandak; asdia mahu jual, he will sell it;tiada mahu dia datang, he would not come;kapal handak masok sungei, a ship is about to enter the river;di-panggil-nia orang-besar-besar mushawarat handak di-buat meligei, he summoned the chiefs to consult about building a palace.Another mode of forming the future is by the wordnanti(lit. wait), placed, like the French verballer, before the verb; assahaya nanti chahari,je vais chercher, I am going to seek, orj’irai chercher, I shall go to seek.The prepositionakan, in order to, in order that, is sometimes used to convey the sense of the future; aspenyakit itu tiada akan semboh, that disease is not to be cured;siapa akantahu?who shall know? (= who can tell?);jikalau raja yang anyaya naraka akan tampat-nia, if a king is unjust hell will be his place hereafter.5th.Imperative.— To convey an order or command the radical is used either by itself or with the affix-lah;kamu, thou, being either expressed or understood. The particle adds additional emphasis to the command. Examples:pergi, go;pergi-lah, be off, get away;ka-luarorka-luar-lah, go out;ka-luar-kan-lah, take (it) out, or turn (him) out.Mahuandhandakwith the affix-lahsignify must; asmahu-lah kamu turut, ye must obey;handak-lah ayam yang puteh, there must be a fowl that is white, or, the fowl must be a white one;handak-lah segala pegawei raja itu duduk dengan adab dan diam, the king’s officers must sit with reverence and in silence.The third person of the imperative mood, which we express by “let him,” may be rendered in Malay by the use of the wordbiarorbiar-lah, with the verb in the manner shown by the following examples:—Biar-lah dia masok, let him come in;biar-lah aku mati, let me die.6th. From many verbs are formed verbal nouns by prefixing the particlepe-(peng,pem,pen,peny) to the radical. This prefix operates like the syllable-erin such words as robber, purchaser, teacher; aschuri, to steal;pen-churi, a robber;bĕli, to buy;pem-bĕli, a purchaser;ajar, to teach;peng-ajar, a teacher. Substantives of this kind and others formed from the verb with the particleska-and-anhave already been noticed under the head of the Substantive. But the form arrived at by prefixing to the simple verb the particleka-and annexing the particle-anis not merely a noun, but, as Marsden says, “a gerund in form as well as in sense, being in fact a verbal noun infinitively applied in construction;” as,ka-dengar-an sampei Sayong, it was to be heard as far as Sayong;tiada ka-tahu-an, not to be understood;mata-hari tiada ka-lihat-an sebab ka-lindong-an-lah sayap-nia, the sun was not to be seen by reason of the shadowing of its wings.7th.Passive.—In Malay the passive voice is denoted by the particledi-prefixed to the verb. The place of the nouns which express the agent and subject respectively will be understood from the following examples:—Hamba di-pukul orang, I was beaten by men.Orang di-pukul hamba, the men were beaten by me.Rumah di-makan api, the house was consumed by fire.Api di-padam-kan orang, the fire was extinguished by men.Here the personal pronoun or other agent follows the verb and the subject precedes it.Sometimes the preposition “by” finds an equivalent in Malay, the wordulehbeing expressed instead of being understood (as in the preceding sentences). Examples:—Maka uleh baginda pun di-sambut dengan seperti‘adat, they were received by the king with the customary ceremony.Di-titah-kan-lah uleh baginda, it was commanded by the king.The passive participle is formed by prefixing to the verb the inseparable particleter-; aster-pukul, struck;ter-tulis, written. Whenter-precedesper-, one of the particles drops its final letter; aste-per-sayang, compassionated;ter-pe-lanting, sent flying.Other forms of the Verb.— In the preceding paradigms generally those changes have been inserted which result from the application of inseparable particles. But there are moods and tenses of the English verb which are translatable in Malay, though they are not included above because they involve the use of other words, which, though united to the verb in construction, do not form part of it.Conditional or Potential.— In expressing a conditional or potential sense the verb undergoes no change, though following such conjunctions as “if,” “provided that,” “in order that;” asjika tuan datang, if you come;kalau raja me-larang, if the king should forbid;dapat kami ber-untong, provided we are successful;sapaya jangan hamba kĕna rugi, in order that I may not incur a loss;agar sapaya anak-nia menjadi ‘alim, in order that his children may become learned.Optative.— An optative sense is generally indicated by suchwords asapa-lah,apa-lah kira-nia, prithee, expressions of entreaty, orgarangan, forsooth, conveying the notion of a doubt or query; asbarang di-sampei-kan Allah apa-lah kira-nia, may God in his goodness cause it to arrive. But sometimes these are understood; asdi-bri Allah kamarau sadikit, may God grant a little fair weather.Participle Present.— Continuity or existing duration of action is often expressed by the use of such words aslagi, still more,sambil,seraya, andserla, whilst at the same time the verb remains unaltered in form; aslagi datang, coming;lagi tidor, sleeping or still asleep;ber-jalan sambil ber-sinnyum, walked on smiling;meniambah serta meniapu ayer mata-nia, made obeisance, at the same time wiping away her tears.Tengah, half, middle, is often used with the verb in a similar way; asdia tengah makan nasi, he was in the act of eating his dinner.VI. ADVERBS.Adverbs in Malay are not distinguished by any prevailing termination corresponding to the English-lyor the French-ment. Many adjectives and some prepositions are used adverbially.The following are some of the most useful adverbs:—Adverbs of Time.sakarang, now.tadi, just now.dahulu, before, formerly.sa’buntar, presently.bĕlum, not yet.pagi-pagi, early.esok,besok, to-morrow.kalmarin,4yesterday.tatkala,sa-katika, when (relative).kemdian, afterwards.pernah, ever.ta’pernah, never.sĕdang, while.kadang, sometimes.apa-bila,apa-kala,bila-mana,bila, when? (interrogative).kalmarin dahulu, the day before yesterday.lusa, the day after to-morrow.tulat, the third day from this.Adverbs of Place.sini,ka-mari, here.situ,sana,nun, there.mana, where, wherever (rel.).di-mana, where? (inter.).hampir, near, nearly.luar, outside.dalam, inside.sabĕrang, across.jauh, far.atas, above.bawah, below.sabĕlah, beside.balik, behind.dĕkat, near.Miscellaneous.bagini, like this.bagitu, like that.bageimana, how?ya, yes.bukan, no, not.sahaja, only.makin, so much the more.naschaya, certainly.tidak, no.tentu, certainly.Adverbs expressing intensity will be found enumerated in Lesson 4.Among the examples above given several are also prepositions, and will be found under that heading.VII. PREPOSITIONS.The principal prepositions of place and motion aredi, at, in, on;ka, to, towards;deri, from. A great many so-called prepositions are formed from these three compounded with certain other words, such as:—di-atas, on the top of.ka-atas, to the top of.deri-atas, from the top of.di-dalam, in the interior of.ka-dalam, to the interior of.deri-dalam, from the interior of.di-bĕlakang, at the back of.ka-bĕlakang, to the back of.deri-bĕlakang, from the back of.di-sabĕrang, on the farther side of.ka-sabĕrang, to the farther side of.deri-sabĕrang, from the farther side of.di-bawah, at the bottom of.ka-bawah, to the bottom of.deri-bawah, from the bottom of.di-hadap-an, in front of.ka-hadap-an, to the front of.deri-hadap-an, from the front of.di-luar, at the outside of.ka-luar, to the outside of.deri-luar, from the outside of.These twenty-one words are used like prepositions, and are often classified as such, but the true prepositions are the three initial words.Atas,bawah,dalam,hadap-an,bĕlakang,luar, andsabĕranghere are really substantives governed by the prepositionsdi,ka, andderi. Some of these words aptly illustrate the difficulty of classifying Malay words according to the parts of speech usually recognised by grammarians.Dalam, for instance, has already been classified in the preceding section as an adverb. It is also substantive, adjective, and preposition.Dalam(subs.), interior, depth; aspenghulu dalam, the guardian of the interior (inner apartments);dalam-nia tiga depa, its depth is three fathoms.Dalam(adj.), deep; aster-lalu dalam sungei ini, this river is very deep.Dalam(adv.), inside; asada orang dalam, there are people inside.Dalam(prep.), in; askain yang dalam gĕdong itu, cloth in that warehouse.In Malay a substantive in the possessive case immediately follows the substantive denoting the possessor (supra, p. 47). In the sentencesbĕlakang gunong, the back of the mountain;hadap-an raja, the presence of the king;sabĕrang sungei, the farther side of the river, all the words are substantives,gunong,raja, andsungeibeing in the possessive case.Now let the prepositionsdi,ka, andderibe added to these sentences.Di-bĕlakang gunong, at the back of the mountain, may be more shortly translatedbehindthe mountain; soka-hadap-an rajamay be renderedbeforethe king, andderi-sabĕrang sungeifrom beyondthe river.Here, though the purport of the Malay phrasesdi-bĕlakang,ka-hadap-an, andderi-sabĕrangare correctly rendered by Englishprepositions, only the first portion of each phrase is a Malay preposition.Of the remaining prepositions the following are the chief:—pada,kapada, at, to, on, towards.deri-pada, from, than.akan, to, for, as to, as for.uleh, by.atas, on, upon.datang,sampei,hingga,until, as far as.antara, between.samantara, until.ganti, instead of.balik, behind.serta, with.sama, with, to.dengan, with.dalam, in, into.lĕpas, after.karana,krana,sebab,on account of.sa-kadar, according to.demei, by.dĕkat, near.tentang, concerning, opposite.bagi, to.trus, through.VIII. CONJUNCTIONS.The following list includes the most useful of the conjunctions in Malay:—dan, and.kalau,jika,jikalau,if.antah,kunun,perhaps.sapaya, in order that.pula, also, again.sambil,selang,whilst.seraya, at the same time.tambah-an, furthermore.karana,sĕbab,because.serta, and, also.asal-kan, provided that.atau, or.tĕtapi, but.me-lain-kan, except.hania, but, except.yang, that.kĕlak, forsooth.juga,jua, also.sahaja, only.lagi, again, even.lagi pula, again, too.lagi pun, besides, also.saperti, as, like.laksana,bagei,like.iya-itu, that is to say.lamun-kan, although.There are also a number of conjunctions which are met with almost exclusively in the written language, and which it would be pedantic to use in conversation. Of such are:—maka,bahwa,ḥata,shahadan, seldom necessary to the sense, and not always requiring translation. They answer in some degree to such words as “now,” “next,” “but,” “then,” “again,” “so.”sa-ber-mula, first, now.sa-bagei-lagi, further, again.arkian, now, then.agar, in order that.y‘ani, that is to say.wab‘adahu,5and then, afterwards.walakin(Arab.wa, andlakin, but), but, though, nevertheless.IX. INTERJECTIONS.The interjections in most common use are:—hei!O!ya!O! (Arabic).aho!O! (Sansk.).aduh!aduhi!oh! alas! (pain, lamentation).niah!niah-lah!be off! begone!ai!wah!oh! alas! (astonishment or affliction).ayo!ayohi!ah! (affection).cheh!fie!wayi!alas!demei Allah!by God!nah!there! take it!jum!6forwards!Many other words are used like interjections; such askasi-han(lit. affection), what a pity!sayang(lit. concern), ’tis pity! alas!karam(lit. wrecked), woe to thee!me-rachun(may I be poisoned), no! (emphatic denial), &c., &c.A number of Arabic expressions common to all Muhammadans in all parts of the world are used by Malays, such asIn sháa-lláh, if it be the will of God;Alláhu a‘alam, God is all-knowing;Astaghfir alláh, I beg forgiveness of God;Wa-llahiandWa-llah, by God!Yá rabb, O Lord!Bi-smi-llah, in the name of God!El-ḥamdu li-llah, praise be to God!Alláhu akbar, God is most great.X. NUMERALS.The numerals in Malay are exceedingly simple. The first ten are:—1.sa,satu,suatu, one.2.dua, two.3.tiga, three.4.ampat, four.5.lima, five.6.anam, six.7.tujoh, seven.8.dĕlapan, eight.9.sambilan, nine.10.sapuloh, ten.From eleven to nineteen inclusive the numerals are formed from the digits with the terminationbĕlas:—11.sa-bĕlas, eleven.12.dua-bĕlas, twelve.13.tiga-bĕlas, thirteen.14.ampat-bĕlas, fourteen.15.lima-bĕlas, fifteen.16.anam-bĕlas, sixteen.17.tujoh-bĕlas, seventeen.18.dĕlapan-bĕlas, eighteen.19.sambilan-bĕlas, nineteen.20.dua-puloh, twenty.Multiples of ten up to ninety inclusive have the terminationpuloh, ten:—20.dua-puloh, twenty.30.tiga-puloh, thirty.40.ampat-puloh, forty.50.lima-puloh, fifty.60.anam-puloh, sixty.70.tujoh-puloh, seventy.80.dĕlapan-puloh, eighty.90.sambilan-puloh, ninety.The intermediate numbers are formed simply by adding the units; as—21.dua-puloh-satu, twenty-one.32.tiga-puloh-dua, thirty-two.43.ampat-puloh-tiga, forty-three.54.lima-puloh-ampat, fifty-four.65.anam-puloh-lima, sixty-five.76.tujoh-puloh-anam, seventy-six.87.dĕlapan-puloh-tujoh, eighty-seven.98.sambilan-puloh-dĕlapan, ninety-eight.Above a hundred the numbers proceed with equal regularity:—100.sa-ratus, one hundred.200.dua-ratus, two hundred.300.tiga-ratus, three hundred.400.ampat-ratus, four hundred.1000.sa-ribu, one thousand.2000.dua-ribu, two thousand.3000.tiga-ribu, three thousand.4000.ampat-ribu, four thousand.Any sum, however great, may be expressed by the numerals in juxtaposition without the insertion of a conjunction; as,sa-ribu-dĕlapan-ratus-tujoh-puloh-sambilan, one thousand eight hundred (and) seventy nine, 1879.Certain terms for high numbers have been borrowed from the Sanskrit language and misapplied in adoption, namely,laḳsa(Sansk.laksha, 100,000),keti(Sansk.koṭi, 10,000,000), andjuta(Sansk.ayuta, 10,000).The numbers represented by these words in Malay aresa-laḳsa, ten thousand;sa-keti, one hundred thousand;sa-juta, one million.In reckoning the numbers from 20 to 30,lekor, a score, is sometimes used instead ofdua-puloh(especially in mentioning dates), but in that case the unit precedes instead of following the decimal; assa-lekor, twenty-one;dua-lekor, twenty-two;tiga-lekor, twenty-three, &c.To express a quantity which approaches what we call a round number, it is sometimes convenient to state the latter qualified by the figure in which it is deficient, as is done in the old-fashioned phrase “forty stripes save one.” Thus, instead ofsambilan-puloh-dĕlapan, ninety-eight, the phrasekorang dua sa-ratus, one hundred save two, may be used.The use of the wordtengah, half, before a numeral serves in the same way to reduce it by half of one. Thus,tengah duasignifies “one and a half,” or “two, less half a one,” as if the full phrase werekorang sa-tengah dua; sotengah tiga-puloh, twenty-five (lit. “three tens save half”);tengah lima ratus, four hundred and fifty (lit. “five hundreds save half”).Ordinal Numbers.pertama(Sansk.prathama), first.ka-dua, second.ka-tiga, third.ka-sa-bĕlas, eleventh.ka-dua-puloh, twentieth.ka-sa-ratus, hundredth.The wordyangplaced before ordinals corresponds to the definite article in English; asyang pertama, the first;yang ka-dua, the second;yang ka-sa-ribu, the thousandth.Fractional Numbers.Tengah,sa-tengah, half;suku,sa-suku, quarter;sa-per-dua, one-half;sa-per-tiga, one-third;dua-per-tiga, two-thirds;tiga-per-ampat, three-fourths. Similar fractions may be formed with other numbers by placing the particleperbetween the dividend and the divisor.Collective Numbers.Phrases like “a score,” “a dozen,” “a couple,” are formed in Malay by the use of the particleberwith the numeral; as—ber-dua, the two, or the pair.ber-tiga, the three.ber-puloh-puloh, by tens.be-ratus-ratus, by hundreds.be-ribu-ribu, by thousands.The wordganda, which in Hindustani is a collective numeral meaning “a four,” is used in Malay in conjunction with numerals in a sense corresponding to the English word “times;” asdua-ganda, double, twice;tiga-ganda, triple, three times.Numeral Co-Efficients.In Malay, as in Burmese, Siamese, and Chinese, “there exists a set of specific and technical terms, called by the grammariansnumeral affixes, some one or other of which is always used as a co-efficient to the numeral, the term being selected according to the class under which the object falls.”7The use of these terms will be best understood by comparing it with the analogous use in English of such phrases as so manyheadof cattle; so manyfileof soldiers; so manysailof ships; so manystandof rifles.1.Orang(person or persons) is introduced in the enumeration of mankind; asChina tiga orang, Malayu sa’orang, three Chinese and a Malay;budak dua orang, two children.2.Ekor(tail) is employed in speaking of animals; assa-ekor kuching, a cat;kuda bĕlang dua ekor, two piebald horses;ikan kechil-kechil barang lima anam ekor, about five or six small fish.3.Buah(fruit) is applied to fruit, houses, ships, places, &c.; assa-buah rumah, a house;sa-buah nĕgri, a town or kingdom;lima buah kapal, five ships.4.Biji(seed) is applied to small objects more or less round; asbuah manggis lima-puloh biji, fifty mangostins;ampat biji telor, four eggs;nior muda sa-biji, one green cocoa-nut.5.Haleiorlei, to tenuous objects, such as hair, feathers, leaves, wearing apparel, &c.; asbulu sa-lei, a feather;kain Palembang sa-puloh halei, ten Palembang sarongs.6.Batang(stem), to long objects; aslembing dua batang, two spears;tiang ampat batang, four posts.7.Puchuk(young shoot), to letters, muskets, cannon, elephants’ tusks, &c.; astiga puchuk surat, three letters;sa-puchuk gading, one tusk:snapang lima puchuk, five muskets.8.Keping(piece, slice), to pieces of wood, metal, &c.; aspapan sa-keping, a plank;timah tiga-puloh keping, thirty slabs of tin.9.Tangga(ladder) andpintu(door), to houses; asrumah dua tangga, two houses;rumah batu anam pintu, six brick houses.10.Lapis(fold), to clothing; askapan sa-lapis, a shroud.11.Rawan, to nets and cordage; aspukut sa-rawan, a seine net;jala dua rawan, two casting nets.12.Bilah, to cutting weapons; askris sa-bilah, one kris;pĕdang lima bilah, five swords.13.Buntoh, to rings, fish-hooks, &c.; askail sa-buntoh, a fish-hook;chinchin tiga buntoh, three rings.14.Bidang, to things spread out; asdestar sa-bidang, one head-cloth.15.Butir, to fruit, seeds, and other small round objects; asnior sa-butir, a cocoa-nut;mutiara sa-butir, a pearl.There are many other similar idiomatic terms, examples of which will be given in the more advanced lessons farther on.XI.PARTICLES.Most of the particles have been noticed in speaking of the verb, but there are three or four which require special mention.Lahis affixed to words of all kinds, sometimes merely for the sake of euphony, but more frequently as a particle of intensity.In the sentenceada-lah kapada suatu hari, it happened on a certain day,lahis simply expletive; but in the sentencedia-lah yang buat, it washewho did it, the particle serves to emphasise the worddia. The latter use of the particlelahis exemplified by its frequent employment to emphasise a command; asmari-lah, come;pergi-lah, go.Kahis the interrogative particle. When affixed to words it is the sign of a question or a doubt; asitu-kah atau lain-kah?is it that or another?Antah sunggoh-kah atau tidak, it is doubtful whether it be true or not.Tahis also an interrogative particle, but of less general use thankah.Apa-tah?what else? is a common phrase indicating assent.Punis annexed to all kinds of words, sometimes merely to give roundness to a phrase, sometimes with the sense of “too,” or “also” (where the sentence is affirmative), or “nor,” “neither” (where it is negative); asmaka iya-pun datang, then he came;aku pun mahu, I too want it;siyang pun tidak malam pun tidak, it was neither day nor night.Part I: Footnotes1.Klinkert, Eenige ophelderingen omtrent de Maleische Spreekwoorden en spreekwijzen.2.Grammaire de la Langue Malaise, 56.3.“It is difficult to eradicate the belief that the forms in which we think are identical with the thought itself; and it is only linguistic science that enables us to see that many of the forms of grammar which we imagine necessary and universal are, after all, but accidental and restricted in use. The cases of Latin and Greek do not exist in the majority of languages; the Polynesian dialects have no true verbs; and the Esquimaux gets on well enough without ‘the parts of speech’ that figure so largely in our own grammars.” —Sayce, Introduction to the Science of Language, ii. 328.4.In Perakkalmarinmeans “formerly.”Pĕtangis “yesterday.”5.Arabicwa, and,b‘adahu, afterwards—often used by a pleonasm withkemdian, afterwards;wab‘adahu kemdian deri-pada itu, and after that.6.This is a Kedah word.Mah!is used in the same sense in Perak.7.Col. Yule, Journ. Anthropol. Inst. Feb. 1880. This peculiarity in the Indo-Chinese languages has attracted much attention among ethnologists. See Peschel, Races of Man, 117; Tylor, Early History of Mankind, 208; Bunsen’s Universal History, i. 409.
Theobject of this work is to facilitate the acquisition of an elementary knowledge of the Malay language. It is believed also that some of the hints and suggestions which it contains will be of use to those who already have a colloquial knowledge of Malay, especially if this has been acquired from Indian or Chinese settlers in the Straits of Malacca, not from Malays themselves.
The Roman character is used throughout, but a knowledge of the native character can hardly be dispensed with by those who aim at a thorough acquaintance with the language. As it abounds in idiomatic expressions, the study of native compositions is most important, and these are generally to be found only in the Malay character. Little attempt is made at scientific arrangement. In dealing with the various parts of speech, technical terms are as far as possible avoided, and reliance is placed rather on illustrations than abstract rules. The student should divest himself of the expectation that sentences may be formed in Malay on principles of construction which govern composition in European languages. An elementary knowledge of Malay is so easily acquired that a learner soon begins to construct sentences, and the tendency, of course, is to reproduce the phrases of his own language with words of the new one. He may thus succeed in making himself intelligible, but it need hardly be said that he does not speak the language of the natives. Correctness ofexpression cannot be entirely learnt from grammars. In this manual cautions and hints will be given, and, where possible, absolute rules will be laid down, but these must not be regarded as complete. Instruction derived from books must be supplemented by constant practice in speakingwith Malays—not with Malay-speaking Asiatics of other nationalities—before idioms can be mastered. Until some facility in framing sentences according to native idioms has been attained, and it has been perceived how shades of meaning may be conveyed by emphasis, or by the position of a word in the sentence, the European will find it difficult to convey his ideas in Malay, even with a considerable vocabulary of words at his disposal. A Dutch author justly remarks:— “Malay is called a poor language, and so it is, but not so much so as is often imagined, certainly not as far as its vocabulary is concerned. That it is often unable to furnish us with words for abstract ideas is a deficiency which it has in common with all languages of the Indian Archipelago, or rather with all races who have not yet risen to the height of our civilisation and development. Its richness or poverty, however, must not be judged by the existing dictionaries, or by the contents of those manuscripts which are known to us. When Malays are seated together talking about various topics of everyday life, they are not in want of words, and such conversations would, if noted down, provide our present dictionaries with a good many supplements, additions, corrections, and appendices.”1
There is no article in Malay, that is, there is no word which corresponds exactly with our definite articlethe, or indefinite articlea,an.Kuda, horse, andorang, man, signify equally “thehorse” and “theman.” When it is desired to specify particular objects, the pronounsini, this,itu, that, andyang,this which, or that which, are used.Sisometimes supplies the place of the definite article when a person is spoken of; assi-laki-laki, the man;si-perampuan, the woman;si-mati, the deceased;si-bongkok, the cripple.
The numeralsatu, one, is often used as the indefinite article; asada sa’ orang di negri Kedah, there was a man in the state of Kedah;ini satu kuda chantek, this is a beautiful horse.
A difficulty which attends the classification of Malay words into various parts of speech, according to the system applied to European languages, consists in the number of words which, while yet unmodified by particles, are either verb or substantive, substantive or adjective, adjective or adverb, according to the context.Baniak, as an adverb, means much, as an adjective, many;jalanis either a road or to walk;panjangeither long, tall, or length, height. The same thing occurs in English in a minor degree; but with us thedifferencebetweencoldanda cold, or betweento brushanda brush, is rendered distinct by the use of the articleaand the particleto. Many Malay words must thus be treated as now substantive, now adjective, now verb, according to the position they occupy in the sentence.
The noun undergoes no change to denote number, gender, or case.
The plural, if not sufficiently made plain from the context, is often indicated by the use of such words asbaniak, many,sumua,sa-kali-an, andsagala, all.
It is also expressed sometimes by repeating the noun; asraja, a king,raja-raja, kings;tuan, master,tuan-tuan, masters.Allnouns are not capable of this duplication. As a general rule, it may be said to be mainly confined to nouns expressing persons or animate objects.
When there is nothing to show whether singular or plural is meant, the number remains indefinite, but may generally be assumed to be plural. In such phrases asmenembak burong, to shoot birds,membĕli hayam, to buy fowls, the substantives are clearly plural, though nothing marks them as such. To restrict the number, and show thatone birdorone fowlis meant, it would be necessary to use the wordsatu, one, with the idiomatic termekor(lit.tail), which is always used in enumerating the lower animals; asmenembak sa’ekor burong, to shoot a bird;membĕli sa’ekor hayam, to buy a fowl.
Inflexion is unknown in Malay, and gender has no place in the grammar of the language. Most nouns which signify animate things are of both genders, and the sexes are distinguished by the addition, in the case of persons, of the wordslaki-laki, male, andperampuan, female, and in other cases of the wordsjantan, male, andbetina, female.Jantanandbetinaare also applied vulgarly to persons. If an apparent exception is found in such words asputra, a prince, andputri, a princess, derivation from a foreign language may be suspected. The inflexion in the word just cited is due to the rules of Sanskrit grammar.
There is nothing in the Malay language which corresponds with thecasesof a Latin, Greek, or Sanskrit noun, which are formed by changes of termination, or of a Hindustani noun, which are formed by postpositions. In Malay the cases are expressed, as in English, by prepositions:—
To,ka,kepada,sama.For,akan.With,dengan,sama.From,deri,deri-pada.By,uleh.
The genitive or possessive case is expressed either by the use of the wordpunyaafter the noun, or by placing the noun which signifies the possessor immediately after the thing possessed; assahaya, I;sahaya punya, of me, mine;rumah, house;rumah punya, of the house;sahaya punya rumah, orrumah sahaya, my house.
The employment of the genitive withpunyais to be avoided. It is more idiomatic to sayrumah sahayathansahaya punya rumah.
Substantives are of five classes:—
1. Those which in their primitive form are substantives; asorang, person;rumah, house;kuda, horse;bapa, father.
2. Those which are formed from verbs by prefixing the inseparable particlepe; aspe-lari, a runaway;peng-asuh, a nurse;pem-buru, a hunter;pen-churi, a thief;penyapu, a broom.
3. Those which are formed by affixing the termination-anto verbs, adjectives, prepositions, and to other substantives; asmakan-an, food;manis-an, sweetness;hampir-an, proximity;trus-an, a channel;buah-an, fruit in general;laut-an, the ocean.
4. Those which are formed by prefixing the particlepeand adding the termination-an; aspe-layar-an, a voyage;peng-ajar-an, instruction;pem-bunoh-an, slaying, execution;pen-dapat-an, acquisition;pel-ajar-an, lesson;per-uleh-an, possession;per-main-an, amusement.
5. Those which are formed by prefixing the particleka-and adding the termination-an; aska-jadi-an, creation, origin;ka-baniak-an, generality;ka-puji-an, praise;ka-salah-an, guilt, offence;ka-korang-an, want, deficiency.
Adjectives, like nouns, are indeclinable. They are always placedaftertheir substantives; askuda baik, a good horse;orang jahat, a bad man; notbaik kuda,jahat orang.
The proper use of the personal pronouns and of the nouns which are used for them presents some difficulty.
The following words may be used to express the first person singular,I:—
1.Aku, I.2.Sahaya(lit. companion, slave; Sansk.sahâya).3.Hamba(lit. slave), orhamba tuan(lit. master’s slave).4.Perhamba(lit. lowest slave).5.Beta(lit. slave).6.Patek(lit. slave).7.Tĕman(lit. companion).
1.Aku, I.
2.Sahaya(lit. companion, slave; Sansk.sahâya).
3.Hamba(lit. slave), orhamba tuan(lit. master’s slave).
4.Perhamba(lit. lowest slave).
5.Beta(lit. slave).
6.Patek(lit. slave).
7.Tĕman(lit. companion).
The appropriate use of these pronouns is dependent upon the relative positions of the persons between whom communication takes place.
Akuis generally used by natives among themselves. Its use implies familiarity and equality. It should not be used by Europeans addressing natives, or by natives addressing Europeans.
Sahayais the ordinary polite form used by Europeans in conversation with natives of all classes, and by natives of the upper class in addressing Europeans.
Ha ba,ha ba tuan, andperhambaare used by persons of inferior rank when addressing superiors.Hamba, if used by a chief or native of high rank, implies a certain affectation of modesty.
The use ofbetais confined to literary composition, and it is incorrect to employ the word colloquially. It may be used by Europeans and natives.
Patekis used only by natives, and by them only when addressing a person of royal blood.
Tĕmanis used only in intercourse between natives of the upper class and of approximately equal rank.
The first person plural iskitaorkami, we.Kitais usedwhen the person addressed is intended to be included.Kami, on the contrary, like the royal “we” in English, excludes the person addressed.
Sometimes the wordorangis added without changing the signification; askita orang, we.
Other forms are also in use, but they are generally provincialisms confined to particular states or districts.Sahaya apa,kita apa, andhamba tuan apaare used in Kedah, andsahaya-main Perak, forkita orang.
Colloquially the personal pronouns are often omitted to avoid repetition. This is done especially in narration or description; as, for example, in the following sentence:Lepas itu jalan pula ka-kampong singgah di rumah Haji Ismail hari pun sudah pĕtang langsong pulang ka-rumah maka nasi— Afterwards (I started) again (and) walked to thekampong, (and) stopped at the house of Haji Ismail, (and then), as it was evening, (I) went straight home (and) had my dinner.
Here the personal pronounIis understood throughout.
The second person singular isangkau, you. Each syllable of this word may be used separately for the whole.Angorhangis much employed in Kedah and Perak, andkauin other parts of the peninsula and in Borneo. In Perakmika, in Malaccaawah, in Borneokita, and in Bataviakweh, are also used. The preceding words are used by a superior addressing an inferior, or by the common people in ordinary (not in polite) conversation.
In polite conversation the use ofangkau, or of most of the words given above, must be avoided, as it is considered by Malays to be vulgar or harsh. In addressing servants or followers, the name of the individual addressed is often inserted in the sentence instead of the pronounyou; as, in addressing Ismail: When you were at the bazaar just now who was with you?—Apabila Ismail di pekan tadi siapa sama?In the same waytuan, sir, master, is employed in addressing a haji or sayyid;tuan-kuortunku, my lord, in addressing a raja;datoh, grandfather, in addressing a chief orpenghulu.
Other words similarly employed are—
Abang(elder brother) orwah(uncle), to a man older than the speaker.
Kakak(elder sister), to a woman older than the speaker.
Adek(younger brother).
Inche(sir or madam), to respectable persons of either sex.
When did you arrive? (to a haji)—Bila-mana tuan sudah tiba?I must ask one thing of you (to a raja)—Sahaya handak minta satu kapada tunku.If you give the order (to a chief)—Jikalau datoh suroh.Do not be angry (to an elderly man)—Jangan abang marah.Please help yourselves to water (to guests of various ranks)—Datoh-datoh, tuan-tuan, inche-inche sakalian, sila berayer.
When did you arrive? (to a haji)—Bila-mana tuan sudah tiba?
I must ask one thing of you (to a raja)—Sahaya handak minta satu kapada tunku.
If you give the order (to a chief)—Jikalau datoh suroh.
Do not be angry (to an elderly man)—Jangan abang marah.
Please help yourselves to water (to guests of various ranks)—Datoh-datoh, tuan-tuan, inche-inche sakalian, sila berayer.
The use of the wordlu, a form of the second person singular, derived from the Chinese, and generally used by Europeans, is offensive to Malays of all classes, and is altogether to be avoided.
In the pluralkamu, ye, corresponds toangkau, you, in the singular; that is to say, it is used by a superior addressing inferiors. It is found in its contracted formmuin literary composition, but seldom colloquially; aska-tahu-i uleh-mu, be it known unto ye.
Kamuis sometimes used in the singular also.
Diaoriya, he, she, it.
Diaandiyaare used indifferently, but perhapsdiais more common in conversation andiyain literature.
The plural isdia orang(and sometimes, though less commonly,iya orang), they.
Another form of the third person plural ismarika-itu, they, these, or those persons; but it is found in literary compositions only, and is not used in conversation.
A pronoun of the third person only used in conjunction with other words is-nia, a contraction ofinia, he, she, it.
The indefinite form “one” (the French “on” and German “man”) is expressed in Malay byorang; asorang tiada bĕrani pergi sana, one dare not go there;kalau orang handak kawin, if one is about to marry.
The possessive pronouns,my,thy,his,our,your,their, are usually denoted by placing the personal pronoun after the word expressing the object possessed; asrumah sahaya, my house;pada pikir-an hamba, in my opinion;apa pen-chari-an angkau?what is your occupation?apa nama dia?what is his name?
Possessive pronouns are also formed by the wordpunyaorampunya(lit. owning, owned) placed after the personal pronoun; asaku punya, my or mine;tuan punya suka, as you please (your pleasure);yang ampunya tanah, (he) whose land it is.
Frequently where the word “your” would be used in English Malays leave out the pronoun altogether. “Bring your gun with you,” would be correctly rendered in Malay,bawa snapang sama(lit. bring gun together), notbawa angkau punya snapang sama angkau.
In literary compositionkuandmu(abbreviated forms ofakuandkamu) are affixed to the noun denoting the thing possessed; asrumah-ku, my house;bapa-mu, your father.
The affix-niais used in the sense ofhis,hers, orits, as well as the other forms of the possessive pronoun; aspatah kaki-nia, his leg was broken;bauh-nia terlalu wangi, its smell is very sweet.
Ini, this, these.Itu, that, those.
The demonstrative pronouns, like adjectives, follow the word to which they belong; asrumah ini, this house;hari ini, this day, to-day;aku ini, I myself;sakarang ini, this moment;orang itu, that man or those men;waktu itu, that time;iya itu, that is to say. It is not unusual to heariniandituplaced before the noun, but this is not idiomatic.
Siapa, who?Apa, what?Mana, who? what?
Apa mahu?— What do you want?Rumah ini siapa?— Whose house is this?Siapa panggil?— Who called?Gajah mana ini?— What elephant is this?Siapa akan tahu?— Who knows?
Apa mahu?— What do you want?
Rumah ini siapa?— Whose house is this?
Siapa panggil?— Who called?
Gajah mana ini?— What elephant is this?
Siapa akan tahu?— Who knows?
Yang, who, which.
Burong yang liyar, a bird that is wild.Raja yang adil, a king who is just.Ada yang tuah, ada yang muda, some are old and some are young (lit. there are who are old, &c.).
Burong yang liyar, a bird that is wild.
Raja yang adil, a king who is just.
Ada yang tuah, ada yang muda, some are old and some are young (lit. there are who are old, &c.).
The Menangkabau word isnen. This is often found in composition, but is seldom used in the dialect spoken in the Straits of Malacca. Example:Patek nen fakir— I who am but a beggar.
Diri,sendiri, orkendiri, self, are used with or without the personal pronouns to signify myself, yourself, himself, ourselves, &c.
Bunoh diri, to kill oneself.Meng-ajar diri, to take oneself to task.Hamba sendiri handak pergi, I shall go myself.Baik tuan sendiri suroh, you had better order it yourself.Kemdian turun-lah raja sendiri, afterwards the king himself descended.Dia lari masok hutan membawa diri-nia, she escaped to the jungle with her life (lit. taking herself with her).Biar-lah hamba sa-orang diri me-lawan dia, let me fight him myself alone.
Bunoh diri, to kill oneself.
Meng-ajar diri, to take oneself to task.
Hamba sendiri handak pergi, I shall go myself.
Baik tuan sendiri suroh, you had better order it yourself.
Kemdian turun-lah raja sendiri, afterwards the king himself descended.
Dia lari masok hutan membawa diri-nia, she escaped to the jungle with her life (lit. taking herself with her).
Biar-lah hamba sa-orang diri me-lawan dia, let me fight him myself alone.
Verbs are either primitive or derivative; the former are those which in their original signification are verbs; the latter are formed from primitive verbs, or from substantives, adjectives, or adverbs, by the application of particles.
Examples of primitive verbs arepukul, to strike;makan, to eat;lari, to run; of derivative verbs,ber-kaki, to have feet, fromkaki, a foot;panjang-kan, to lengthen or make long, frompanjang, long.
The primitive verb, which is generally a dissyllable, is either transitive, astangkap, to seize, or intransitive, astidor, to sleep; but a transitive sense may be given to an intransitive verb by the addition of the particle-kan, aslari,me-lari, to run;me-lari-kan, to carry off.
Though the examples of primitive verbs given above are translated for the sake of convenience by our infinitive, their signification is not necessarily rendered by that mood. Favre translates them by the past participle (asambil, taken,buang, thrown2), but this is rather fanciful than accurate. The factis, that the meaning of the radical or primitive is indefinite, and depends for its precise signification on its position (with respect to other words) in the sentence, or on the particles which may be added before or after it. Thuslarimeans simply run, though syntax will show that it may mean to run, I run, he runs, run thou, &c., according to its position in the sentence.
Marsden distinguishes the following moods—the imperative, the indicative or assertive, the conditional, and the infinitive or indefinite—“which admit, for the most part, of being expressed in the present, the past, and the future tenses or times.”
It is not proposed, in an elementary work like the present, to go deeply into a scientific arrangement, which, however well suited to the Latin and Greek languages, is adapted with less propriety to uncultivated languages like Malay. It is believed that an explanation of the use of auxiliaries and particles, and a paradigm showing the most common changes of which the verb is susceptible, will be sufficient, and that the student may be left to gain further knowledge as to the mode of expressing variations of mood and tense as he advances in the study of the language.3
The inseparable affix-kanalways denotes a verb used in atransitivesense; asmen-jalan-kan, to cause to walk. It is an abbreviation of the prepositionakan. Thusbuat-kan(to do) means to do somethingto(akan) something or somebody.
The inseparable affix-ialso denotes the transitive sense; askras-i, to oppress (fromkras, hard);halus-i, to treat carefully (fromhalus, fine, close).
The inseparable prefixber-(bel-,be-) is the mark of a verb which expresses a state or condition of being; asber-jalan, to walk, or to be in the act of walking;ber-wang, to have money;ber-misei, to wear moustaches;ber-pukul, to strike,i.e., to be in the act or condition of striking (not to strike another,transitive, which would be expressed bypukul-orme-mukul-kan).
The inseparable prefixme-(in all its various forms,mem,meng,men, andmeny) is the mark of a verb which expresses an action; asmen-jalan-kan, to cause to walk,mem-buat, to make;menyakit-kan, to afflict (fromsakit);meng-ambil, to take.
According as the primitive verb has a transitive or intransitive sense, the derivative verbs formed from it will takeber-orme-as the case may be. Thus fromadu, to sleep, is formedber-adu, notmeng-adu; while fromadu, to complain, is formedmeng-adu, notber-adu.
Often both particles may be used, and both transitive and intransitive derivative verbs may be formed from the same primitive. Thus fromtaroh, to put, are formedmenaroh, to put (the act of a person who puts), andber-taroh, to bet (the condition of a person who stakes). Fromtidor, to sleep, are formedmenidor-kan, to put to sleep, andber-tidor, to be sleeping or lying down; and fromajar, instruct,meng-ajar, to teach (impart instruction), andbel-ajar, to learn (get instruction).
Mem-bawa, to bring,mem-bunoh, to kill, andme-makan, to eat, are formed frombawa,bunoh, andmakanrespectively, which, as they express actions, not states, do not take the prefixber-.Ber-gantongis to hang (intransitive), that is, to be in a state or condition of hanging;meng-gantong-kanis to hang (transitive), that is, to perform the action of hanging something.
The particleper-(Sansk.pra), a prefix used with transitive verbs, does not seem always to effect a change in the sense.It is used more generally in literature than in the colloquial dialects, and seems to be introduced frequently for the sake of euphony only. The difference, for instance, betweenmeng-himpun-kan, to assemble, to collect persons together, andmem-per-himpun-kan, to cause persons to collect together, is not very marked. No general rule applicable to all transitive verbs can be laid down for the use of this form withmem-per-; practice and experience must form the only guide.
The auxiliary verbs and adverbs are—
Ada, is, was, are, were.Sudah, was, did, has been.Tĕlah, was, did, has been.Mahu, will, shall, would, must.Handak, will, shall, would, must, is, was, or were about to.Jadi, is, was, become, became.
Ada, is, was, are, were.
Sudah, was, did, has been.
Tĕlah, was, did, has been.
Mahu, will, shall, would, must.
Handak, will, shall, would, must, is, was, or were about to.
Jadi, is, was, become, became.
Tidor, sleep.
Sahaya tidor, I sleep, or I was sleeping.Tidor-lah dia, he was sleeping or slept.Ber-tidor, asleep, sleeping.Sahaya sudah tidor, I have slept.Dia telah tidor, he had slept.Sahaya maku tidor, I will sleep, or I want to sleep.Sahaya handak tidor, I shall sleep, or I am about to sleep.Dia akan tidor, he will sleep or is going to sleep.Tidor-lah, sleep thou.Mahu-lak angkau tidor, you must sleep.Biar iya tidor, let him sleep.Handak-lah di-tidor-nia, it must be slept by him,i.e., he intends to sleep.Menidor-kanormenidor-i, to lay down (transitive).Mem-per-tidor-kanormem-per-tidor-i, to cause to sleep.Penidor, a soporific; that which causes to sleep.Penidor-an, act of causing to sleep.Per-tidor-an, that which belongs to sleep; a bed.Ka-tidor-an, the act of sleeping; there was sleeping on the part of——.Sa-ka-tidor-an, the act of sleeping with another; there was sleeping with——.Si-tidor, the sleeper.Ter-tidor, gone to sleep.
Sahaya tidor, I sleep, or I was sleeping.
Tidor-lah dia, he was sleeping or slept.
Ber-tidor, asleep, sleeping.
Sahaya sudah tidor, I have slept.
Dia telah tidor, he had slept.
Sahaya maku tidor, I will sleep, or I want to sleep.
Sahaya handak tidor, I shall sleep, or I am about to sleep.
Dia akan tidor, he will sleep or is going to sleep.
Tidor-lah, sleep thou.
Mahu-lak angkau tidor, you must sleep.
Biar iya tidor, let him sleep.
Handak-lah di-tidor-nia, it must be slept by him,i.e., he intends to sleep.
Menidor-kanormenidor-i, to lay down (transitive).
Mem-per-tidor-kanormem-per-tidor-i, to cause to sleep.
Penidor, a soporific; that which causes to sleep.
Penidor-an, act of causing to sleep.
Per-tidor-an, that which belongs to sleep; a bed.
Ka-tidor-an, the act of sleeping; there was sleeping on the part of——.
Sa-ka-tidor-an, the act of sleeping with another; there was sleeping with——.
Si-tidor, the sleeper.
Ter-tidor, gone to sleep.
Lari, run.
Sahaya lari, I run, or I was running.Lari-lah dia, he ran, or was running.Ber-lari, run, running.Ber-lari-lari, running about incessantly.Sahaya sudah lari, I have or had run.Dia telah lari, he had run.Sahaya mahu lari, I will run, or I want to run.Sahaya handak lari, I will run, or I am about to run.Dia akan lari, he will run.Lari-lah, run thou.Mahu lah angkau lari, you must run.Biar iya lari, let him run.Handak-lah di lari-nia, it must be run by him,i.e., he intends to run.Me-lari-kan, to carry off (transitive).Lari-an, a running, a course.Ber-lari-an, the act of running; there was running on the part of——.Ber-lari-lari-an, incessant running; running to and fro; there was incessant running on the part of——.Ka-lari-an, flight; act of running.Pe-lari, a runaway, a fugitive.Pe-lari-an, flight.Di-lari-kan(passive), is, are, was, were, have, has, or had been run away with.Di-lari-kan-nia, is, are, was, were, have, has, or had been run away with by him, her, or them.Ter-lari, run, run away (past).Bawa lari, to carry off, run off with. (Herelariis the past participle afterbawa, to take, bring, and may be used with that verb in all its forms.)
Sahaya lari, I run, or I was running.
Lari-lah dia, he ran, or was running.
Ber-lari, run, running.
Ber-lari-lari, running about incessantly.
Sahaya sudah lari, I have or had run.
Dia telah lari, he had run.
Sahaya mahu lari, I will run, or I want to run.
Sahaya handak lari, I will run, or I am about to run.
Dia akan lari, he will run.
Lari-lah, run thou.
Mahu lah angkau lari, you must run.
Biar iya lari, let him run.
Handak-lah di lari-nia, it must be run by him,i.e., he intends to run.
Me-lari-kan, to carry off (transitive).
Lari-an, a running, a course.
Ber-lari-an, the act of running; there was running on the part of——.
Ber-lari-lari-an, incessant running; running to and fro; there was incessant running on the part of——.
Ka-lari-an, flight; act of running.
Pe-lari, a runaway, a fugitive.
Pe-lari-an, flight.
Di-lari-kan(passive), is, are, was, were, have, has, or had been run away with.
Di-lari-kan-nia, is, are, was, were, have, has, or had been run away with by him, her, or them.
Ter-lari, run, run away (past).
Bawa lari, to carry off, run off with. (Herelariis the past participle afterbawa, to take, bring, and may be used with that verb in all its forms.)
Ada, be.
Sahaya ada, I am or was.Ber-ada, have (possess.), has or had.Meng-ada, to cause to be, to make, invent.Sudah ada, have got, have been.Telah ada, was, have been.Mahu ada, must be.Meng-ada-ngada, to make or invent repeatedly.Meng-ada kan, to create, to cause to exist.Ber-ada-kan, possess, own.Mem-per-ada-kan, to produce, to cause to exist.Ter-ada-kan, produced, created.Ada-an, being, existence.Ka-ada-an, state, existence.
Sahaya ada, I am or was.
Ber-ada, have (possess.), has or had.
Meng-ada, to cause to be, to make, invent.
Sudah ada, have got, have been.
Telah ada, was, have been.
Mahu ada, must be.
Meng-ada-ngada, to make or invent repeatedly.
Meng-ada kan, to create, to cause to exist.
Ber-ada-kan, possess, own.
Mem-per-ada-kan, to produce, to cause to exist.
Ter-ada-kan, produced, created.
Ada-an, being, existence.
Ka-ada-an, state, existence.
Bawa, bring.
Sahaya bawa, I bring or was bringing.Mem-bawa, bring, to bring.Sudah bawa, has brought.Telah bawa, had brought.Mahu bawa, will or must bring.Aku handak bawa, I will bring, or am about to bring.Bawa-lah, bring thou.Biar iya bawa, let him bring.Mem-bawa-kanormem-bawa-i, to cause to be brought or taken.Pem-bawa, a bringer.Bawa-an, that which is brought; a burden.Pem-bawa-an, act of bringing, transport.Di-bawaanddi-bawa-kan, brought, passive.Di-bawa-niaanddi-bawa-kan-nia, is, are, was, were, have, has, or had been brought by him, her, or them.Ter-bawa, brought.
Sahaya bawa, I bring or was bringing.
Mem-bawa, bring, to bring.
Sudah bawa, has brought.
Telah bawa, had brought.
Mahu bawa, will or must bring.
Aku handak bawa, I will bring, or am about to bring.
Bawa-lah, bring thou.
Biar iya bawa, let him bring.
Mem-bawa-kanormem-bawa-i, to cause to be brought or taken.
Pem-bawa, a bringer.
Bawa-an, that which is brought; a burden.
Pem-bawa-an, act of bringing, transport.
Di-bawaanddi-bawa-kan, brought, passive.
Di-bawa-niaanddi-bawa-kan-nia, is, are, was, were, have, has, or had been brought by him, her, or them.
Ter-bawa, brought.
Ambil, take.
Sahaya ambil, I take.Meng ambil, take, to take.Sudah ambil, has or had taken.Telah ambil, had taken.Mahu ambil, will or must take.Handak ambil, shall take or about to take.Ambil-lah, take thou.Mahu-lah angkau ambil, you must take.Biar iya ambil, let him take.Handak-lah di ambil-nia, he must take or intends to take.Meng-ambil-kan, to take or cause to take.Ambil-an, a thing taken.Peng-ambil-an, the act of taking.Di-ambilordi-ambil-kan, is or was, &c., taken (passive).Di-ambil-niaordi-ambil-kan-nia, is or was. &c., taken by him, her, or them.Ter-ambil, taken, having been taken.
Sahaya ambil, I take.
Meng ambil, take, to take.
Sudah ambil, has or had taken.
Telah ambil, had taken.
Mahu ambil, will or must take.
Handak ambil, shall take or about to take.
Ambil-lah, take thou.
Mahu-lah angkau ambil, you must take.
Biar iya ambil, let him take.
Handak-lah di ambil-nia, he must take or intends to take.
Meng-ambil-kan, to take or cause to take.
Ambil-an, a thing taken.
Peng-ambil-an, the act of taking.
Di-ambilordi-ambil-kan, is or was, &c., taken (passive).
Di-ambil-niaordi-ambil-kan-nia, is or was. &c., taken by him, her, or them.
Ter-ambil, taken, having been taken.
Suroh, order.
Sehaya suroh, I order.Menyuroh, order, to order.Sudah suroh, has ordered.Telah suroh, had ordered.Mahu suroh, will or must order.Handak suroh, shall order or about to order.Suroh-lah, order thou.Mahu-lah angkau suroh, you must order.Biar iya suroh, let him order.Handak-lah di suroh-nia, he must order or intends to order.Menyuroh-kan, to issue orders, to commission.Pe-surohandpenyuroh, one who is commissioned; a messenger.Penyuroh-an, an order, command; the act of commanding.Suroh-suroh-an, people who are at the orders or command of another.Suroh-menyuroh, to issue orders incessantly.Di-surohordi-suroh-kan, is or was, &c., ordered.Di-suroh-niaordi-suroh-kan-nia, is, or was, &c., ordered by him, her, or them.Ter-suroh, ordered, having been ordered.
Sehaya suroh, I order.
Menyuroh, order, to order.
Sudah suroh, has ordered.
Telah suroh, had ordered.
Mahu suroh, will or must order.
Handak suroh, shall order or about to order.
Suroh-lah, order thou.
Mahu-lah angkau suroh, you must order.
Biar iya suroh, let him order.
Handak-lah di suroh-nia, he must order or intends to order.
Menyuroh-kan, to issue orders, to commission.
Pe-surohandpenyuroh, one who is commissioned; a messenger.
Penyuroh-an, an order, command; the act of commanding.
Suroh-suroh-an, people who are at the orders or command of another.
Suroh-menyuroh, to issue orders incessantly.
Di-surohordi-suroh-kan, is or was, &c., ordered.
Di-suroh-niaordi-suroh-kan-nia, is, or was, &c., ordered by him, her, or them.
Ter-suroh, ordered, having been ordered.
The facts to be derived from a careful study of the foregoing examples may be summarised as follows:—
1st. The tense of the verb standing alone is indefinite. It may be present, imperfect, present or past, &c., according to the context; asdia ada, he is;tatkala sahaya ada di sana,when I was there;kalau sahaya ada dĕkat, if I am, should be, were, or had been near. This applies equally to the forms created by prefixingber-andme-,mem-,men-,meng-,meny-to the radical. Examples:kita ber-jalan, weareorwerewalking;nanti sampei sahaya ber-balik, wait till Ishall havereturned;mati-mati ber-minyak, if youshoulduse oil;raja meng-angkat kalmarin dahulu, the rajasetout the day before yesterday.
2d. The Imperfect may sometimes be expressed by making the verb, followed by the particle-lah, precede the pronoun; asdiam-lah dia orang, they were silent;maka pergi-lah raja kapada tuan putri, and the king went to the princess.
3d.Past.— Though the past may be expressed by the primitive verb, as shown above, if the context shows that the act spoken of is past, it is, nevertheless, more emphatically marked by the use of the auxiliariessudahandtĕlah, has or had; asdia sudah tidor, he has gone to sleep;telah lari-lah pe-rompah sumua, the pirates have (or had) all run away.
4th.Future.— The verb standing alone may express the future when there is something in the sentence which indicates that a future tense is meant, such as the word “to-morrow” or “hereafter;” asesok hari kita ber-pĕrang pula, to-morrow we shall be fighting again.
The future is also expressed by the auxiliariesmahuandhandak; asdia mahu jual, he will sell it;tiada mahu dia datang, he would not come;kapal handak masok sungei, a ship is about to enter the river;di-panggil-nia orang-besar-besar mushawarat handak di-buat meligei, he summoned the chiefs to consult about building a palace.
Another mode of forming the future is by the wordnanti(lit. wait), placed, like the French verballer, before the verb; assahaya nanti chahari,je vais chercher, I am going to seek, orj’irai chercher, I shall go to seek.
The prepositionakan, in order to, in order that, is sometimes used to convey the sense of the future; aspenyakit itu tiada akan semboh, that disease is not to be cured;siapa akantahu?who shall know? (= who can tell?);jikalau raja yang anyaya naraka akan tampat-nia, if a king is unjust hell will be his place hereafter.
5th.Imperative.— To convey an order or command the radical is used either by itself or with the affix-lah;kamu, thou, being either expressed or understood. The particle adds additional emphasis to the command. Examples:pergi, go;pergi-lah, be off, get away;ka-luarorka-luar-lah, go out;ka-luar-kan-lah, take (it) out, or turn (him) out.
Mahuandhandakwith the affix-lahsignify must; asmahu-lah kamu turut, ye must obey;handak-lah ayam yang puteh, there must be a fowl that is white, or, the fowl must be a white one;handak-lah segala pegawei raja itu duduk dengan adab dan diam, the king’s officers must sit with reverence and in silence.
The third person of the imperative mood, which we express by “let him,” may be rendered in Malay by the use of the wordbiarorbiar-lah, with the verb in the manner shown by the following examples:—Biar-lah dia masok, let him come in;biar-lah aku mati, let me die.
6th. From many verbs are formed verbal nouns by prefixing the particlepe-(peng,pem,pen,peny) to the radical. This prefix operates like the syllable-erin such words as robber, purchaser, teacher; aschuri, to steal;pen-churi, a robber;bĕli, to buy;pem-bĕli, a purchaser;ajar, to teach;peng-ajar, a teacher. Substantives of this kind and others formed from the verb with the particleska-and-anhave already been noticed under the head of the Substantive. But the form arrived at by prefixing to the simple verb the particleka-and annexing the particle-anis not merely a noun, but, as Marsden says, “a gerund in form as well as in sense, being in fact a verbal noun infinitively applied in construction;” as,ka-dengar-an sampei Sayong, it was to be heard as far as Sayong;tiada ka-tahu-an, not to be understood;mata-hari tiada ka-lihat-an sebab ka-lindong-an-lah sayap-nia, the sun was not to be seen by reason of the shadowing of its wings.
7th.Passive.—In Malay the passive voice is denoted by the particledi-prefixed to the verb. The place of the nouns which express the agent and subject respectively will be understood from the following examples:—
Hamba di-pukul orang, I was beaten by men.Orang di-pukul hamba, the men were beaten by me.Rumah di-makan api, the house was consumed by fire.Api di-padam-kan orang, the fire was extinguished by men.
Hamba di-pukul orang, I was beaten by men.
Orang di-pukul hamba, the men were beaten by me.
Rumah di-makan api, the house was consumed by fire.
Api di-padam-kan orang, the fire was extinguished by men.
Here the personal pronoun or other agent follows the verb and the subject precedes it.
Sometimes the preposition “by” finds an equivalent in Malay, the wordulehbeing expressed instead of being understood (as in the preceding sentences). Examples:—
Maka uleh baginda pun di-sambut dengan seperti‘adat, they were received by the king with the customary ceremony.Di-titah-kan-lah uleh baginda, it was commanded by the king.
Maka uleh baginda pun di-sambut dengan seperti‘adat, they were received by the king with the customary ceremony.
Di-titah-kan-lah uleh baginda, it was commanded by the king.
The passive participle is formed by prefixing to the verb the inseparable particleter-; aster-pukul, struck;ter-tulis, written. Whenter-precedesper-, one of the particles drops its final letter; aste-per-sayang, compassionated;ter-pe-lanting, sent flying.
Other forms of the Verb.— In the preceding paradigms generally those changes have been inserted which result from the application of inseparable particles. But there are moods and tenses of the English verb which are translatable in Malay, though they are not included above because they involve the use of other words, which, though united to the verb in construction, do not form part of it.
Conditional or Potential.— In expressing a conditional or potential sense the verb undergoes no change, though following such conjunctions as “if,” “provided that,” “in order that;” asjika tuan datang, if you come;kalau raja me-larang, if the king should forbid;dapat kami ber-untong, provided we are successful;sapaya jangan hamba kĕna rugi, in order that I may not incur a loss;agar sapaya anak-nia menjadi ‘alim, in order that his children may become learned.
Optative.— An optative sense is generally indicated by suchwords asapa-lah,apa-lah kira-nia, prithee, expressions of entreaty, orgarangan, forsooth, conveying the notion of a doubt or query; asbarang di-sampei-kan Allah apa-lah kira-nia, may God in his goodness cause it to arrive. But sometimes these are understood; asdi-bri Allah kamarau sadikit, may God grant a little fair weather.
Participle Present.— Continuity or existing duration of action is often expressed by the use of such words aslagi, still more,sambil,seraya, andserla, whilst at the same time the verb remains unaltered in form; aslagi datang, coming;lagi tidor, sleeping or still asleep;ber-jalan sambil ber-sinnyum, walked on smiling;meniambah serta meniapu ayer mata-nia, made obeisance, at the same time wiping away her tears.
Tengah, half, middle, is often used with the verb in a similar way; asdia tengah makan nasi, he was in the act of eating his dinner.
Adverbs in Malay are not distinguished by any prevailing termination corresponding to the English-lyor the French-ment. Many adjectives and some prepositions are used adverbially.
The following are some of the most useful adverbs:—
sakarang, now.
tadi, just now.
dahulu, before, formerly.
sa’buntar, presently.
bĕlum, not yet.
pagi-pagi, early.
esok,besok, to-morrow.
kalmarin,4yesterday.
tatkala,sa-katika, when (relative).
kemdian, afterwards.
pernah, ever.
ta’pernah, never.
sĕdang, while.
kadang, sometimes.
apa-bila,apa-kala,bila-mana,bila, when? (interrogative).
kalmarin dahulu, the day before yesterday.
lusa, the day after to-morrow.
tulat, the third day from this.
sini,ka-mari, here.
situ,sana,nun, there.
mana, where, wherever (rel.).
di-mana, where? (inter.).
hampir, near, nearly.
luar, outside.
dalam, inside.
sabĕrang, across.
jauh, far.
atas, above.
bawah, below.
sabĕlah, beside.
balik, behind.
dĕkat, near.
bagini, like this.
bagitu, like that.
bageimana, how?
ya, yes.
bukan, no, not.
sahaja, only.
makin, so much the more.
naschaya, certainly.
tidak, no.
tentu, certainly.
Adverbs expressing intensity will be found enumerated in Lesson 4.
Among the examples above given several are also prepositions, and will be found under that heading.
The principal prepositions of place and motion aredi, at, in, on;ka, to, towards;deri, from. A great many so-called prepositions are formed from these three compounded with certain other words, such as:—
di-atas, on the top of.
ka-atas, to the top of.
deri-atas, from the top of.
di-dalam, in the interior of.
ka-dalam, to the interior of.
deri-dalam, from the interior of.
di-bĕlakang, at the back of.
ka-bĕlakang, to the back of.
deri-bĕlakang, from the back of.
di-sabĕrang, on the farther side of.
ka-sabĕrang, to the farther side of.
deri-sabĕrang, from the farther side of.
di-bawah, at the bottom of.
ka-bawah, to the bottom of.
deri-bawah, from the bottom of.
di-hadap-an, in front of.
ka-hadap-an, to the front of.
deri-hadap-an, from the front of.
di-luar, at the outside of.
ka-luar, to the outside of.
deri-luar, from the outside of.
These twenty-one words are used like prepositions, and are often classified as such, but the true prepositions are the three initial words.
Atas,bawah,dalam,hadap-an,bĕlakang,luar, andsabĕranghere are really substantives governed by the prepositionsdi,ka, andderi. Some of these words aptly illustrate the difficulty of classifying Malay words according to the parts of speech usually recognised by grammarians.Dalam, for instance, has already been classified in the preceding section as an adverb. It is also substantive, adjective, and preposition.
Dalam(subs.), interior, depth; aspenghulu dalam, the guardian of the interior (inner apartments);dalam-nia tiga depa, its depth is three fathoms.Dalam(adj.), deep; aster-lalu dalam sungei ini, this river is very deep.Dalam(adv.), inside; asada orang dalam, there are people inside.Dalam(prep.), in; askain yang dalam gĕdong itu, cloth in that warehouse.
Dalam(subs.), interior, depth; aspenghulu dalam, the guardian of the interior (inner apartments);dalam-nia tiga depa, its depth is three fathoms.
Dalam(adj.), deep; aster-lalu dalam sungei ini, this river is very deep.
Dalam(adv.), inside; asada orang dalam, there are people inside.
Dalam(prep.), in; askain yang dalam gĕdong itu, cloth in that warehouse.
In Malay a substantive in the possessive case immediately follows the substantive denoting the possessor (supra, p. 47). In the sentencesbĕlakang gunong, the back of the mountain;hadap-an raja, the presence of the king;sabĕrang sungei, the farther side of the river, all the words are substantives,gunong,raja, andsungeibeing in the possessive case.
Now let the prepositionsdi,ka, andderibe added to these sentences.
Di-bĕlakang gunong, at the back of the mountain, may be more shortly translatedbehindthe mountain; soka-hadap-an rajamay be renderedbeforethe king, andderi-sabĕrang sungeifrom beyondthe river.
Here, though the purport of the Malay phrasesdi-bĕlakang,ka-hadap-an, andderi-sabĕrangare correctly rendered by Englishprepositions, only the first portion of each phrase is a Malay preposition.
Of the remaining prepositions the following are the chief:—
pada,kapada, at, to, on, towards.
deri-pada, from, than.
akan, to, for, as to, as for.
uleh, by.
atas, on, upon.
until, as far as.
antara, between.
samantara, until.
ganti, instead of.
balik, behind.
serta, with.
sama, with, to.
dengan, with.
dalam, in, into.
lĕpas, after.
on account of.
sa-kadar, according to.
demei, by.
dĕkat, near.
tentang, concerning, opposite.
bagi, to.
trus, through.
The following list includes the most useful of the conjunctions in Malay:—
dan, and.
sapaya, in order that.
pula, also, again.
seraya, at the same time.
tambah-an, furthermore.
serta, and, also.
asal-kan, provided that.
atau, or.
tĕtapi, but.
me-lain-kan, except.
hania, but, except.
yang, that.
kĕlak, forsooth.
juga,jua, also.
sahaja, only.
lagi, again, even.
lagi pula, again, too.
lagi pun, besides, also.
saperti, as, like.
iya-itu, that is to say.
lamun-kan, although.
There are also a number of conjunctions which are met with almost exclusively in the written language, and which it would be pedantic to use in conversation. Of such are:—
maka,bahwa,ḥata,shahadan, seldom necessary to the sense, and not always requiring translation. They answer in some degree to such words as “now,” “next,” “but,” “then,” “again,” “so.”sa-ber-mula, first, now.sa-bagei-lagi, further, again.arkian, now, then.agar, in order that.y‘ani, that is to say.wab‘adahu,5and then, afterwards.walakin(Arab.wa, andlakin, but), but, though, nevertheless.
maka,bahwa,ḥata,shahadan, seldom necessary to the sense, and not always requiring translation. They answer in some degree to such words as “now,” “next,” “but,” “then,” “again,” “so.”
sa-ber-mula, first, now.
sa-bagei-lagi, further, again.
arkian, now, then.
agar, in order that.
y‘ani, that is to say.
wab‘adahu,5and then, afterwards.
walakin(Arab.wa, andlakin, but), but, though, nevertheless.
The interjections in most common use are:—
hei!O!ya!O! (Arabic).
aho!O! (Sansk.).
aduh!aduhi!oh! alas! (pain, lamentation).
niah!niah-lah!be off! begone!
ai!wah!oh! alas! (astonishment or affliction).
ayo!ayohi!ah! (affection).
cheh!fie!
wayi!alas!
demei Allah!by God!
nah!there! take it!
jum!6forwards!
Many other words are used like interjections; such askasi-han(lit. affection), what a pity!sayang(lit. concern), ’tis pity! alas!karam(lit. wrecked), woe to thee!me-rachun(may I be poisoned), no! (emphatic denial), &c., &c.
A number of Arabic expressions common to all Muhammadans in all parts of the world are used by Malays, such asIn sháa-lláh, if it be the will of God;Alláhu a‘alam, God is all-knowing;Astaghfir alláh, I beg forgiveness of God;Wa-llahiandWa-llah, by God!Yá rabb, O Lord!Bi-smi-llah, in the name of God!El-ḥamdu li-llah, praise be to God!Alláhu akbar, God is most great.
The numerals in Malay are exceedingly simple. The first ten are:—
1.sa,satu,suatu, one.2.dua, two.3.tiga, three.4.ampat, four.5.lima, five.6.anam, six.7.tujoh, seven.8.dĕlapan, eight.9.sambilan, nine.10.sapuloh, ten.
1.sa,satu,suatu, one.
2.dua, two.
3.tiga, three.
4.ampat, four.
5.lima, five.
6.anam, six.
7.tujoh, seven.
8.dĕlapan, eight.
9.sambilan, nine.
10.sapuloh, ten.
From eleven to nineteen inclusive the numerals are formed from the digits with the terminationbĕlas:—
11.sa-bĕlas, eleven.12.dua-bĕlas, twelve.13.tiga-bĕlas, thirteen.14.ampat-bĕlas, fourteen.15.lima-bĕlas, fifteen.16.anam-bĕlas, sixteen.17.tujoh-bĕlas, seventeen.18.dĕlapan-bĕlas, eighteen.19.sambilan-bĕlas, nineteen.20.dua-puloh, twenty.
11.sa-bĕlas, eleven.
12.dua-bĕlas, twelve.
13.tiga-bĕlas, thirteen.
14.ampat-bĕlas, fourteen.
15.lima-bĕlas, fifteen.
16.anam-bĕlas, sixteen.
17.tujoh-bĕlas, seventeen.
18.dĕlapan-bĕlas, eighteen.
19.sambilan-bĕlas, nineteen.
20.dua-puloh, twenty.
Multiples of ten up to ninety inclusive have the terminationpuloh, ten:—
20.dua-puloh, twenty.30.tiga-puloh, thirty.40.ampat-puloh, forty.50.lima-puloh, fifty.60.anam-puloh, sixty.70.tujoh-puloh, seventy.80.dĕlapan-puloh, eighty.90.sambilan-puloh, ninety.
20.dua-puloh, twenty.
30.tiga-puloh, thirty.
40.ampat-puloh, forty.
50.lima-puloh, fifty.
60.anam-puloh, sixty.
70.tujoh-puloh, seventy.
80.dĕlapan-puloh, eighty.
90.sambilan-puloh, ninety.
The intermediate numbers are formed simply by adding the units; as—
21.dua-puloh-satu, twenty-one.32.tiga-puloh-dua, thirty-two.43.ampat-puloh-tiga, forty-three.54.lima-puloh-ampat, fifty-four.65.anam-puloh-lima, sixty-five.76.tujoh-puloh-anam, seventy-six.87.dĕlapan-puloh-tujoh, eighty-seven.98.sambilan-puloh-dĕlapan, ninety-eight.
21.dua-puloh-satu, twenty-one.
32.tiga-puloh-dua, thirty-two.
43.ampat-puloh-tiga, forty-three.
54.lima-puloh-ampat, fifty-four.
65.anam-puloh-lima, sixty-five.
76.tujoh-puloh-anam, seventy-six.
87.dĕlapan-puloh-tujoh, eighty-seven.
98.sambilan-puloh-dĕlapan, ninety-eight.
Above a hundred the numbers proceed with equal regularity:—
100.sa-ratus, one hundred.200.dua-ratus, two hundred.300.tiga-ratus, three hundred.400.ampat-ratus, four hundred.1000.sa-ribu, one thousand.2000.dua-ribu, two thousand.3000.tiga-ribu, three thousand.4000.ampat-ribu, four thousand.
100.sa-ratus, one hundred.
200.dua-ratus, two hundred.
300.tiga-ratus, three hundred.
400.ampat-ratus, four hundred.
1000.sa-ribu, one thousand.
2000.dua-ribu, two thousand.
3000.tiga-ribu, three thousand.
4000.ampat-ribu, four thousand.
Any sum, however great, may be expressed by the numerals in juxtaposition without the insertion of a conjunction; as,sa-ribu-dĕlapan-ratus-tujoh-puloh-sambilan, one thousand eight hundred (and) seventy nine, 1879.
Certain terms for high numbers have been borrowed from the Sanskrit language and misapplied in adoption, namely,laḳsa(Sansk.laksha, 100,000),keti(Sansk.koṭi, 10,000,000), andjuta(Sansk.ayuta, 10,000).
The numbers represented by these words in Malay aresa-laḳsa, ten thousand;sa-keti, one hundred thousand;sa-juta, one million.
In reckoning the numbers from 20 to 30,lekor, a score, is sometimes used instead ofdua-puloh(especially in mentioning dates), but in that case the unit precedes instead of following the decimal; assa-lekor, twenty-one;dua-lekor, twenty-two;tiga-lekor, twenty-three, &c.
To express a quantity which approaches what we call a round number, it is sometimes convenient to state the latter qualified by the figure in which it is deficient, as is done in the old-fashioned phrase “forty stripes save one.” Thus, instead ofsambilan-puloh-dĕlapan, ninety-eight, the phrasekorang dua sa-ratus, one hundred save two, may be used.
The use of the wordtengah, half, before a numeral serves in the same way to reduce it by half of one. Thus,tengah duasignifies “one and a half,” or “two, less half a one,” as if the full phrase werekorang sa-tengah dua; sotengah tiga-puloh, twenty-five (lit. “three tens save half”);tengah lima ratus, four hundred and fifty (lit. “five hundreds save half”).
pertama(Sansk.prathama), first.ka-dua, second.ka-tiga, third.ka-sa-bĕlas, eleventh.ka-dua-puloh, twentieth.ka-sa-ratus, hundredth.
pertama(Sansk.prathama), first.
ka-dua, second.
ka-tiga, third.
ka-sa-bĕlas, eleventh.
ka-dua-puloh, twentieth.
ka-sa-ratus, hundredth.
The wordyangplaced before ordinals corresponds to the definite article in English; asyang pertama, the first;yang ka-dua, the second;yang ka-sa-ribu, the thousandth.
Tengah,sa-tengah, half;suku,sa-suku, quarter;sa-per-dua, one-half;sa-per-tiga, one-third;dua-per-tiga, two-thirds;tiga-per-ampat, three-fourths. Similar fractions may be formed with other numbers by placing the particleperbetween the dividend and the divisor.
Phrases like “a score,” “a dozen,” “a couple,” are formed in Malay by the use of the particleberwith the numeral; as—
ber-dua, the two, or the pair.ber-tiga, the three.ber-puloh-puloh, by tens.be-ratus-ratus, by hundreds.be-ribu-ribu, by thousands.
ber-dua, the two, or the pair.
ber-tiga, the three.
ber-puloh-puloh, by tens.
be-ratus-ratus, by hundreds.
be-ribu-ribu, by thousands.
The wordganda, which in Hindustani is a collective numeral meaning “a four,” is used in Malay in conjunction with numerals in a sense corresponding to the English word “times;” asdua-ganda, double, twice;tiga-ganda, triple, three times.
In Malay, as in Burmese, Siamese, and Chinese, “there exists a set of specific and technical terms, called by the grammariansnumeral affixes, some one or other of which is always used as a co-efficient to the numeral, the term being selected according to the class under which the object falls.”7The use of these terms will be best understood by comparing it with the analogous use in English of such phrases as so manyheadof cattle; so manyfileof soldiers; so manysailof ships; so manystandof rifles.
1.Orang(person or persons) is introduced in the enumeration of mankind; asChina tiga orang, Malayu sa’orang, three Chinese and a Malay;budak dua orang, two children.
2.Ekor(tail) is employed in speaking of animals; assa-ekor kuching, a cat;kuda bĕlang dua ekor, two piebald horses;ikan kechil-kechil barang lima anam ekor, about five or six small fish.
3.Buah(fruit) is applied to fruit, houses, ships, places, &c.; assa-buah rumah, a house;sa-buah nĕgri, a town or kingdom;lima buah kapal, five ships.
4.Biji(seed) is applied to small objects more or less round; asbuah manggis lima-puloh biji, fifty mangostins;ampat biji telor, four eggs;nior muda sa-biji, one green cocoa-nut.
5.Haleiorlei, to tenuous objects, such as hair, feathers, leaves, wearing apparel, &c.; asbulu sa-lei, a feather;kain Palembang sa-puloh halei, ten Palembang sarongs.
6.Batang(stem), to long objects; aslembing dua batang, two spears;tiang ampat batang, four posts.
7.Puchuk(young shoot), to letters, muskets, cannon, elephants’ tusks, &c.; astiga puchuk surat, three letters;sa-puchuk gading, one tusk:snapang lima puchuk, five muskets.
8.Keping(piece, slice), to pieces of wood, metal, &c.; aspapan sa-keping, a plank;timah tiga-puloh keping, thirty slabs of tin.
9.Tangga(ladder) andpintu(door), to houses; asrumah dua tangga, two houses;rumah batu anam pintu, six brick houses.
10.Lapis(fold), to clothing; askapan sa-lapis, a shroud.
11.Rawan, to nets and cordage; aspukut sa-rawan, a seine net;jala dua rawan, two casting nets.
12.Bilah, to cutting weapons; askris sa-bilah, one kris;pĕdang lima bilah, five swords.
13.Buntoh, to rings, fish-hooks, &c.; askail sa-buntoh, a fish-hook;chinchin tiga buntoh, three rings.
14.Bidang, to things spread out; asdestar sa-bidang, one head-cloth.
15.Butir, to fruit, seeds, and other small round objects; asnior sa-butir, a cocoa-nut;mutiara sa-butir, a pearl.
There are many other similar idiomatic terms, examples of which will be given in the more advanced lessons farther on.
Most of the particles have been noticed in speaking of the verb, but there are three or four which require special mention.
Lahis affixed to words of all kinds, sometimes merely for the sake of euphony, but more frequently as a particle of intensity.
In the sentenceada-lah kapada suatu hari, it happened on a certain day,lahis simply expletive; but in the sentencedia-lah yang buat, it washewho did it, the particle serves to emphasise the worddia. The latter use of the particlelahis exemplified by its frequent employment to emphasise a command; asmari-lah, come;pergi-lah, go.
Kahis the interrogative particle. When affixed to words it is the sign of a question or a doubt; asitu-kah atau lain-kah?is it that or another?Antah sunggoh-kah atau tidak, it is doubtful whether it be true or not.
Tahis also an interrogative particle, but of less general use thankah.Apa-tah?what else? is a common phrase indicating assent.
Punis annexed to all kinds of words, sometimes merely to give roundness to a phrase, sometimes with the sense of “too,” or “also” (where the sentence is affirmative), or “nor,” “neither” (where it is negative); asmaka iya-pun datang, then he came;aku pun mahu, I too want it;siyang pun tidak malam pun tidak, it was neither day nor night.
1.Klinkert, Eenige ophelderingen omtrent de Maleische Spreekwoorden en spreekwijzen.2.Grammaire de la Langue Malaise, 56.3.“It is difficult to eradicate the belief that the forms in which we think are identical with the thought itself; and it is only linguistic science that enables us to see that many of the forms of grammar which we imagine necessary and universal are, after all, but accidental and restricted in use. The cases of Latin and Greek do not exist in the majority of languages; the Polynesian dialects have no true verbs; and the Esquimaux gets on well enough without ‘the parts of speech’ that figure so largely in our own grammars.” —Sayce, Introduction to the Science of Language, ii. 328.4.In Perakkalmarinmeans “formerly.”Pĕtangis “yesterday.”5.Arabicwa, and,b‘adahu, afterwards—often used by a pleonasm withkemdian, afterwards;wab‘adahu kemdian deri-pada itu, and after that.6.This is a Kedah word.Mah!is used in the same sense in Perak.7.Col. Yule, Journ. Anthropol. Inst. Feb. 1880. This peculiarity in the Indo-Chinese languages has attracted much attention among ethnologists. See Peschel, Races of Man, 117; Tylor, Early History of Mankind, 208; Bunsen’s Universal History, i. 409.
1.Klinkert, Eenige ophelderingen omtrent de Maleische Spreekwoorden en spreekwijzen.
2.Grammaire de la Langue Malaise, 56.
3.“It is difficult to eradicate the belief that the forms in which we think are identical with the thought itself; and it is only linguistic science that enables us to see that many of the forms of grammar which we imagine necessary and universal are, after all, but accidental and restricted in use. The cases of Latin and Greek do not exist in the majority of languages; the Polynesian dialects have no true verbs; and the Esquimaux gets on well enough without ‘the parts of speech’ that figure so largely in our own grammars.” —Sayce, Introduction to the Science of Language, ii. 328.
4.In Perakkalmarinmeans “formerly.”Pĕtangis “yesterday.”
5.Arabicwa, and,b‘adahu, afterwards—often used by a pleonasm withkemdian, afterwards;wab‘adahu kemdian deri-pada itu, and after that.
6.This is a Kedah word.Mah!is used in the same sense in Perak.
7.Col. Yule, Journ. Anthropol. Inst. Feb. 1880. This peculiarity in the Indo-Chinese languages has attracted much attention among ethnologists. See Peschel, Races of Man, 117; Tylor, Early History of Mankind, 208; Bunsen’s Universal History, i. 409.
Owing to the absence of inflexion, the composition of simple sentences in Malay offers few difficulties. The phrases and exercises which will be given in this Part are simple and elementary, serving thus as a preparation for others of progressive difficulty to be reached at a later stage.
person (man, woman, or child),orang.
man,laki-laki.
woman,per-ampu-an.
child,anak.
house,rumah.
water,ayer.
fire,api.
wind,angin.
wood,kayu.
carriage,kreta.
horse,kuda.
ship,kapal.
steamer,kapal-api.
boat,sampan.
cow, ox,lumbu.
dog,anjing.
bird,burong.
snake,ular.
fish,ikan.
sun,mata-hari.
moon,bulan.
star,bintang.
sea,laut.
river,sungei.
cloth,kain.
good,baik.
new,băharu.
naughty, wicked,jahat.
beautiful,bagus.
pretty,chantek.
wise,pandei.
stupid,bodoh.
large,bĕsar.
small,kĕchil.
deep,dalam.
swift,laju.
high,tinggi.
round,bulat.
old,tuah.
young,muda.
cold,sĕjuk.
hot,panas.
far,jauh.
near,dĕkat.
coarse,kasar.
fine,halus.
very,baniak.
exceedingly,sangat.
Before showing how sentences may be constructed with these words by means of the verbada, and with the aid of the personal pronouns, two of the hints already given are here repeated:—
1. Adjectives follow their substantives.
2. The verbadais frequently omitted and left to be understood.